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Introduction
Gravitational acceleration, or simply gravity (g) would have a
single constant value on the earth’s surface if the earth were a
perfect
f t sphere
h off uniform
if concentric
t i shell
h ll structure.
t t

In many cases the density contrasts occur at boundaries

between different geological formations, although man-made
boundaries such as tunnels and mines also represent contrasts.

Both gravity and magnetic fields are potential fields, and require
fundamentally similar interpretation techniques. However, their
applications vary considerably depending on the relative
prominence of the physical properly (density or magnetization)
contrast involved in various geological situations.

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Characteristics of potential fields

Gravitational force, potential, and field

The force of attraction, F, between two ppoint masses m and m’,

separated by a distance, r, is given by Newton’s law:

G is the gravitational constant which has a measured value 0f 6,672X10-11 Nm2/kg2

When the effects of rotation and non-uniformity of the shape and

density of the earth are neglected, the force exerted by the earth on a
body of mass (m) is obtained by:

The gravitational acceleration g (gravity) may be considered as the

force exerted by the earth on a unit mass, and can be expressed as

In geophysics (g) unit is the Gal (in honour of Galileo). One-tenth of a

2
milligal is called a gravity unit (g.u. = 0.1 mGal =1 µm/s ) which is
commonly in exploration work

The ggravitational
Th it ti l potential,
t ti l UU. d
due tto a point
i t mass in
i att a given
gi point
i t
P. at a distance r from m, is defined as the work done by the
gravitational force in moving a unit mass from an infinite distance to
P. In geodesy the U sign convention is a positive quantity; and its
magnitude is given by:

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The negative derivative of U gives the gravity attraction in the

corresponding direction. Thus

The gravity attraction due to a generalized

mass distribution (Figure) is the vectorial
sum of attractions produced by an point
masses, because they do not generally act
in the same direction.

These are basic equations for calculating the gravity effects of bodies
of uniform density. Of these, the gravity formula for an infinitely
extending horizontal slab, is given by:

Where ρ is the density and h is the thickness of the slab.

Laplace’s equation and Poisson’s theorem

One important property of potential fields is that at all points in free

space satisfy Laplace’s equation

Where A refers to potential and is a function of the position of the point (x,y,z).

Gravity and magnetic potentials are related through Poisson’s

theorem which states that

Where W and U are, respectively, the magnetic and gravitational potentials of

the same source of volume V. density p. and magnetization J, oriented in a
direction s. The constant C has a numerical value of 10-7 in SI units.

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The magnetic field component in the vertical direction, Bz (=dW/dz),

can be obtained from the vertical derivative of gravity by Poisson’s
relationship

These equations enable calculation of gravity and magnetic fields

from each other assuming a common source.

Theyy also show that the magnetic

g field varies one p
power faster with
respect to distance than does the gravity.

Thus, the magnetic field will be more sensitive to depth and will
better define the location of the source than the gravity field from the
same source.

Rock densities

Any geological condition that results in

a horizontal variation in density will
cause a horizontal variation in gravity
or a gravity anomaly (Figure)

The bulk density of most igneous rocks is primarily controlled by the

mineral grain density. ρm. In contrast the densities of clastic
sediments
di t andd sedimentary
di t rocks
k are controlled
t ll d largely
l l by
b the
th pore
space and the fluid in the pore.

For quantitative interpretation of gravity anomalies, it is necessary to

estimate the differences in densities (density contrasts) between the
subsurface rocks before one can postulate their structure.

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Dry & wet bulk density

Dry bulk density, ρd refers to specimens in a completely moisture-free
state, whereas wet bulk density, ρw, implies that the specimen is
saturated with water.

The interrelationship between ρm, ρw, and ρd is :

Where P is the fraction of volume occupied by the pores, and a is the

fraction of pore volume filled with water.

Important to know:

The difference between ρw and ρd may be as much as 30%.

F most rocks
For k below
b l the
h groundwater
d table
bl use wet bulk
b lk density.
d i

As a rule porosity tends to decrease with increasing consolidation and

lithification of sediments.

Sedimentary densities increase from low values (<1800 kg/m3 in the

case of younger unconsolidated deposits
deposits, to mineral grain densities
(>2800 kgjm3 in older formations.

Table 2.1 shows the density values

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Acquisition and correction

of gravity data

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Gravity Measuring Instruments

The determination of g at some point on the earths surface

with a precision of better than one part in 10 million
requires the greatest care.

Today all gravity measurements for geophysical exploration

are made by relative measuring devices, gravimeters.

In principle a gravimeter is an
extremely sensitive weighing
device whose responsive element
is a spring carrying a fixed mass. A
small change in gravity, ∆g. will
cause a displacement of the mass
and also a change in spring length
L (Fig.)
(Fig ) by a small amount.
amount ∆L.
∆L

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Two basic types of systems are used to measure extremely

small changes in spring length produced by small changes
in gravity:

1. a stable or static system that employs high optical,

mechanical, or electronic amplification to provide the
required sensitivity:

1. an unstable or astatic system. which employs an

additional negative restoring force operating against the
restoring spring force (i.e., in the same sense as gravity)
and consequently amplifies the displacement.

In the Lacoste—Romberg design

(which is typical of unstable
gravimeters in general), the
zero-length spring (Fig. 2.4) is
attached rigidly to the frame and
balances the mass M at the end
of a beam.

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More recently, microprocessor-controlled automatic-reading

gravimeters have become available which are particularly suitable for
high-resolution surveying. Reduce operational errors - the instrument
does not need resetting - 0.05 g.u. accuracy.

They provide the facility of continuous sampling for real-time signal

enhancement together with the advantage of a wide operating
temperature range of _4O °C to +45°C.

Example: Scintrex CC-3M Autograv, in which the position of the

proofmass attached to the spring is sensed by a capacitative
transducer An automatic feedback circuit applies a d.c. voltage to the
capacitor plates, producing an electrostatic force on the mass, which
brings it back to a null position. The feedback voltage is converted to
a digital signal and recorded.

The reading of a gravimeter at any observation point changes with

time. This continual variation of the gravity readings ‘with time is
known as drift’ and is caused by :

(1) ambient environment changes of temperature and air pressure.

(2) slow creep of the gravimeter springs.

(3) the tidal changes, le., the cyclic changes in gravity on the earths
surface, which are caused by the attractions of the sun and
moon. The maximum rate of tidal variations is 0.5 g.u/h.

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Under normal operating conditions the effect of inherent instrumental

drift is less than the tidal variation.

The usual method of correcting for the drift is to repeat the

measurements at a base station at intervals of about one hour during
which the drift is assumed to be linear.

For microgravity surveys the interval for repeat base readings may
have to be kept <30 m depending on the required precision and the
drift characteristics of the gravimeter.

The value of the calibration constant for every gravimeter is supplied

by the makers, but as it can change with time due to elastic fatigue in
the springs, and this require intermittent checks on it.

A convenient method for checking calibration is to read the

instrument at the top and bottom of a tower. or of a tall building.

The measured gravity difference,

ff ∆ will be 3.086h
∆g, 3 086 gu. (Eq.(2.18)),
2 18
where h is the elevation difference (in meters) between the two points
of observation.

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Survey procedures

Location and spacing of stations

Wherever possible the gravimeter stations are planned at the corners
of a square grid with the grid length, s. depending primarily on the
depth. h. of the geological feature with a general rule “s should be
<h”.

In large-scale surveys (regional geological trends and major crustal

structures) measurements are carried out by vehicle or helicopter or
by a ship in marine areas with a station spacing, s, ranging from a few
kilometers to tens of kilometers.

In small
small-scale
scale surveys, s may be between some tens of meters and
hundreds of meters.

In microgravity surveys (microgal surveys) are typical for high-

resolution surveys (s=2—10 m) for investigating near-surface features
of archaeological, engineering or environmental interest.

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Positions and elevations of stations

The geographical positions and the elevations of stations must be

determined to an accuracy of approximately 12 m and 4 cm
respectively for precision of 0
respectively, 0.1
1 g.u.
gu

This requires a considerable amount of topographic surveying, which

may have a significant impact on surveying costs. In reconnaissance
surveying, accuracy of 10 gu. is acceptable, barometric leveling may
be adequate.

It is always advisable to avoid placing the stations near steep

topographic features. This should be done mainly to minimize the
terrain corrections’ that would be necessary to account for the gravity
effect of a topographic mass.

Gravity gradient survey

Made to investigate high gradients associated with near-

surface anomalous sources.

Done by measuring gravity on the ground surface and at

one or more points on a tower-like tripod directly above
the surface observation

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Corrections to gravity data (Reduction of data)

This is done to remove extraneous effects which are

unrelated to the subsurface geology. For instance,
effects due to the oblateness of the earth, and changes
in elevation and topography.
The necessary corrections are
(1) latitude correction,
correction
(2) free-air correction,
(3) Bouguer correction and, sometimes,
(4) terrain correction.

Latitude correction
Made to remove the effect of the increase of gravity from equator
to poles due to a decrease in the earth’s radius and centrifugal
force.

Geodetic Reference System (CR51967) formula for computing the

normal sea-level gravity at a latitude Φ

In such small-scale surveys.

NB. The correction values at the poles and equator is zero

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Free-air correction
Account to the vertical decrease of gravity with elevation.

Elevation correction is calculated by:

where h is the elevation in meters. RE is the earths radius, and g0 the mean
sea-level gravity.

The correction, CF must be added to a measured gravity difference if

the station lies above the datum plane and subtracted in the
opposite case.

Bouguer correction
Accounts for material attraction between a reference elevation and
that of an individual station.

This attraction can be approximated by treating the intervening rock

material as an infinite horizontal slab
slab, of a thickness equal to the
elevation difference, h, between the reference base and the station.

The gravity attraction of such a slab is traditionally known as the

Bouguer effect, and is given by

Bouguer correction is of opposite sign to that of free-air correction

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Terrain correction

A hill rising in the vicinity of the station S will give an upward

component of attraction, tending to reduce the gravity attraction
caused by the rest of the earth.

Any valley below the station S corresponds to a hole (negative mass).

The terrain correction CT in both cases is positive, and should be

added to the measured gravity difference.

Free-air and Bouguer anomalies

Gravity anomaly is the difference between the observed value of g at

some point and a theoretical value predicted by the GRS-1967
formula

If only the free-air correction, CF. has been applied. we define the free-
air anomaly. ∆gF, as

Bouguer anomaly, ∆gB.

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In-situ determination of density

Direct sampling of surface rocks over a large area is a

formidable task, and the density estimate so made
may not be representativ.

Various field methods have been devised for the

determination of density in situ. One of the methods is
to run a density profile’ with a gravimetet

A tool often employed for direct measurement of

formation densities in bore- holes is the density logger,
which utilizes the principle of gamma-ray scattering.

Analysis and Interpretation of gravity data

General considerations

For large data-sets, machine contouring is very common

because gridding, provides data in form that is suitable for
further processing

Profile interpretation is theoretically valid if the anomaly

sources strike perpendicular to the profile and are two-
dimensional (2-D). In practice, the 2-D approximation is
considered reasonable when anomaly contours are
elongated in one horizontal direction

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Ambiguity in gravity interpretation

There are two characteristics of the gravity field which make a unique
interpretation almost impossible.

First: the measured value of g, and, therefore, also the reduced

anomaly. ∆gB at any station represents the superimposed effect of
many mass distributions at various depths.
The axiomatic fact ”sum” cannot be resolved into ‘parts’ without the
imposition of restricting conditions.

Second and more serious :, determining the source’ from the effect’,
which is the inverse problem of the potential field theory.
For a given distribution of gravity anomaly on (or above) the earths
surface, an infinite number of mass distributions can be found which
would produce the same anomaly.

Ambiguity in gravity interpretation

Ambiguity in gravity interpretation. The given gravity anomaly can be explained by a

variety (theoretically an infinite number) of mass distributions at different depths.

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Isolation of anomalies: regionals and residuals

The gravity anomalies of relatively small geological features “local

anomalies” located at a relatively shallow depths are usually of short
wavelength and perceptible only over small distances.
distances

In contrast, the effects of large-scale geological structures “regional

anomalies” located at greater depths are perceptible over larger
distances as anomalies of relatively large wavelength.

Separation of a residual anomaly of a potential field distribution is a

critical problem and controls the accuracy of the interpretation.

The anomaly separation procedure may consist of two methods:

(1) Graphical smoothing (contour map or profile);

(2) An analytical process applied to an

array of values, usually a regular grid.

Suitable averaging the data at equal

distance around a station to obtain the
regional trend and subtract it from the
station Bouguer value.

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Enhancement of anomalies

Objective:
accentuate particular characteristics of anomalies to increase
their perceptibility.
p p y

Importance:
used in qualitative visual analysis to infer approximate shape
outlines of anomaly sources of interest. k

Digital
g filteringg
Wavelength filters (High pass, Low pass, or band-pass filters)

Continuation filters (Upward Vs. Downward continuation)

Derivative filters (Good for near surface target enhancement)

(a) Bouguer gravity

anomaly map of
Contour interval 0.1
mGaI (1 g.u).

(b) Band-pass filtered

anomaly map
(300 m<A<1000 m)
Cont interval. 0.05
mGal.

(c) High-cut filtered

gravity
it anomaly l map
(A<300 m) Cont.
interval, 0.25 mGal.

(d) Upward continued

gravity anomaly to
500m Cont. interval.
0.1 mGal.

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Estimates of depth and anomalous mass

If some simplified shape for the causative body can be postulated,

simple depth rules in terms of half-width’ or some other measure of
the anomaly gradient can provide unambiguous estimates of depth.

Some of the depth rules for simplified sources together with their
g it formulas
gravity f l (from
(f which
hi h the
th depth
d th rules
l are derived)
d i d) are listed
li t d in
i
the following Table and explained there in conjunction with Figures

X. Z, R, respectively, denote horizontal distance along the profile, depth to center or median
plane of the source, and its radius (Fig.); x1/2 is the half-width of the anomaly; Z1, Z2
respectively, depth to the top and bottom of the source; Φ is the angle from the horizontal of
the point of observation to the median plane of the semi-infinite slab (Fig); x is the horizontal
distance over which the fault anomaly falls from max anomaly (Fig); t is thickness (depth
extent) of the slab: I, is horizontal thickness of the vertical sheet.

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Horizontal variation in gravity due to a sphere and a horizontal cylinder, both of

radius Rand density contrast (ρ=ρ2-ρ1).The maximum anomaly occurs at x=0
and falls to its half-value at x=x0.5

Gravity anomaly across a vertical fault. Over the fault trace the total change in
gravity falls to its half-value. The horizontal distance, XF. over which the anomaly
changes from to 0.5∆gmax to 0.25∆gmax is a measure of the depth, z.

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Methodology of interpretation

A routine commonly used in interpretation processes involves :

1- Use isolation and enhancement techniques to define residual

anomalies of conceptual geological interest and to locate
approximate shape outlines of the anomaly sources.
2- Use approximate interpretation techniques for preliminary
characterization of anomaly sources.
3- Use forward or inverse modeling techniques (described below) to
determine source parameters which can be translated into a
meaningful geological model.

Forward modeling (iterative modeling)

Gravity interpretation involves the following steps

1- Make a skilled guess of an initial model, compatible with what is

kno n of the geology.
known geolog
2- Compute its gravity anomaly (∆gcal) along one or two principal
profiles.
3- Compare the computed anomaly with the observed anomaly of
interest that is obtained after applying isolation techniques (∆gobs).
4 Adjust
4- Adj the
h model
d l parameters to improve
i the
h correspondence
d
between the computed and the observed anomaly.
5- Repeat steps 2 to 4 until the remaining difference (∆gobs - ∆gcal) at
each point of observation becomes smaller than some value
considered to be a close fit’.

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Inverse modeling
A computer-based methods of inverting potential field data to
determine the parameters of a causative body

Given a set of observational data, n, and a general model for their

cause, ‘inverse modeling’ aims to determine the model parameters,
m (m<n), on some mathematical basis such as the least-squares fit
between observed and calculated anomalies.

With some constraints on the source geometry, this analysis becomes

increasingly useful. If depth was to be specified so that depth is
eliminated as a variable
variable, solutions for the geometry and physical
property contrast can be worked out comparatively faster.

In comparison with forward modeling, very limited application of

inverse modeling to gravity data acquired in engineering and
environmental studies.

Case study

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