ROCK CYCLE – is a model that describes all the processes by which rocks are MINOR COMPOSITIONS:

formed, modified, transported, decomposed, melted & reformed.

 MAFIC – an igneous rock with more iron than silicate; usually dark –
IGNEOUS ROCK – a rock that is formed from hardened magma (molten rock inside the colored
Earth), lava (molten rock outside the Earth) or volcanic ash & dust.  FELSIC – an igneous rock with more silicate than iron; usually light –
colored
MELTING – process involved to form an igneous rock
 INTERMEDIATE – an igneous rock with approximately equal amount of
TYPES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS iron & silicate

1. CRYSTALLINE – formed from hardened magma or lava

 EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCK – from hardened lava; cooled on
the Earth’s outer surface
- It has a pegmatitic texture.
 INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCK – from hardened magma; cooled
on Earth’s interior
- It appears glassy; vesicular texture

PEGMATITIC TEXTURE – it is composed of very large crystals (larger than 2-3 cm).

VESICULAR TEXTURE – it is a result of gases escaping while the volcanic rock is being
formed.

PORPHYRITIC TEXTURE – rocks may show at least two (2) distinct crystal sizes.

 Extrusive igneous rocks cools on the Earth’s outer surface which has lower
temperature than the Earth’s interior, it cools faster than intrusive igneous rock.
 Since extrusive igneous rock cools easily, it becomes more stable at faster rate
having a very less chance of it being deformed.
 Extrusive igneous rock usually appears smoother than the intrusive one which
usually appears rough.
2. PRYOCLASTIC – formed from consolidated eruption products like volcanic ash &
dust.
 Examples are Pumice, Scoria, & Volcanic tuff
COMPOSITION OF IGNEOUS ROCK
MAJOR COMPOSITIONS:
 Iron
 Silicate
SEDIMENTARY ROCK – a rock that is formed from compaction or cementation of
weathered & eroded rock particles called sediments.
LITHIFICATION – a process of porosity destruction through compact & cementation.
PROCESS INVOLVED TO FORM THE SEDIMENTARY ROCK:
 WEATHERING – disintegration of rock particles into sediments
 EROSION – separation of weathered sediments from unweathered rock
 COMPACTION – joining together of sediments due to pressure
 CEMENTATION – joining together of sediments due to binding substance that
“cements” the sediments together
TYPES OF SEDIMENTS THAT FORM SEDIMENTARY ROCK
 Sedimentary rocks may have either organic (those that came from living
organisms) or inorganic (did not came from living organism) compositions.
 CHEMICAL SEDIMENTS – these are the rock materials that are dissolved
in water such as the salt sediments in seawater that forms the rock salt.
 Gypsum, Rock salt, Travertine, & Chert
 CLASTIC SEDIMENTS – these are the rock materials that are
mechanically weathered such as the clay that forms the claystone, sand that
forms the sandstone & silt that forms the siltstone.
 Breccia, Sandstone, Conglomerate & Shale
 BIOCLASTIC SEDIMENTS - these are the rock materials that came from
living organisms such as the shells of the mollusks & skeleton of the corals
that make limestone & the particles of dead plants & animals that make the
coal.
 Limestone and Bituminous coal
 The difference between the clay, silt, sand, pebble & stone are the size of their
individual particle.
 CLAY (smallest)  SILT  SAND  PEBBLE  STONE (biggest)
METAMORPHIC ROCK – a rock that is formed from the structural change of any type
of rock; the structural change may be due to heat or pressure.
- Metaphoric rocks are mostly composed of index minerals.
INDEX MINERALS – minerals that only form at the high temperatures & pressures
associated with the process of metamorphism.
METAMORPHISM – alteration of the composition or structure of a rock by heat,
pressure, or other natural agency; “change in form”.
- Usually occurs underneath the surface, but not as deep as the
igneous environment.
PROCESS INVOLVED TO FORM THE METAMORPHIC ROCK:
 CONTACT METAMORPHISM - a rock that turned into a metamorphic rock
because of heat; does NOT produce metamorphic rock with layers.
 REGIONAL METAMORPHISM – a rock turned into a metamorphic rock because
of pressure; produces rock WITH layers.
 When a rock undergoes metamorphism, it may or may not form a metamorphic
rock with layers.
 Think of playing clays with different colors. Each individual clay will represent a
rock. Supposed you stack them & applied pressure (regional metamorphism) to
them. These clays will form a new clay (metamorphic rock) with layers of colors.
 In metamorphic rock, these layers are known as foliation.
 However, if the stack of clay is subjected to heat (contact metamorphism), the
colors will just combine & there will be no layer/s formed.
FOLIATION – it refers to the orderly arrangement of rock particles.
TYPES OF FOLIATION
 SLATY – foliation/layer is invisible & can be only be seen under the microscope.
 Example: SLATE: Parent rock is SHALE
 PHYLLITIC - foliation/layer is partially visible
 Example: PHYLLITE: Parent rock is SLATE
 SCHISTOSE - foliation/layer is truly visible but the layer is NOT linear
 Example: SCHIST: Parent rock is PHYLLITE
 GNEISSIC - foliation/layer is truly visible & the layer is linear
 Example: GNEISS: Parent rock: SCHIST
PARENT ROCK – the rock where a specific metamorphic rock originated.
 For example, the metamorphic rock Quartzite originated from a
Sandstone that underwent contact metamorphism. Hence, the
parent rock of Quartzite is Sandstone. The parent rock of
Anthracite coal is Bituminous coal.
 SOME IMPORTANT ORES

 BAUXITE – source of Aluminum

 CHALCOPYRITE – source of Copper
 HERMATITE – source of Iron Metal
 ARGENTITE – source of Silver
 PENTIANDITE – source of Nickel
 PITHBLENDE – source of Uranium
 SPHALERITE – source of Zinc
 CINNABAR – source of Mercury

ORE EXTRACTION

MINING – a set of process through which useful resources are withdrawn from a
stock of any nonrenewable resources.
ORES – a rock/mineral that carries a profitable element or mineral: the profitability
defines the value of ores. STEPS IN MINING:

DEPOSIT – considered a potential ore body if its localized abundance is greater than its
average abundance or distribution on Earth’s crust.
PROCESS INVOLVED TO FORM ORES
 COOLING & CRYSTALLIZATION – sometimes when a magma (molten rock on
the Earth’s interior) cools & crystallizes to form a rock known as pegmatites, it
becomes enrich in rare elements & heavy metals like gold & silver. While
pegmatite cools & crystallizes, these heavy metals incorporate creating an ore.
WHERE TO FIND ORES?
 Ore deposits are usually found in hydrothermal solutions (hot metal-rich fluids
associated with cooling magma bodies). When a hydrothermal solution flows in
rock fracture, the resulting deposit is known as vein deposits. Gold, silver &
mercury are usually mined in vein deposits.
 If the hydrothermal solutions deposits on the entire rock mass not just on
fractures, it will produce a disseminated deposit where the metal copper is
usually extracted.
1. PROSPECTING – looking for a good location of ores
2. DRILLING – extraction of small part of ore for its characterization
3. MODELING – determination of ore size & shape to apply appropriate mining
method
4. IDENTIFYING THE POTENTIAL IMPACTS – consideration on social &
environmental aspects
5. DESIGNING & CONSTRUCTING THE MINE
6. ORE EXTRACTION – the metal is dug & extracted from the rock body
mechanically
7. MILLING – the ore is crushed & concentrated; waste materials (tailings) are
released. In gold & platinum ores, a mixture called aqua regia (mixture of
Hydrochloric acid & Nitric acid) to dissolve the pure gold or platinum.
8. DECOMMISSIONING – after the depletion of minerals, the mine will be closed
for rehabilitation
 KIMBERLITE MAGMA – a magma that originates deep within the mantle & is
the source of diamond (usually deeper than 150 km).