CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Safe drinking water is a human’s birth right as much a birth right as clean air. However, much of

the world’s population will not have access to safe drinking water of the six billion people on

earth, more than one billion (one in six) lack access to safe drinking. Moreover about 2.5 billion

(more than one in three) do not have access to adequate sanitation services.

Together these short comings spawn water borne diseases that kill more than 6 million children

each year (RWAS 2002). The problem scarcity or insufficient portable drinking water is more

pronounced in developing or third world countries. In Nigeria for instance, government could

scarcely afford the cost of the infrastructural outlay needed to provide portable water for the

citizens; a teeming population of about 140 million people. The problem is further compounded

by limited technology, insufficient technical inputs poor maintenance culture (for existing water

facilities) and required skills (Amuho et al, 2005)

Given that wells constitute a major source of water to majority of Nigerians, adequate attention

should be given to this important source of drinking water. While drinking water standards are

enforced for public water systems, private water supplies (well waters) are not subjected to these

standards. Worked on the water quality of shallow wells located close to dump sites in Akure

Nigeria.

Characteristics of drinking water in bendel state of Nigeria. While (Amstrong and Schneider,

1971) researched into the preliminary chemical characterization of water in experimental lake

areas.

1
Dealt with the water quality in Akure, Nigeria safe drinking water must be among the highest

priority for every nation on earth. Today contaminated water kills more people than cancer,

AIDS, wars and accidents. It is virtually important that the water which humans drink is free of

disease causing germs and toxic chemicals that pose a threat to public health (RWAS 2002)

1.2 Background of the Study

Water is a basic human need and is next to no other in importance. An abundant natural resource,

it is critical for the sustenance of human life. In fact above two third of a human body is made up

of water (Ayo Ade et al, 1999).

Water is a key determinant of sustainable development that should be carefully managed to make

for suitable and sustainable human health as well as general well being. The basic purposes for

which water is domestically required include drinking, bathing, cooking and general sanitation

such as laundry, flushing of closet and other household chores (Ogunawo, 2004)

Thus an assured source of water both qualitatively and quantitatively for these purposes greatly

improves the social and economic activities of the people. (Faniran, 1977) and (Oyebande, 1986)

Portable water supply to communities in Elele (Madonna) is the responsibility of the government

of Rivers State, which in most cases has been characterized by low productivity, low coverage

and insufficient service delivery.

These supplies by government are absent in many rural communities. Rural dwellers therefore

depend on various available water resources. The quality of these sources is generally not

guaranteed and cases abound where health problems have arisen as a result of consumer drinking

from such sources. Previous studies on physiochemical properties of water have reported

2
shortages of existing supplies which imposes heavy burden on the health of the people and

constitute and increasing obstacle to socio-economic progress (Emeschili et al, 2005)

The Elele community in Rivers State Nigeria has government operated water scheme. The

scheme provided by the Niger Delta development Commission (NDDC) which is functional.

Thus to meet their daily water need and household requirement, the residents source water from

a few privately owned privately owned borehole in the community.

1.3 Statement of the Problem

On our rapidly industrializing world were many inorganic and organic substances, sometimes in

high concentrations, are constantly been introduced into water bodies and the soil periodic

knowledge of the physical and chemical characteristics of drinking water has become very

essential. The complexity of water quality as a subject is reflected in many types of

measurements of water and waste water indicator. These measurement include electrical

conductivity dissolved oxygen, total dissolved solid (TDS), total suspended solid (TSS),

chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), temperature and heavy

metals. With respect to these measurements, world health organization (W.H.O) sets an

international reference point as standard for drinking water safety.( W.H.O, 2006) (Obahiagbon

and okieimen et al, 2007) indicated in their recent report that the major contaminant in drinking

water especially from wells in our towns are heavy metals, these heavy metals find their way into

the soil and ground water through activities like intense agriculture, power generation, industrial

discharge seepage of municipal landfills, septic tank effluence, to mention a few. The deleterious

and the detrimental effects of these heavy metals to the existence of humans, his crops and

animals cannot be over emphasized (Sanjay Kumar et al, 1990). Heavy metals accordance in the

3
bodies of organisms when they ingest them. (Egereon and Dike, 2007). Some marine algae

containheavy metal of concentration up to 100 times more than that of the water in which they

are living.

Elele is a town in Rivers State of Nigeria, until the mid 1990’s, water well and borehole were

uncommon features in the town, because of these regular supply of portable water, borehole has

become common recently. This water borehole has become common because of the epileptic

nature of the water distribution caused by poor maintenance culture and poor planning. On the

quest for portable water source, some of the dwellers soil water from these boreholes before

consumption. But contrary to their believe, boiling has no effect on water contaminant such as

heavy metals, rather it concentrates the ion of these metal in the water. Few reports are available

(Njoku et al, 2007) on the concentration of heavy metals in ground water within Imo and

environs.

1.4 Objective of the Study

To examine some of these water quality parameters of well water as a major source of drinking

water inhabitants of Elele and environs.

An assessment of heavy metals concentration in water wells in Elele with the densely populated

Madonna University as a starting point. This will go a long way determine the pollution status of

these well waters and the potential impact of these metal to the surrounding ecosystem as a result

of food chain.

4
1.5 Scope of the Study

Elele is a medium sized community in Local Government Area (LGA) of Rivers State

geographically; Elele is located within the western position of the LGA. It is located on latitude

5.50 and longitude 6.13. it shares a boundary within the west, in the north, in the south and in the

east. The research proposal will also seek to arise the physical and chemical parameters and

heavy metals concentration in Madonna university community. The water samples to be

collected will be limited to the University community only. (Njoku et al, 2007)

1.6 Significance of Study

The significance of this study is geared towards ensuring that safe drinking water must be among

the highest priority for every nation on earth. This is because contaminated water kills people

than Cancer, AIDS, Wars or even accidents. It is virtually important that the water which humans

drink be free of diseases causing germs and toxic chemicals that pose a threat to public health.

More importantly, the study will be of great benefit to the communities where government could

scarcely afford the cost of infrastructural outlay needed to provide portable water for her citizens.

The problem is further compounded by limited technology, insufficient technical inputs, poor

maintenance culture (for existing water facilities), requsite skills and present global financial

meltdown.

More so, this study will apart from arising awareness about the quality of water consumed by

people, it will equally create government’s attention through relevant ministries to pay attention

to part of the state which hitherto had not been receiving adequate attention. It is hoped that the

data generated from the study will help the government in accessing quality of water consumed

by her citizens and privatization of ministries efforts.

5
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

Chemical applied for plant protection the most common among them being pesticide, chlorinated

hydrocarbon, and organophosphate. As report by (Wiesman, 1975) of the total amount of

pesticide applied in plants protection, 45% are herbicides, 36% insecticides, 17% are fungicides

and about 1% rodenticides; at least 10% of this appears in water sources infection infections

caused by contaminated water amount worldwide to some five million cases yearly. In

industrially developed countries, there is in the environment an elevated level of metal ions.

Different inorganic substances and ions have various positive and negative infections, the

metabolisms or organisms for instance, magnesium ions are involved in many cellular functions

like glycolysis, respiration and stability of ribosomers, manganese ions are important for the

activation of enzymes involved with adenine nucleotides

Heavy metals are harmful even in their lowest concentration. In a more complicated state,

mutation could be suspected as was proved by (Zelibor et al, 1987) that metal are not degradable;

consequently they accumulate in the biological system resulting in chronic damage. (Yermelor et

al, 1975) believes that even in the case of a complete ban on production in all mercury plants,

water would be polluted by this agent for a prolonged period of time.

6
2.1 SOURCES OF WATER

Naturally occurring water exist in three main sources

 Rain water

 Surface water

 Ground water

Rain water

Rain water is naturally the purest source of water but as it gets down it absorbs compounds from

the atmosphere. It’s main components are chloride, nitrate, sulphate, sodium, potassium and

ammonium. The concentration can vary from roofs and prepared water. Shades which could

assist in polluting and making it one of the unfit sources of water for drinking. It is naturally the

purest because it is formed by condensation of water vapor in the atmosphere.

Surface water

It includes streams, ponds and lakes. Its main ionic compounds include chloride, nitrates,

sulfates, magnesium and calcium concentration in different surface water contain humic

substances. The concentration of components here are more than those in rain water and ground

water, sea water could be considered as surface water. The sort contents in it is so much that it

cannot be used as drinking water because it could take the body a lot of work to flush out excess

salt before usage for metabolism. It is also inadequate in machinery used as it’s nest machine, it

kills more crops for frequently carries suspended solid

7
Ground water

Ground water may be defined as the water in the ground that will move or drain freely by

gravity. Water beneath the surface where all the voids in the rocks and soils are filled. Ground

water is the source of water from wells/ boreholes and springs.

They are said to emanate from the melting of meteoric water into the ground, they have served as

source of domestic water supply. It offers cheap, purer supply. The main ionic components are

nitrates, chloride, sulfate, potassium, magnesium, sodium and calcium. This includes the natural

spring, wells, and boreholes flows unsteady and non uniform. As it’s peculate into the earth, it is

subjected to some purifying actions by numerous chains and impervious rock strata/layers

because of the disintegrating and dissolving power of water, it dissolves some of the rock which

makes up the earth layer making it to have impurities like oxides, nitrates, sulfate, calcium, iron

and magnesium, some level purify, shaft, springs, boreholes. Spring water has very little

impurities like dust and bacteria.

2.2 Uses of Water

This uses of water can be over emphasized used in virtually every area of life. it is vital to the

production and processing of petroleum.

Major uses of water are as follows

 Cooling processing boiler

 Washing, bathing and laundering

 General cleaning of household properties like windows, cars, walls, floors e.t.c.

8
  Heating and air conditioning

 Solvent for polar substances

 Watering of plants, lawns irrigation

 Fire fighting, fisheries, transportation

 Removal of offensive and dangerous waste from household

 Used in laboratories for preparation of reagents

Parameters Determination in Water Analysis

Physical Test

 Color

 Odor/taste

 Temperature

 Turbidity

Chemical Test

 pH and electrical conductivity

 Dissolved oxygen

 Alkalinity

 Total hardness

 Chloride

 Metal ion (lead, copper, zinc, iron, manganese)

 Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)

 Total dissolved solid

9
 Table 2.1

World Health Organization, WHO Standard for Portable Water

PARAMETERS UNITS LIMIT METHODS

Colour 15 Colorimetric

Taste Tasteless Organoleptic

Odour Odourless Organoleptic

Ph 6.5-8.5 Electrometric

Turbidity FTU 5 Turbidity

Alkalinity mg/l 500

Iron total Mg Fe/l 0.3 ASS

Lead Mg Pb/l 0.01-0.05 ASS

Zinc Mg Zn/l 5.0 ASS

Manganese Mg Mn/l 0.1 ASS

Chloride Mg Cl/l 250 Argeritometric

Total dissolved solid Mg/l 1500 Winkler’s

Total hardness Mg/l 500 Winkler’s

Dissolved oxygen Mg/l NS DO meter

Dissolved solid Mg/l 1000

10 Gravimetric
2. Conceptual Framework of the Study

11
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Materials

Apparatus

 Volumetric flask

 Beaker

 Measuring cylinder

 Conical flask

 Atomic Absorption spectrophotometer (ASS) Model 3110 as described in

APHA/AWWA 1985

 Thermometer from 0.01° c to 100°𝑐

 Wide mouth glass stopper bottle

 Desiccators

 Spatula

 Pipette

 Burette

 Turbid meter

 PH meter

 Glass electrode

12
Reagent Used

Sodium acetate, arsenic, hydroxylamine hydro chloride, EDTA, HN03, Ammonia, Potassium

Periodate, NaOH, Conc. H2SO4 .

3.2 Procedure for Sample Collection

I collected 9 well water samples from different locations in Madonna University Elele, namely

borehole located along welding department, borehole along pilgrim center, borehole in the

Triumph factory. A 250 ml capacity borosilicate glass sample bottle for chemical analysis was

washed with detergent concentrated HNO3 and rinsed with distilled water severally. At each

sampling site, the sampling bottle was rinsed thrice before taking samples. Composite well water

samples as collected from three major areas from the University as said earlier and information

on data time, temperature about sample collected was recorded on labels. Spacing between

sample collections in a given area will be about 500meters. Well water sample was collected

with 2 liter plastic hydro bios water sampler and kept in the laboratory refrigerator at 40°𝑐 prior

to analysis. The treatment after sampling depends largely on the type of analysis for elemental

analysis such as alkaline earth and trace metal, conc. HNO3 of high purity was added to the

sample to obtain pH less than 2. This technique stabilizes the samples, maintained the oxidation

state of the elements, discouraging precipitation metal and prevented metal from adhering to the

containers.

13
3.3 Methods

I analyzed for odor, taste and color with a sensory organs. Total dissolved solid and total solid

will be estimated by gravimetric method, turbidity will be measured by nephelo metric method,

temperature will be measured using a mercury thermometer while pH was done using a Philip

model PW 9418 PH meter after the meter has been duly calibrated with standard buffer of pH

4.0, 7.0, and 9.0 (Ademoroli, 1996) conductivity measurement was done using conductivity

meter model NATOP-PBS while acidity, alkalinity and total hardness will be done by titrimetry.

Chloride will be done by Mohr’s method and dissolved oxygen will be determined by Winkler’s

iodometric method. Also biochemical oxygen demand will be determined by Winkler’s method

heavy metals such as (Fe, Pb, Zn, Cu,) will be analyzed by Perkins-Elmer, S 3110 Boston ASS.

All results obtained will be subjected and referred to a statistical analysis and presented in

tabular form and be matched/compared against W.H.O standard for drinking water. The

following parameters are as follows.

3.3.1 pH and Electrical Conductivity

A Philip analog pH meter was used to determine the pH of all samples. While the electrical

conductivity was determined using a conductivity meter of the grochek type of HI 9813 model,

both PH and electrical conductivity were determined according to (Egereomu and Ibeh, 2003) .

3.3.2Total dissolved solid

This was accomplished by the evaporation method. Evaporation dish was weighed and later

100cm³ of the water sample was introduced into the weighed dish and dried in an oven

maintained at 103°𝑐 for 1 hour. After drying it was transferred to a desiccators and allowed to

14
cool. The dish was finally weighed with it’s contents. The difference in weight to obtain the

weight of the total dissolved solid. (Franson, 1975) and (IIPA, 1970)

3.3.3 Temperature

The temperature of the three water samples was determined using the mercury-in- glass

thermometer st the site of collection (W.H.O, 1984)

3.3.4 Alkalinity

50ml of the water was pipette into a 250ml conical flask and 3 drops of methyl orange alkalinity

added and swirled. The solution was titrated with standard H2SO4 solution to a colourless end

point. The titral value were recorded as total alkalinity sample and the alkalinity calculated from

the formular (Lacey, 1982) and (Vogel, 1984)

Alkalinity (mgl-1) = titral value x molarity x 100

Volume of sample

3.3.5 Total Hardness

PROCEDURE: 50 ml of water introduced into a beaker and 1 ml solution of NH3. 3 drops of

solochrome black T indicator was also added and the solution stirred. The mixture was titrated

with 0.01m EDTA solution until the colour changed from wine red to pure blue with no reddish

tinge remaining. The total hardness of the water sample was calculated by the expression

Total hardness (mg/CaCO3/MgCO3) = Vol. of titrant X 100

Vol. of sample (cm3)

15
For the determination of calcium hardness, 100 ml of water sample was introduced into a beaker

and 1 ml of NaOH buffer added. 3 drops of mirazine indicator were added to the solution and

stirred. The mixture was again titrated with standard 0.01N MEDTA solution until a colour

change from light red to deep red as the end point. The calcium hardness of water was calculated

as: Calcium Hardness = Vol. of titrant X 100

Vol. of sample (cm3)

The difference between the total hardness of water and the calcium hardness of water was

regarded as the magnesium hardness (Lacey, 1982)

3.3.6 Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Dissolved Oxygen was measured with DO meter. Jenwey Model 9071 according to

APHA/AWWA (1985)

3.3.7 Chloride Content

PROCEDURE: 100ml of water was measured into the conical flask. PH of the water was

adjusted to 8.0 using sodium hydroxide solution.10ml of potassium chromate was added to the

solution. the mixture was then titrated with 0.014M AgNO3 solution until the colour changed

from colourless to pinkish yellow is the end point . A blank of 0.02cm3 pure water was used for

the titration. Hatch water Analysis Handbook (1983)

Titre value =value of titrant – titre value of blank

16
3.3.8 Metal ion Determination

PROCEDURE: Determination of metallic ion(i.e. Fe, Pb, Zn, Cu) was done using the Perkins

Elmer (ASS) model 3110 as describe in APHA/AWWA 1985 atomic absorption

spectrophotometer of Fe, Pb, Zn, and Cu were determined by Atomic Absorption

Spectrophotometer technique. Stock solution from which working standards were prepared by

serial dilution was prepared as reported by Hatch water Analysis (1983). Standard graphs for the

detection of the elements were prepared according to (Enegeronu and ibeo, 2003) and standard

Methods for the Examination of water and wastewater by (Fanson, 1975)

3.3.9 Water Appearance Determination

PROCEDURE: This was determined by looking at each of the water samples closely by direct

contact to see if there were colloids or clear

3.3.10 Colour Determination

PROCEDURE: Distilled water was put into one of the glass tubes and one of the water samples

was put into the other (glass tube), the reading was taken by placing the disc over the end of the

tube containing distilled water.3 drops of methyl orange indicator was also added and it was

titrated against 0.1N HCl, the colour at the end-point was pale pink and the volume of 0.1N HCl

used in each case was noted.

3.3.11 Odor and Taste Determination

PROCEDURE: A wide-mouth glass-stopped bottle was rinsed internally and externally using

4M HCl acid until it was completely odorless. Then, it was finally rinsed with distilled water.

The bottle was filled with the sample half-way, the stopper was inserted and was shaken-

17
vigorously for 2 or 3 seconds, after which the stopper was quickly removed and the odor of

sample was observed by bringing the bottle close to the nostrils. This procedure was applied for

the remaining sample.

For the taste determination, the beakers were rinsed as described for odour above, then each of

the samples were poured into the beakers as soon as it was collected and the taste was noted.

3.3.12 Turbidity

PROCEDURE: After all the apparatus had been washed dried, the water samples which have

earlier been put in the conical flask were taken to the turbid meter for analysis. The curette was

rinsed thoroughly with the corresponding water samples to be tested and it was filled with the

sample up to the mark. It was handled with clean cloth. The curette was thoroughly dried and

cleaned to make sure no water or dirt was on it and it was put into the turbid meter. The sample

has to be left in the measurement until the value appearing on the screen is stable and is then

recorded. This procedure was done for the remaining water samples

18
3.4. Results

Table 3.1 Determination of Alkalinity

SAMPLES TITRE VALUES AMOUNT OF ACID IN

Mg/L
(CM³)

A 0.42 26.00

B 0.45 27.45

C 0.50 31.00

Calculation:

Formula =Titre value × Normality of Acid × mol wt of HCO3 × 1000

100(vol. Of sample used)

Mol. Wt of HCO3 = 61, Normality = 0.1

19
 Table 3.2

Determination of Total Dissolved Solids

SAMPLES WEIGHT OF WEIGHT OF WEIGHT OF % OF

EMPTY BEAKER SAMPLE DISSOLVED
BEAKER (g)+SAMPLE AFTER SOLID
(g) AFTER HEATING PRESENT
HEATING (g)
A 61.101 61.110 0.009 0.018

B 62.103 62.111 0.008 0.016

𝐂 51.539 51.540 0.001 0.002

Calculation: 𝑥 − 𝑦 × 100

z 1

Where x= weight of beaker after heating

y = weight of beaker before heating

z = volume of sample used

20
Table 3.3 Determination of Dissolved Oxygen

SAMPLES INITIAL VALUE FINAL VALUE AMOUNT OF

(CM³) (CM³) DISOLVED
OXYGEN (Mg/L)

A 0.00 0.00 0.00

B 0.00 0.00 0.00

C 0.00 0.00 0.00

Formular = Titre value ×0.08 × 100

Where 1ml of 0.01M Sodium thiosulphate indicates 0.08mg O2

pH

A= 6.4, B= 6.5, C= 6.8

Table 3.4 Determination of Chloride present

SAMPLES INITIAL VALUE FINAL VALUE AMOUNT OF

(CM³) (CM³) CHLORIDE
PRESENT (Mg/L)

A 0.00 0.23 16.33

B 0.00 0.13 4.24

C 0.00 0.30 21.3

Formular = titre value × Normality (AgNO3) × At. Wt of chloride × 1000

21
 Volume of Sample used

Normality = 0.1

Vol. Of sample = 50

At wt. Of chloride = 35.5

Table 3.5 Determination of Iron present

SAMPLES INITIAL FINAL VALUE CONC OF Fe AMOUNT OF

VALUE Fe PRESENT
(Mg/L)

A 0.00 0.002 0.1× 10-3 0.2

B 0.00 0.002 0.1× 10-3 0.2

C 0.00 0.005 0.15×10-3 0.3

Formular = Concentration × 20 × 1000

Volume of the sample used (10)

22
Table 3.6 Determination of Lead present

SAMPLE INITIALS FINAL CONC. OF AMOUNT OF

LEAD LEAD
PRESENT(Mg/l)

A 0.00 0.00 ND 0.30

B 0.00 0.00 ND 0.18

C 0.00 0.00 ND 0.18

23
Table 3.7 Determination of Manganese present

SAMPLES INITIAL FINAL VALUE CONC OF Mn AMOUNT OF

VALUE Mn PRESENT
(Mg/L)

A 0.00 0.000 NIL

B 0.00 0.000 NIL

C 0.00 0.000 NIL

24
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Findings

Table 4.1

Overall results of the Physiochemical Analysis of the Samples Compared with Standards

PARAMETERS UNITS SON WHO SAMPLE SAMPLE SAMPLE %

A B C DEVIATION

Temperature Centigrade 25-30°𝑐 25-30°𝑐 25°𝑐 27°𝑐 26°𝑐

Water __ __ Clear Clear Clear Clear

appearance
Colour Hazen 14 15 Colourless Colourless Colourless

Odour __ __ __ Odourless Odourless Odourless

Taste __ __ __ Tasteless Tasteless Tasteless

PH __ 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5 6.4 6.5 6.8

Alkalinity Mg/l 100-500 100-500 26.00 27.00 31.00

Dissolved Mg O2/l NS NS 0.00 0.00 0.00

Oxygen
Manganese Mg/l 0.5 0.5 __ __ __

Lead Mg/l 0.1 0.01 0.30 0.18 0.18

Iron Mg/l 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3

Total Dissolved Percentage 1200 1500 0.018 0.016 0.002

Solid
Chloride Mg/l 200 250 16.33 4.24 21.3

25
4.2 Discussion

Results therefore indicate multiple pollution potententials for most produce water parameters.

Despite the existence of produced water treatment measures government need to improve in

order to minimize pollution danger due to elemental contamination of the inland water to which

they discharge produced water (verla et al, (2007) accessed the physiochemical characteristics of

the produced water during crude oil processing and highlighted the public health implications.

Result showed gross population of surface water when discharged into water bodies or land the

effect of petroleum produced water could abet the bioaccumulation of heavy metals, toxic effect,

staining of discharge sites to detrimental biolological effect on plants, aquatic life and man.

(Bailey et al, 2000) produce encrustation of land by water bodies to which it is discharged.

(Egereonu, 2005)

26
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion

From the result of the analysis tabulated from in the table II which is the comparison of the result

samples with WHO standard, the physical parameters-odor, taste, temperature, color and water

appearance of the whole sample A, B, and C where odorless, colourless, tasteless and clear at room

temperature.

The result on the chemical parameters determined on all the sample showed that lead was slightly

higher than the WHO standard for all the samples (A, B, C). The concentration of lead in sample A, B, C

is 0.30, 0.18, 0.18 respectively, while that of the W.H.O standard is 0.01. The difference though little,

should not be dismissed with a wave of the hand, as continuous intake of this quality will eventually pose

danger to the human body. The other parameters determined were seen to fall within the range

propagated by W.H.O. The lead (Pb) concentration and other concentration of other parameter

studied in sample A were seen to be higher when compared with the result of the other samples

because is connected with pipe made of lead.

Out of the analyzed samples, sample B and C gave better results because they were

connected with iron pipe.

27
5.2 Recommendation

The following recommendation is made from this report

- There should be a regular analysis of the water sources to monitor pollution rate at all

time.

- The people living in this area (Elele Madonna) should be enlightened on proper waste disposal

to avoid contamination of water.

- In case of treatment of water when taking, they should use easiest method of treatment which

is boiling process (boiling the water above 100c). This will increase its portability and also saves

more lives.

- In case of borehole drilling. People in this area (Elele Madonna) should avoid constructing of

borehole near soak away pit because of contamination.

- Borehole should not be constructed with lead pipe to avoid dangers pose to human body.

28
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