Livestock Science 106 (2007) 1 – 18

www.elsevier.com/locate/livsci

Review article

Perspectives on animal production systems in Asia

C. Devendra
Consulting Animal Production Systems Specialist, 130A Jalan Awan Jawa, 58200 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Received 8 May 2006; received in revised form 8 May 2006; accepted 8 May 2006

Abstract

Asian animal production systems are discussed in the context of their relevance, types, trends, opportunities for productivity
enhancement, and the implications for natural resource management (NRM). These include a variety of systems in agro-
ecological zones which can be grouped broadly into one of three categories: landless, crop-based and, and rangeland-based. The
landless production systems are of two types: (i) highly industrialised pig and poultry production, and (ii) extensive systems
involving small ruminants, cattle and camels and resource-poor nomads, transhumants or agricultural laborers and seasonal
migrations. Within crop-based systems, animals are found in both irrigated and rainfed areas. The genesis of these systems is
illustrated, and includes two broad categories: systems combining animals with annual or perennial cropping. The significance
of crop–animal interactions and economic benefits from 31 case studies in 11 countries highlight the importance of animals in
crop-based systems. Animal production trends are influenced by strong demand-led factors such as population growth,
urbanisation, income growth and changing consumer preferences These are of two categories: (i) modern, demand-driven and
capital intensive non-ruminant (pig and poultry) sector which is dominant, growing, and supplies the major share of animal
proteins,which however is unable to meet current and projected human requirements, and (ii) traditional resource-driven and
labour intensive ruminant (buffaloes, cattle, goats and sheep) sector which mainly involve small farms and small farmers and
are lagging. The disparity questions efficiencies of prevailing animal production systems and NRM. Integrated animals–tree
crop production systems are underestimated and are potentially very important. Two possible scenarios for the future of crop–
animal systems are increased size and specialisation, and the other disintegration due to population pressure. It is suggested that
crop–animal systems and small farms will continue to be predominant in Asia, in which intensification, growth and increased
contribution are likely in the future. Major issues to be addressed across systems include inter alia nutrient flows, waste
disposal, overgrazing, all year round feeding systems, zoonosis, and policy issues. The less-favored and more constrained
rainfed areas can be made more productive through increased public and private sector investments, interdisciplinary research
and development, and improved technology application. The challenges and benefits for the future include improved efficiency
of NRM, agricultural growth, reduced poverty, improved livelihoods of the poor and environmental sustainability.
D 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Animal production systems; Crop–animal systems; Types; Trends; Economic benefits; Productivity enhancement; Interdisciplinary
research; Asia

E-mail address: cdev@pc.jaring.my.

1871-1413/$ - see front matter D 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.livsci.2006.05.005
2 C. Devendra / Livestock Science 106 (2007) 1–18

1. Review methodology external environment with such factors as rapid

The review is based on an extensive perusal of
published articles in books, journals, proceedings of
conferences, and also unpublished reports in Asia. In
addition, there was a search through the CABDirect
database using the above key words involving 197
records between 1974–2005, which further enabled
the use of references obtained by this method to
include pertinent data. The review process also built
on earlier detailed assessments and analyses of crop–
animal systems in South East Asia (Devendra et al.,
1997), and South Asia (Devendra et al., 2000).
2. Introduction
Asian animal production systems involve a variety
of systems that are found across the continent to include
the arid and semi-arid, humid and sub-humid, and
highland and temperate regions. Animals are found
within these various agro-ecological zones (AEZ). The
AEZs involve a great diversity in land use patterns and
a wide range of biophysical environments, animals and
animal production systems play a most important role
in food production, supporting and enhancing crop
production, as well as contribute towards income,
generation, food security and livelihoods of the poor.
This role is however especially significant in mixed
farming systems which form the backbone of Asian
agriculture, with an emphasis is on crop production.
The justification for enhancing and increasing
animal production in Asia is linked directly with the
need for more animal proteins. This is associated with
a region that is experiencing a rapidly changing
population growth, urbanisation, increased incomes,
demand-led processes, and changing consumer pref-
erences for foods of animal origin. The projected total
meat and milk human consumption levels in 2020 are
far in excess of anticipated supplies and place
unprecedented pressure on the management of the
natural resources (crops, animals, land and water).
The contribution by components of the animal
industries, the efficiency and capacity of individual
animal production systems is compelling and is in
question. The question that is being asked is what are
the approaches to, and opportunities for improving
animal production systems and significantly increasing
the productivity from animals in the future in Asia?
The purpose of this paper is to focus discussion on
the production systems and resources, types and
trends of the systems and implications for NRM. It
highlights the opportunities and challenges for pro-
ductivity enhancement, and major issues that merit
R&D attention. The review also examines prevailing
and emerging scenarios concerning the future of
Asian animal production systems. It will be have
interest and use to practitioners, planners and policy
makers concerned with NRM and agriculture.
3. Role and contribution of animals
Individual animal populations in Asia are diverse
and relatively large. These are widely distributed
across small farms, which are the reservoirs of a
large proportion of the main animal species (buffa-
loes, cattle, goats, sheep, chickens, pigs and ducks).
Table 1 gives an idea of the diversity of available

Table 1
Distribution of domestic animals by ecosystem and sub-region in Asia (Devendra, 1995a)
Sub-region Agroecosystem and animal species
Lowland irrigated Lowland/upland rainfed Semi-arid and arid Highland
Buffalo/ Goats/ Pigs/ Buffalo/ Goats/ Pigs/ Buffalo/ Goats/ Pigs/ Buffalo/ Goats/
cattle sheep poultry/ cattle sheep poultry/ cattle sheep poultry/ cattle sheep
ducks ducks ducks
China *** * *** ** *** *** * *** * ** ***
Hindu-Kush *** * ** ** *** * * – – * ***
South Asia *** * ** ** *** ** * *** – * *
Mekong countries *** * *** ** ** *** ** * – * *
South East Asia *** * *** ** ** *** * ** * * *
 C. Devendra / Livestock Science 106 (2007) 1–18 3

animals and their wide distribution across ecosys-
tems and by sub-region.
Animals form an important economic and ecolog-
ical niche, and their functions and contribution are
numerous. They are consistently and widely owned by
small farmers for a variety of advantageous reasons
(Devendra, 1983; Chantalakhana, 1990):—
! Diversification in the use of production resources
and reduction of socio-economic risks
! Promotion of linkages between system components
(land, crops and water)
! Generation of value-added products (e.g. meat,
milk, eggs and skins)
! Income generation, investment, insurance and
economic security
! Supply of draught power for crop cultivation,
transportation and haulage operations
! Contribution to soil fertility through nutrient
cycling (dung and urine)
! Contribution to sustainable agriculture, and envi-
ronmental protection
! Prestige, social and recreational values, and
! Development of stable farm households.
4. Demand for animal products
Increased human population growth and increas-
ing urbanisation, will significantly drive the demand
for animal foods. The increases are awesome, and at
projected human population growth rates of 0.7%,
1.6% and 1.4% per year up to year 2010, in China,
India and Asia, the population increases by 2010
will be 33%, 18% and 12% respectively. It is
significant to also note that of these, between 47–
57% of the population will be economically active
in agriculture (Alexandratos, 1995). Among South
Asian countries, India (60%) and Nepal, (88%), had
the highest percentage of the human population
active in agriculture.
Table 2 presents the trends in per capita meat and
milk consumption. With the exception of South
Asian countries, meat consumption significantly
increased, especially in East Asia. Milk consumption
has also been increasing. This trend is also consistent
with the fact that consumers have been obtaining an
increasingly greater share of calories and protein
from animal food products in 1993 than before.
Between 1982–1994, the annual growth rate for total
meat consumption was generally high for South East
and East Asia (5.6 to 5.8%) and especially high for
China (8.6%).
The demand for, and increased consumption of
animal foods, is also directly related to increased
affluence and increased disposable income. At
higher levels of income per capita consumption
of meat levels off because of saturation (Delgado
et al., 2001). China and India fall out of this trend
because of the very high consumption of pork in
the former and religious preferences against meat
in the latter. The same authors have also reported
that either pork or mutton is the main substitute for
beef and the preference increased with increasing
income.
The situation is serious in that the projected
consumption levels in year 2000 are way in excess
of production or supply levels. With meat, the
shortfall in projected consumption levels in China
and other South East Asian countries are about 40–
125%. With milk, the supply deficits in China, India
and South East Asia are approximately 100%, 89%
and 433% respectively.

Table 2
Current production and projected consumption trends (1993–2020) (Adapted from Delgado et al., 1999, 2001)
Region Per capita production Per capita consumption Annual growth of production Shortfalls allowing for
in 1993 kg) in 2020 (kg) (1993–2020, %) annual growth with meat
Meat Milk Meat Milk Meat Milk Prod. %
China 33 6 71 16 3.0 5 38 115.0
Other East Asia 24 30 54 29 3.2 1.7 30 125.0
India 5 66 7 104 3.5 3.2 2.0 40.0
Other South Asia 8 62 12 78 3.3 3.0 4.0 50.0
Southeast Asia 16 3 29 12 3.3 2.9 13.0 81.3
World 34 93 44 87 2.0 1.5 10.0 29.4
4 C. Devendra / Livestock Science 106 (2007) 1–18
5. Animal production systems
5.1. Types
Animal production involves both non-ruminants
and ruminants and a variety of systems integrated
with crops. The systems vary as a function of
agro-ecological zone and intensity of farming
operations. The development of these systems has
considerable potential, the benefits being associated
with the complementary interactions of the sub-
systems in which the products are additive.
The prevailing animal production systems in Asia
fall into one of three categories and it is appropriate to
discuss these briefly:—
(i). blandlessQ;
(ii). crop-based; and
(iii). rangeland-based.
5.1.1. Landless systems
The blandlessQ systems are of two categories as follows:
5.1.1.1. Urban and peri-urban industrial blandlessQ
systems. These blandless’ systems are generally
large, mainly industrial, very intensive and vertically
integrated pig and poultry enterprises whose econom-
ic outputs are higher than those of the ruminant
enterprises. The systems involve the use of largely
imported production inputs at high cost — germ-
plasm, feeds, supplements, medication and technolo-
gies which during times of economic crisis make these
systems very vulnerable, compared to the ruminant
sector. The systems are also very efficient with
production cycles of four to five crops of broilers of
8 weeks each, and an average efficiency of feed
conversion of about 1.8. They are usually run by the
private-sector and found concentrated in peri-urban
areas close to processing facilities and the markets.
Examples of such enterprise are common throughout
South, South East, and East Asia. Individual enter-
prises are large with broiler units as large as 500,000
birds, and with 2000 or more breeding sows in pig
units. In China’s largest 18 cities over half of the meat
and poultry demand was produced in the urban area,
in Katmandu 11% of the animal food needs were met,
and in Singapore 80% of the poultry products
stemmed from urban farmers (UNDP, 1996).
Intensive production is the key feature of these
systems, in which the use of grain-based feedstuffs is
the norm. Not all countries are able to grow maize,
and this represents a major item of cost to
production. There are two concerns associated with
this production system. One is the rising cost of
imported feeds mainly maize and protein supple-
ments, and ways to offset this by use of cheaper
local feeds. Secondly, there are serious problems of
pollution, surface water contamination and human
health hazards.
5.1.1.2. Rural blandlessQ livestock production sys-
tems. Rural blandless bproduction systems refer
mainly to ruminants. These involve zero grazing
practices and extensive systems that are associated
with resource-poor nomads, transhumants or agri-
cultural laborers and seasonal migrations with small
ruminants, cattle and camels (Devendra, 1999a,b).
They are very common in the arid and semi-arid
regions notably Pakistan and India, and also in the
Hindu-Kush Himalayan region in South Asia. The
movements are annual cycles that are triggered by
reduced feed and water supplies, and market
opportunities. They are also a way of life for the
poor. Two common problems are overgrazing and
environmental degradation due to bslash and burn
bfor agriculture.
In India, the migrating flocks of goats and sheep are
often used overnight to fertilise crop land, and crop
farmers pay relatively high prices or give cereals in
return for their service. In northern India, this means for
example, 2000–3000 goats and sheep folded on 0.2 ha
of land costing 1 US$ per 100 animals per night or 60–
80 kg of grain in return (Devendra, 1999b). In many
parts of China, landless rural households often keep
poultry and pigs for home consumption and also sale.
Similarly, in the rice growing countries in South East
Asia and East Asia, landless farmers produce ducks and
sell these after feeding on fallen grains and also weeds
after the rice harvest.
5.1.2. Crop-based systems
Crop-based systems in Asia mainly encompass
mixed farming crop–animal systems These systems
form the backbone of Asian agriculture, and are
especially important in terms of land area involved,
extent of poverty, integrated NRM, food security and
 C. Devendra / Livestock Science 106 (2007) 1–18
potential opportunities for increased food production.
Diversification and integration of the production
resources are common The sections below give a brief
description of the features of mixed farming systems.
Attention is drawn to a recent publication on crop–
animal systems in Asia, which discussed various
aspects of the subject (Agricultural Systems, 2002).
For reasons of brevity, this review will therefore only
highlight the more important issues concerned with
these systems.
5.1.2.1. Categories. Two broad categories of mixed
farming systems can be identified:
(a) systems combining animals and annual crop-
ping in which there are two further sub-types:
! systems involving non-ruminants, ponds and
fish e.g. vegetables–pigs–ducks–fish systems
in Vietnam, rice–maize–vegetables–sweet po-
tatoes–pigs–dairy cattle (China)
! systems involving ruminants e.g., maize–
groundnuts/soyabean–goats systems (Indone-
sia), rice–finger millet–rice–goats (Nepal)
(b) systems combining animals and perennial crop-
ping in which there are again two sub-types:
! systems involving ruminants e.g. coconuts–
sheep integration (Philippines), Oil palm–
cattle integration (Malaysia)
! systems involving non-ruminants e.g. oil palm–
chickens integration (Malaysia)
5.1.2.2. Relevance. Mixed farming systems are
synonymous with crop–animal systems, are varied
and integrated with cropping in various ways. Both
ruminants and non-ruminants are involved, and the
choice of one or more species is dependent on
overriding influence of preference, market dictates,
potential to generate income, contribution to crop
cultivation and livelihoods. Much will depend on the
extent of the functional contribution of animals.
In Asia, mixed farming provided 90% of the
milk, 77% of the ruminant meat, 47% of pork and
poultry meat, and 31% of the eggs. Past growth
trends suggest (Steinfeld, 1998) that mixed farming
systems grew half as fast (2.2% per year) compared
to industrial systems (4.3% per year), and three
times as fast as that of pastoral systems (0.7% per
year). The data suggests that ruminant production in
5
mixed farming systems will continue to be impor-
tant in the future.
5.1.2.3. Genesis. Crop–animal systems have evolved
and developed over many centuries. The principal
determinants of the type of crop and animal systems in
a particular location are the agro-ecological conditions
(Duckham and Masefield, 1970; Spedding, 1975;
Ruthenberg, 1980; Sere and Steinfeld, 1996). Climate,
and to a lesser extent soils, affect the natural vegetation
and determine what crops can be grown. These in turn
determine the feed base and its quantity, quality and
distribution. The feed base, together with the disease
challenge, governs the development of potential animal
production systems. Feed resources provide a direct
link between crops and animals and the interaction of
the two largely dictates the development and intensi-
fication of animal production systems (Fig. 1).
5.1.2.4. Diversification and integration. The inte-
gration of various crops and animals enable synergis-
tic interactions, which have a greater total contribution
than the sum of their individual effects (19). Addi-
tionally, both ecological and economic sustainability
are addressed in a mutually reinforcing manner. Such
integrated systems are especially well developed in
East and South East Asia. An overview of their
potential importance and relevance to small farms in
Asia, and description of the distinctive characteristics
has been reported (Devendra, 1995b, 1996). These
include inter alia:
! Diversified and integrated use of the production
resources, mainly crops and animals.
! Use of both ruminants (buffaloes, cattle, goats and
sheep) and non-ruminants (chickens, ducks and
pigs).
! Animals and crops play multi-purpose roles.
! Crop–animal–soil interactions are varied and have
socio-economic and ecological implications.
! Low inputs use, indigenous and traditional systems.
Involves the three main AEZs (highlands, semi-arid
and arid tropics, and sub-humid/humid.
5.1.2.5. Significance of feeds. Feeding and nutrition
are the major constraints to animal production through-
out South East Asia (Devendra et al., 1997) and South
6 C. Devendra / Livestock Science 106 (2007) 1–18
Fig. 1. Genesis and types of animal production systems in Asia.
Asia (Devendra et al., 2000). Animal production within
the mixed farming systems is dependent to a very large
extent on the efficiency of use of the available feeds.
The level of efficiency will dictate to a very large extent
improved per animal performance and increased
productivity from the animal resources.
There exist four categories of feeds:
a. pastures — these include native and improved
grasses, herbaceous legumes and multi-purpose trees
b. crop residues — these include such examples as
cereal straws and maize stover (the dried stalks and
leaves of the crop)
c. agro-industrial by-products (AIBP) — good exam-
ples are cereal bran, coconut cake and soya bean
meal, and,
d. non-conventional feed resources (NCFR) — this
category includes diverse feeds that are not
traditionally used in animal feeding; examples are
palm press fibre, spent brewer’s grains, sugar cane
bagasse (the residue from crushing the canes) and
rubber seed meal.
The fibrous crop residues (FCRs), which have in
common their high biomass, low crude protein and
high crude fibre content, of approximately 3–4% and
35–48% respectively. These FCRs form the basis of
feeding systems for ruminants throughout the devel-
oping countries, and include all cereal straws, sugar
cane tops, bagasse, cocoa pod husks, pineapple
waste and coffee seed pulp. Complementary to FCRs
are those crop residues that have higher protein
content, and can therefore be used judiciously to
improve the overall diet. This category includes a
variety of oilseed cakes and meals, such as coconut
cake, palm kernel cake, cottonseed cake and sweet
potato vines, which are often used as dietary
supplements. Sweet potato vines for example are
widely used to feed pigs in China and the Mekong
countries. The availability and importance of these
feeds in Asia has recently been reviewed (Devendra
and Sevilla, 2002).
Throughout humid South East Asia, southern
China, southern India, Sri Lanka and the Mekong
countries, feeds are generally plentiful for use by
various animals. By comparison, chronic feed deficits
exist throughout the arid and semi-arid regions of
South Asia and western parts of China. In order to
ensure nutritional efficiency, priorities for use of the
available feeds are important.
 C. Devendra / Livestock Science 106 (2007) 1–18
With ruminant production systems, there are three
categories: extensive systems; systems combining
arable cropping (roadside, communal and arable
grazing systems, tethering, and cut-and-carry feed-
ing); and systems integrated with tree cropping.
These production systems are unlikely to change in
the foreseeable future (Mahadevan and Devendra,
1986; Devendra, 1989). New proposed systems and
returns from them would have to be demonstrably
superior and supported by massive capital and other
resources. There will however, be increasing intensi-
fication and a shift within systems, especially from
extensive to systems combining arable cropping,
induced by population growth. The principal aim
should therefore be improved feeding and nutrition,
maximum use of the available feed resources, notably
crop residues and low quality roughages, and various
leguminous forages as supplements.
5.1.3. Rangeland-based systems
Rangeland-based systems are found mainly in the
semi-arid and arid regions of South Asia and China.
Sparse vegetation, containing mainly native grasses
and shrubs are characteristic of this area. These
however are important sources of feeds. In Pakistan,
some 65% of the total land area, from altitudes of 0–
N 4000 m are rangelands, and it is estimated that 60%
and 5% of the total feed requirements of small
ruminants and large ruminants respectively are met
by the rangelands (Devendra et al., 2000).These areas
support low carrying capacities of 5–8 sheep/ha such
as those found in the Balochistan Province of
Pakistan.
Three major concerns about rangeland-based sys-
tems are the need for strategies to use of common
property grazing lands, communal management of
these lands, and drought feeding.
6. Animal production trends
Animal production trends in Asia are influenced to
a very large extent by a strong demand-led process,
the drivers of which are the following factors:
! population growth
! urbanisation
! income growth
7
! efficiencies in NRM
! inadequate protein supplies to match the demand, and
! changing consumer preferences.
The trends are of two categories (Steinfeld, 1999):
(a) Modern, demand-driven and capital-intensive
non-ruminant sector which produces poultry
meat, eggs and pork. Some milk is also produced
from dairy cattle and buffaloes. These are mainly
industrial and peri-urban systems, which are very
efficient and have good market access. The
systems are very intensive, involve large con-
centrations of animals, have increasing pollution
problems and disease risks to humans. The
collection and disposal of animal manure is of
increasing concern, with very limited evidence of
recycling the material for crop production.
(b) Traditional, resource-driven and labour inten-
sive ruminant sector, which produces a multi-
tude of services to subsistence farms. Low
technology uptake, insufficient market facilities
and infrastructure, and small economies of scale
are common.
The non-ruminant pig and poultry industries continue
to contribute the major share of meat and egg production
to meet projected human needs. The application of major
advances in non-ruminant nutrition enables maximum
per animal performance as well as high efficiency of
feed conversion is high. With ruminants by comparison,
overall meat production continues to come mainly from
the slaughter of numbers rather than improved animals
having good growth rates, optimum slaughter weights,
and short duration to slaughter. Without exception, this
is the trend with beef from cattle, buffalo meat, and meat
from goats and sheep. Considerable opportunities exist
for increasing productivity in the ruminant sector in
tandem with the need to increase food security, reduce
poverty and efficient natural resource management
(NRM).
7. Inadequate arable land: targeting rainfed
environments
The need for increased productivity from animals
will place unprecedented stress on the use of natural
8 C. Devendra / Livestock Science 106 (2007) 1–18
resources (land, water, crops and animals). In the past,
emphasis and the major productivity of cereals through
the bGreen RevolutionQ came mainly from the irrigated
arable areas. With it came many benefits and prosperity,
especially to rice farmers, but the higher agricultural
growth exacerbated poverty and food insecurity among
the poor in rainfed areas. Given the fact that these areas
are overused, attention now needs to shift to the rainfed
areas, the availability of which is about 82% of the land
area in Asia in the priority agro-ecological zones (AEZs).
The largest areas are found in the arid/semi-arid zones and
also humid/sub-humid zones (TAC, 1992).
The rationale and justification for targeting the
rainfed areas in Asia is related to the twin reasons of
inadequate availability of arable land and the need to
increase productivity from animals to match the
projected human needs. The decreasing availability of
arable land with human population increase is reflected
in the projected decrease from between 0.17 and 1.0 ha/
person in 1988/90 to 0.05 and 0.30 ha/person by 2010
(FAO, 1998). It is also relevant to note that the priority
AEZs are the rainfed humid/sub-humid tropical systems
and rainfed arid/semi-arid sub-systems (TAC, 1992),
within which are two broad areas: rainfed lowlands and
rainfed uplands. The two areas are a continuum, with the
former having greater opportunities for crop cultivation
because of increased soil moisture and less fragility. The
characteristics of the lowlands and uplands have been
reported (Devendra et al., 1997).
Inadequacy of arable land is associated with the
following reasons:—
! demand for agricultural land to meet human needs
e.g. housing, recreation and industrialisation
! expansion of crop production to ceiling levels
! increasing and very high animal densities
! increased urbanisation and use of arable land, and
! growing environmental concerns due to very
intensive crop production e.g. acidification and
salinisation with rice cultivation, and human health
risks due to expanding peri-urban poultry and pig
production.
These circumstances place much stress on the use of
natural resources, and thus force a need to look beyond
the use of arable land in the irrigated areas, and to focus
much needed attention on the more difficult rainfed
areas. Thus for example, rainfed lowland and upland
areas are underutilised. This is reflected in the
availability of approximately 141  106 ha of land or
43% of the total arable land, and the presence of 51% of
the total human population, and 51–55% of cattle and
small ruminant populations in Asia (TAC, 1992).
The rainfed areas have been constrained by many
factors such as roads and market access, on account of
which they have been relatively underutilised. The
development of rural roads is especially significant,
and in China for example, it has been shown that for
every yuan invested on low-quality roads yields five
yuan of rural non-farm gross domestic product (GDP).
Also, low quality roads raise more people out of poverty
per yuan than high quality roads. (Shenggen Fan and
Chan-Kang, 2005).Increased rural roads also contribute
to more market access. Water is also a constraint, and
without adequate irrigation systems, rained areas have
not been able to increase productivity and capacity.
These constraints can however be overcome by
increased research and development attention, technol-
ogy delivery, and market-oriented production systems.
8. Economic benefits
The potential economic benefits of the application
of important technologies, improved NRM and the
impact have been discussed (Devendra, 2001). The
beneficial effects of crop–animal interactions are many
and are associated with draught power, manure, feeds
and weed control that result in increased productivity,
income generation, and the sustainability of mixed
farming systems (Devendra and Thomas, 2002). Table
3 summarises the situation from 31 case studies from
11 countries in the Asian region. The data in the table
have been adapted to reflect the benefits due to
interventions in each system due to integration.
Additional to these studies, it has been reported that
the introduction of a variety of livestock in a total of
1593 coconut growing communities consistently gave
increased income, improved household nutrition and
farm stability (IPGRI, 2005).
9. Potential for productivity enhancement
The continuing evolution, contribution, and future
of animal production systems will be associated with a
 C. Devendra / Livestock Science 106 (2007) 1–18 9

Table 3
Summary of examples of extent of benefits from animals in improved crop–animal systems in Asia
Type of crop–animal system Country Estimated profitability/net income (US$) Source
1. Crops–dairy–poultry India Net farm returns increased by between 148% Sirohi et al. (1980)
and 165% in marginal and small farms
2. Coconuts–beef cattle pastures W. Samoa Income from native pastures: 21–41% Reynolds (1995)
Income from improved pastures: 42–71%
3. Improved beef cattle production Malaysia Free grazing — 0.21/day Sukri and Dahlan (1984)
systems Semi-feed lot — 0.28/day
Benefit — 33.3%
4. Crops–dairy farming India Dairying increased farm income and farm Devadoss et al. (1985)
employment
5. Crops–dairy farming India Cost/l of milk was lowest compared to Rekib and Rajpali (1987)
specialised dairy or arable farming
6. Three-strata forage system Indonesia Without project — 106 Nitis et al. (1990)
With project — 186
Benefit — 75.5%
7 Goat/fish integration Philippines Highest fish yield of 1170 kg/ha with 20,000 Libunao (1990)
O.niloticus and manure from 300 goats
8. Oil palm–cattle–goats Malaysia With integration — 110.8/ha/yr
9. Rice–ducks–fish India Income from arable farming — 1.01/day Ganesan et al. (1991)
With ducks and fish — 1.79/day
Benefit — 77.2%
10. Oil palm–cattle integration Malaysia Increased yield of 0.49 mt FFB / ha Samsuddin (1991)
11. Coconuts–crops–animals India More profitable than coconuts alone Das (1991)
12. Rice/wheat–dairying Pakistan Increased income from dairying and net returns
highest with inclusion of buffalo
13. Crops–cattle/buffaloes–fish India From arable farming — 607.9 /yr Kadian et al. (1992)
With integration of animals — 1213.8
Benefit — 99.7%
14. Improved grass–legume pastures Philippines Net profit — 510 Deocareza and Diesta (1993)
in coconut plantations integrated
with cattle
15. Coconuts–dairy cattle integration Sri Lanka Increased nut and copra yields by 17 and Liyanage de Silva et al. (1993)
11%. Reduced cost of fertiliser use by 69%
16. Triticale–rice–silage system China Improved cow milk composition Wang et al. (1993)
17. Oil palm–cattle integration Malaysia Increased yield of fresh fruit bunches (FFB) Chen and Chee (1993)
by 30%
18. Small ruminants under coconuts Philippines Net income without and (with) project: PCARRD (1994)
(1991–1994) Sheep — 25 (127)
Goats: — 35 (229)
19. Food crops, rubber and animal Indonesia Net farm income:
production system (1 cow, 3 goats Without project: 24–81.
and 11 chickens) With project: 124–138,
Benefit: 149.5%
20. Rainfed rice, upland crops and Philippines Average net income/farm Sevilla et al. (1995)
cattle fattening (1984–1992) Before project — 733
After project —1130.
Benefit: 54.2%
21. Baby corn–beef cattle integrated Thailand Benefit 797.3/steer Prucsasri and
production Thanomwongwathana (1995)
22. Rice–pigs–fish–duck–vegetable Vietnam Without project: 661 Thein et al. (1996)
system With project: 2479
Benefit: 275%
(continued on next page)
10 C. Devendra / Livestock Science 106 (2007) 1–18
Table 3 (continued)
Type of crop–animal system Country
23. Integration of leguminous Philippines
hedgerows on steep slopes (sloping
agriculture land technology)
24. Rice + fish + duck Indonesia
25. Rubber–sheep integration Indonesia
26. Rice/wheat–buffalo India
27. Rice–Lathyrus sativus–dairy Bangladesh
farming
28. Coconuts–dairy farming–poultry India
integration
29. Cereals–pulses–oil seeds– India
vegetables–dairy
30. Oil palm–cattle integration Malaysia
31. Cash crops–grasses–tree Vietnam
legumes–goats integration
number of interrelated factors, together with the
demand-driven factors for animal proteins. Among
these, the issues below are considered to be especially
important.
9.1. Emphasis on rainfed areas
The decreasing availability of arable land, as
human population densities increase, is a cause for
much concern for productivity enhancement from
animals. In Southeast Asia, for example, the main
focus has been on crop production in the irrigated rice
areas, which are already intensively used and over-
populated with people. The irrigated mixed farming
systems in the humid areas have shown the greatest
increases in productivity.To further increase crop
production in the future; emphasis needs to be given
to the neglected rainfed lowland and upland AEZs
(Devendra et al., 1997, 2000; TAC, 1992; Devendra,
2000a), where land is available and also the signifi-
cant populations of animals that are found here. Also,
there is greater poverty in these zones than in the
irrigated areas, and in the uplands particularly, the
ecosystem is fragile with much natural resources
degradation. Some progress has been made on
understanding and improved productivity of these
areas (Devendra and Pezo, 2002).
Estimated profitability/net income (US$) Source
Net profits 865.8–1940.1 Laquihon et al. (1997)
Rice alone: 949.8 Suriapernama et al. (1998)
With ducks + fish: 2059.7
Benefit: 116.9%
Increased income by 20% San NuNu and Deaton (1999)
Net returns / 1000 Rest investment was highest Sheokand et al. (2000)
with integrated farming
Milk yield increased by 20% Akbar et al. (2000)
Increased returns with livestock by 59% Maheswarappa et al. (2001)
Increased farm income by 47.8% Kumar et al. (2002)
Reduced cost of weeding by 68.6% Ongah (2004)
Before project — 420 Nguyen and Than (2005)
After project — 1211
Increased income — 188%
9.2. Significance of crop–animal interactions
Crop–animal interactions are varied and are very
important from the standpoint of farm productivity
and sustainability of mixed farm systems Table 4
gives an indication of the main crop–animal
interactions in mixed farming systems in Asia Many
of these benefit small farmers and farming systems.
Draught animals for example, provide ploughing
and cultivation, and increase the land area prepared
for cropping. The vast majority of farmers in the
region do not have the resources to replace draught
animal power with tractors. The environmental
benefits and economic savings to Asian nations
through the use of draught animal power has been
highlighted (Ramaswamy, 1985), who estimated that
it would take 30 million tractors to replace some
300 million draught animals on small farms. The
use of renewable animal power instead of non-
renewable fossil fuels and tractors has, amongst
other things, reduced carbon dioxide and carbon
monoxide emissions into the atmosphere. Another
example is the use of crop residues from cropping
systems for conversion to edible animal products.
Improved understanding of the nature and extent of
the interactions can enhance the efficiency of animal
production systems and farm outputs.
 C. Devendra / Livestock Science 106 (2007) 1–18
Table 4
Main crop–animal interactions in mixed farming systems (Devendra and Thomas, 2002)
Crop production
Crops provide a range of residues and by-products that can be
utilised by ruminants and non-ruminants.
Native pastures, improved pastures and cover crops growing
under perennial tree crops can provide grazing for
ruminants.
Cropping systems such as alley-cropping can provide tree
forage for ruminants.
9.3. Production systems integrated with annual and
perennial crops
Relatively more attention will need to be given to
mixed farming systems that involve annual crops,
not only because of the importance of rice and wheat
as food staples, and the opportunity to integrate
annual legumes into the cereal cropping to develop
food–feed systems. The potential importance of this
system and successful examples has been reviewed
(Devendra et al., 2001). In addition, there is a need
to exploit other feed sources like leguminous shrubs
and tree leaves, an example of which is Trichantera
gigantea (Kier et al., 1997).The decreased availabil-
ity of arable land in many areas and the need for
more food from animals could encourage further
integration of ruminants with tree crops in the upland
areas. The development and intensification of poten-
tially important integrated ruminants–tree crops or
silvopastoral systems is a realistic objective, given
the extent of farmer experience, the periodic collapse
of world prices for plantation commodities, the
projected demands for animal products in the future,
and the advances that have already been made in
Asia. This potential has recently been reviewed
(Devendra, 2005).
New technologies to intensify production and
better scientific guidelines for managing the compo-
11
Animal production
Large ruminants provide power for operations such as land
preparation and for soil conservation practices.
Both ruminants and non-ruminants provide manure for the
maintenance and improvement of soil fertility. In many
farming systems it is the only source of nutrients for cropping.
Manure can be applied to the land or, as in Southeast Asia, to
the water which is applied to vegetables whose residues are
used by non-ruminants.
The sale of animal products and the hiring out of draught
animals can provide cash for the purchase of fertilisers and
pesticides used in crop production.
Animal grazing vegetation under tree crops can control weeds
and reduce the use of herbicides in farming systems.
Animals provide entry-points for the introduction of improved
forages in to cropping systems. Herbaceous forages can be
unyrdersown in annual and perennial crops and shrubs or trees
established as hedgerows in agroforestry-based cropping
systems.
nents of silvo-pastoral systems are now available that
can lead to higher farm incomes and a more
protected environment. Future development of these
integrated systems will require policy support
concerning land use and also to encourage the
introduction of ruminants and to increase total factor
productivity.
9.4. Strategy for improved feed utilisation
The strategy for feed resource use needs to take
cognisance of the following interrelated issues
(Devendra, 2000b):
! knowledge of the totality of available feeds that have
been referred to
! appropriateness and effective use within produc-
tion systems
! cost of feeding as a percentage of total production
costs are about 50–60% for ruminants and 65–80%
for non-ruminants in intensive production systems
! feeds and their use should be identified with
farming systems and self-reliance, and
! potential promotion of linkages between rural and
peri-urban areas in the use of production inputs,
intensification, nutrient flows, and marketing of
produce that is consistent with environmental
integrity.
12 C. Devendra / Livestock Science 106 (2007) 1–18
The final objective should be the development of
sustainable all year round feeding systems Associated
with this, there should concurrently be efforts to
increase feed supplies to overcome shortages, seasonal
constraints and expanded production systems. Exam-
ples of such approaches include food–feed cropping
(Devendra et al., 2001), forage production in rice buds
and under tree crops, and alley cropping. Efficiency of
feed use especially for ruminants must also identify
priorities for using crop residues. Table 5 summarises
how this can be achieved.
9.5. Animal manure, nutrient flows and dynamics
A major environmental and human health concern
in the future concerns the use and disposal animal
manure from peri-urban and urban production systems.
Crop production especially in the rainfed areas depend
to a large extent on manure from animals because
inorganic fertilizers are too expensive or unavailable to
small farmers to sustain and improve soil fertility. In
many countries, disposal and delivery systems for
animal manure from intensive non-ruminant and dairy
systems are not in place to enhance this situation.
Consequently there is soil and water contamination,
and emerging health hazards, such as has been reported
for peri-urban dairy systems in Thailand (Chantala-
khana et al., 1999). Even more serious is zoonosis and
their effects on human health. Nutrient flows and
nutrient dynamics, nutrient load on land, and crop–
animal–soil–water interactions involving organic
resources on and off the farm are critical areas for
research and development in the future (Devendra,
2004). Some progress is being made to address these
issues aimed at introducing new sutainable manure
management systems in the area-wide integratio-
Table 5
Priorities for crop residue use by animals in Asia (Devendra, 1997)
Type of residue
Good quality (e.g. oilseed cakes and meals,
cassava leaves)
Medium quality (e.g. coconut cake, palm
kernel cake, sweet potato vines)
Low quality (e.g. cereal straws, palm press
fibre, stovers)
! dRuminantsT refers to buffalo, cattle, goats and sheep.
n(AWI) of livestock and crop activities project in
FAO‘s the Livestock, Environment and Development
(LEAD) initiative (Menzi and Gerber, 2005).
9.6. Integration with aquaculture
The integration of crops and animals makes more
efficient use of the natural resource base than if the
components are produced separately. Intensive and
semi-intensive annual crops–aquaculture–animal sys-
tems have the potential to improve the sustainability
and income generation of small farms, when these are
fully integrated with household activities. These also
allow farm families and communities to manage their
natural resources and available time more effectively.
Such systems can be less risky because, when
managed efficiently, they can benefit from synergism
among enterprises, diversity in produce and environ-
mental soundness. Fish convert crop, livestock and
household wastes into high quality protein and
nutrient-rich pond mud that can replace fertiliser
completely in small vegetable gardens as has been
demonstrated in the Philippines (Libunao, 1990) and
in India (Ganesan et al., 1991; Kadian et al., 1992).
Aquaculture systems are especially advanced in China
(Congyi and Yixian, 1995) and Vietnam in terms of
efficiency and complementary management of the
natural resources, but much more needs to be known
about the practice of these traditional systems.
9.7. Policy issues
There exist major opportunities for the use of
improved policy issues. These relate to institutions,
services and delivery systems that affect animal
production systems. In view of the bio-physical focus
Nutrient potential Species (product/service)
High protein Pigs, chickens, ducks, ruminants* (milk, meat)
High-energy supplement
Mineral
Medium protein Pigs, chickens, ruminants (meats, milk)
Low protein, very fibrous Ruminants (meats, draught), camels, donkeys,
horses (draught)
 C. Devendra / Livestock Science 106 (2007) 1–18
of this paper, and for reasons of brevity, attention is
drawn to only four important policy areas in this
review.
An important issue that impinges on improved
animal production systems and productivity enhance-
ment, concerns institutional capacity to deal with
NRM and holistic systems in participatory efforts with
farmers. Presently, knowledge of systems perspec-
tives, R&D, and ability to undertake adaptive research
at the farm level, are major limitations in most
countries, and these offer major and urgent training
needs at the college and university level. Other
associated emerging issues are community empower-
ment of local resource planning, management and
decision making and rural to urban market integration
to link with production to consumption systems.
Among the ruminant production systems, despite
the economic benefits of added value, integrated
systems with tree crops remain underestimated. Policy
interventions are required to stimulate more integration
with animals, for example through tax incentives, and
also encourage increased private sector investments.
The market chain involves rural, urban and interna-
tional markets. In an era of globalization and improved
marketing, presently, the rural–urban market linkages
are weak, and closer integration is very necessary. Rural
markets are especially important to rural communities
and their households, and are also used for the sale of
live animals for slaughter in the urban areas. Appropriate
policies are required to provide good links between rural
and urban markets, infrastructural and communication
facilities that must be in place, as also collection and
processing centres. Horizontal and vertical coordination
and the development of cooperatives are also important
initiatives. Because of the greater market demand for
animal products in urban areas, such facilities become
more essential. Urban markets are the outlets for exports,
and promote international trade, and have opportunities
for foreign direct investments and growth benefits (Otte
et al., 2005).
The fourth area concerns small farm systems in Asia.
About 87% of the total distribution of small farms,
defined as those having less than 2 ha of land, are
presently found in Asia (Nagayets, 2005). These farms
are mainly mixed farms and provide 90% of the milk,
77% of the ruminant meats, 47% of pork and poultry
meat, and 31% of the eggs (Steinfeld, 1998). These
same farms also supply the bulk of the draught power
13
from cattle and buffaloes for arable farming, some pork,
as well as meat and eggs from ducks. The resource-poor
small farmers also suffer from isolation, extremes of
poverty, access to technology and also markets.
There is a school of thought that with increasing
globalisation, economies of scale, intensification and
commercialization, these small farms do not have a
viable future and are likely to disappear. In Asia, this is
unlikely to be the case because of the very extent of
small farms and the size of the rural populations
therein. Pro-poor strategies, social and effective devel-
opment policies are needed that can sustain and
increase the contribution from these farms. Addition-
ally, there needs to be an enabling economic environ-
ment to spur agricultural development. The recent
outbreak of viruses in intensive pig and poultry systems
further justifies increased attention to improved pro-
ductivity from animals in small farm systems.
9.8. Interdisciplinary research and investments
A strong systems approach and interdisciplinarity
is required to interpret the contribution of the many
components that are identified through detailed
analyses of the needs and constraints. These in turn
enable the formulation of programmes that are needs-
led, including institutional and structural commitment
to the programmes. Given the complexity and
diversity of farming systems in Asia, a more holistic
focus is necessary that will enable technological and
policy interventions.
Associated with these is the need for increased
funding for research (Alston et al., 1998; Hazell and
Haddad, 2001; Pardey and Beintema, 2001), so as to
realise maximum efficiency in the use of the natural
resources to achieve quantum jumps in productivity,
potential impacts on sustainable production systems,
and improved livelihoods of the poor. Increased
public investments and incentives for private invest-
ments are both necessary.
10. Evolving scenarios and future of animal
production systems
There is no doubt that the intensive non-ruminant
sectors will continue to supply the major share of
animal proteins despite recent setbacks of virus
14 C. Devendra / Livestock Science 106 (2007) 1–18

infections. However, crop–animal systems are likely to
become increasingly important. Two possible scenar-
ios for the future of crop–animal systems have been
indicated in developing countries (Steinfeld et al.,
1997). One is where market forces and technological
requirements force the systems to grow in unit size and
to specialise. This would present fewer opportunities
for on-farm crop and animal integration. The second
possibility, as a result of continuing human population
pressures, leads to decreasing farm sizes to the point
where the system disintegrates (involution). Large
ruminants can no longer be maintained on the farm, the
nutrient and farm power balance runs into a widening
deficit and disinvestment occurs as natural resources
degrade. With the disappearance of the resource-
enhancing role of animals the environmental balance
can be disrupted. In Asia, the highland areas of
Indonesia (Java) and Nepal, where high human
population densities are traditionally sustained by
complex mixed farming systems, are examples where
this process is likely to occur.
It is suggested that crop–animal systems will see
continued intensification and important growth in the
future, and that smallholder mixed farms will remain
predominant in Asia for some time to come (Deven-
dra, 2002). Together with the larger contribution from
non-ruminants in the formers, increased productivity
from the latter can further increase the supplies of
animal proteins. Animals, in addition to production,
will continue to enhance the natural resources base.
The environmental and economic stability of the
mixed farming system will make it the prime focus

Table 6
Summary of livestock systems, priority production systems and major issues across regions (Devendra et al., 2005)
Type of livestock systems Priority production system Regions Major issues
Asia SSA CA WANA LAC
1. Landless ! Peri-urban/urban dairy / / / / . Surface water
production contamination
! Peri-urban/urban poultry and / / / / / . Zoonosis
! Pig production . Waste disposal
! Feedlot (cattle or small / / / / / . Nutrient flows
ruminants)
! Goat and sheep production / / / / / . Overgrazing
2. Crop-based mixed ! Integrated systems with / / / / / . Food–feed systems
! Annual crops (ruminants) and / / / . All year round feeding
non-ruminants plus fish) systems
integrated systems with . Nutrient flows/soil
perennial crops (ruminants) fertility
! Beef and dairy production / / / / / . Productivity
enhancement
! Goat and sheep production / / / / / . Intensification and
specialization
. Overgrazing
3. Agro-pastoralist ! Cattle / / / . Feed supplies/drought
strategies
! Goat and sheep production / / / . Property regimes
. Overgrazing
. Trypanosomiasis
4. Range-based ! Sheep and goat production / / / / / . Drought strategies
. Overgrazing Property
regimes
. Marketing
(i) SSA — Sub-Saharan Africa, CA — Central Asia, WANA — West Asia and North Africa, LAC — Latin America and the Caribbean.
(ii) / indicates that both the production systems and animal species are the most important within the region.
(iii) Major issues inter alia are those that currently merit R and D attention. Across regions, the issues are broadly similar as is the case with
dairying.
(iv) Dairy production includes buffaloes and cattle especially in Asia.
 C. Devendra / Livestock Science 106 (2007) 1–18
for continuing transfer of technology and develop-
ment. Important interactions between cropping and
animal production are currently under-exploited, but
provide exciting possibilities for technological change
in the future. Significant productivity gains and
increased animal protein supplies can be achieved
by further enhancing nutrient and energy flows
between the crop and livestock components. Compar-
isons of crop–animal systems in Asia with West
Africa and Latin America also point out to the fact
that these systems are potentially important in the
future (Devendra and Pezo, 2004).
However, the development of sustainable and
productive crop–animal systems in the future will
require an increased commitment to interdisciplinary
research with a farming systems perspective that can
focus on whole-farm situations and priority AEZs.
The evolving scenarios will simultaneously need to
address several major issues such as nutrient flows,
waste disposal, overgrazing, all year round feeding
systems, zoonosis and policy issues. These and other
aspects across livestock systems and priority produc-
tion systems are highlighted in Table 6.
11. Conclusions
Accelerating the contribution from animal produc-
tion systems in Asia stems from the inability of the
component industries to supply the projected human
demand for animal products. The implications are the
need for improved systems and also increased
efficiency in NRM. While the non-ruminant poultry
and pig industries will continue to make the major
contribution, particular emphasis is required for crop–
animal systems to realise potential increases in the
overall protein supply. The prerequisites for this are
vigorous interdisciplinary research and development,
increased investments. and institutional commitment.
These and other issues constitute the major challenges
for improved animal production systems in the future.
Acknowledgement
I wish to acknowledge the assistance of CABI for
use of the database, without which the review will not
have been completed.
15
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