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Chapter 1
Characteristics of Instruments
and Measurement Systems

Measurements of instrument. Linearity is the most

important parameter compared to all other
Measurement is a process by which one
parameters.
can convert physical parameters to
meaningful numbers. The measuring Remember : ……………………………………………………..
process is one in which the property of an
• Linearity is more important than the
object or system under consideration is
sensitivity.
compared to an accepted standard unit, a
• Accuracy is more important than
standard defined for that particular
resolution.
property.
6. Dead Zone
Static Characteristics
It is the largest change of input quantity
1. Accuracy
for which there is no output of the
It is the closeness with which an
instrument.
instrument reading approaches the true
value of the quantity being measured. 7. Dead time
2. Precision
Time required by an instrument to begin to
It is a measure of the reproducibility of the respond to the change in a measurand.
measurements. It is a measure of degree
of agreement within a group of
measurements.

Remember :

• Precision is not the guarantee of

accuracy.
• An instrument with more significant
figure has more precision.
3. Sensitivity
It is the ratio of the magnitude of output
signal to the magnitude of input signal 8. Range and Span
applied to the instrument. The difference between the maximum and
Output minimum values of the scale is called
Sensitivity =
Input range. The maximum value of the scale is
Note : …………………………………………………………… called span.
• An instrument requires high degree of Errors
sensitivity. Error = Measured value − True value
1 Error = Accuracy
• Sensitivity 
Deflection factor • Static Error
 A = Am − At
4. Resolution
where,
The smallest change in input which can be Am = Measured value of quantity or Actual
detected with certainity by an instrument is value
its resolution.
At = True value of quantity or Nominal
5. Linearity value
Relative static error
The output is linearly proportional to the
input. For a linear instrument the A
r =
sensitivity is constant for the entire range At

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Static correction where, x1, x2,...., xn = Readings or samples

 C = At − Am = − A n = Number of readings
Static sensitivity Deviation
q0 dn = xn − X
Static sensitivity =
qi Note : ……………………………………………………………….
Where, Algebraic sum of deviation is zero.
∆q0 = Infinitesimal change in output ………………………………………………………………………….
∆qi = Infinitesimal change in input Average deviation
 | d | | d1 | + | d2 | +.... | dn |
Non-linearity (N.L.) D= =
n n
 Max.deviation of output from  Standard deviation
 
the idealized straight line For n > 20
N.L. =    100
Full scale deflection
d2 d12 + d22 + .... + dn2
Error at desired value = S.D. =  = =
n n
Full scale value  Error at full scale
For n < 20
Desired value
d2
Combination of Quantities with Limiting Errors S.D. = s =
n −1
Sum or Difference of Two or More than Two
Variance
Quantities
For n > 20
Let X = ± X1 ± X2 ± X3 ± X4
d2
V = 2 =
n
Where
± δX1 = Relative increment in quantity X1 For n < 20
± δX2 = Relative increment in quantity X2 d2
V = s2 =
± δX = Relative increment in X n −1

 x1 Normal or Gausian Curve of Errors

= Relative limiting error in quantity X1 1. For Infinite Numbers of Reading
x1
1
 x2
= Relative limiting error in quantity X2
y=
 2
(
exp −x2 / 2 2 )
x2
X
= Relative limiting error in X
X
Product or Quotient of Two or More than two
Quantities
x1
Let X = x1 x2 x3 or X= or
x2 x3
1
X=
x1 x2 x3

X x  x2  x3 
=   1 + + 
X x
 1 x2 x3  Where,
x = magnitude of deviation from mean,
Composite Factors
y = number of readings at any deviation x,
Let X = x1n .xm
2 (the probability of occurance of deviation
X  x x  x)
=  n 1 + m 2 
X  x1 x2  σ = standard deviation
Precision Index
Arithmetic Mean
1
x x1 + x2 + ... + xn h=
X= =  2
n n

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Probable error (P.E.)  X  2

2
 X  2
2
 X  2
2

0.4769 wx =   wx1 +   wx2 + ... +   wxn

r =  x1   x2   xn 
h
Where, wX , wX ,....wX = Uncertainties of x1,
Average deviation 1 2 n

r 1 x2, …., xn
D= =
0.8453  h2 Order of Instrument
Standard deviation
1. Zero Order System
r 1
 = = As input changes, output also changes
0.6745 h 2
immediately called zero order system.
P.E. = r = 0.8453 D = 0.6745 
Example : Resistor.
2. For Finite Numbers of Reading
2. First Order System
For n > 20
 | d |2 As input changes, output also changes but
P.E. = r = 0.6745 not immediately, it takes some delay but
n
without oscillation. Example : heater.
For n < 20
 | d |2
P.E. = r = 0.6745
n −1
Standard deviation of mean

m =
n 3. Second Order system
Standard deviation of standard deviation
As input changes, output also changes,
m with some delay and oscillation.
 =
2
Variance of combination of components
Let X = f(x1, x2, …., n)
2 2 2
 X   X   X 
Vx =   Vx1 +   Vx2 + .... +   Vxn
 x1   x2   xn  Remember : ……………………………………………………..
Where, The analog instruments are of second order
instrument which has damping factor (ξ)
Vx1 , Vx2 ,....Vxb = Variance of x1, x2,....xn
between 0.6 to 0.8. It is an underdamped
Standard Deviation of Combination of system.
Components …………………………………………………………………………....
Let X = f(X1, X2, ……., Xn) Standards
2 2 2
 X  2  X  2  X  2 Quantity Unit Definition
x =    x1 +    x2 + .... +    xn Length Metre The length of path travelled by light
 x1   x2   xn 
1
Where,  X ,  X ,......,  X = Standard in an interval of sec.
1 2 n 299792458
deviation of x1, x2, …., xn 9.192631770 × 109 cycles of
Time Second
radiation from vapourised cesium-133
Probable Error of Combination of atom.
Components The temperature difference between
Temp. Kelvin the absolute and the triple point of
Let X = f(X1, X2, ……., Xn)
water is defined as 273.16oK.
2 2 2
 X  2  X  2  X  2 Standard cell voltage of Weston cell
rx =   rx1 +   rx2 + .... +   rxn Voltage Volt i..e 1.0186 V.
x
 1 x
 2  xn  One ampere is the current flowing
Current Ampere through two infinite long parallel
Where, rX1 ,rX2 ,......rXn = Probable error of
conductor of negligible cross section
x1, x2, …., xn placed 1 meter apart produced a
force of 2 × 10-7 N/m.
Uncertainty of Combination of Components
Let X = f(X1, X2, ……., Xn)

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Chapter 2
Circuit Components
(Resistors, Inductors, Capacitors)

Frequency Errors in Resistors 1. Parallel Representation

(Equivalent circuit of a resistor at low and

medium frequencies) Dielectric loss
Effective resistance PL =  CP V2 tan 
R Dissipation factor
R eff =
(
1 + 2C CR2 − 2L ) 1
D = tan  =
Effective inductance or residual inductance  CP R P
L − CR 2 Where, δ = loss angle of the capacitor.
L eff =
(
1 +  2C CR 2 − 2L ) 2. Series Representation

tan  =
Xeff
=
L eff  L − CR
=
2
( L 
=   − CR 
)
R eff R eff R R 
Where, ϕ = Phase deflection angle
Time constant

Condition for resistance to remain Dielectric loss

independent of frequency l2
2 PL = tan 
CR = 2L  Cs
Condition for resistance to show no Dissipation factor
inductive effect
D = tan  =  Cs rs
CR2 = L
Frequency Errors in Capacitors
Effective resistance for zero effective
inductance
R
R eff =
1 −  2LC
Quality factor
L
Q=
R
Effective capacitance
Frequency Errors in Inductors
C
Ceff =
Effective resistance 1 −  2LC
R
R eff 1. For Medium Frequency
(1 −  LC )
2
2

Effective capacitance
Effective inductance
(
Ceff = C 1 + 2LC )
(
Leff = L 1 + 2LC )
Effective series resistance
R
Capacitor R eff = r +
1 +  2R 2C2

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Where, r = resistance of load Effective series resistance

Loss angle R
R eff =
1 −  2LC 1 +  2 C2 R 2
tan  =
1 Loss angle
r +
 CR 1
tan  =  Cr +
2. For Law Frequency  CR
Effective capacitance
1
Ceff = C +
 2 CR2
Chapter 3
Galvanometers
D’Arsonval Galvanometer θ = deflection at any time t; rad.
Damping torque
d
TD = D
dt
Where, D = damping constant
Controlling torque
Deflecting torque TC = K 
Td = BiNA = Gi Where, K = control constant
Where, Deflecting Torque
B = Flux density in air gap; Wb/m2 Td = Gi
i = Current through moving coil; A Equation of motion
N = Number of turns in coil Tj + TD + TC = Td
A = ld = Area of coil; m2
d2 Dd
l, d = Length of vertical and horizontal side J + + K = Gi
dt2 dt
(width) of coil
Note : …………………………………………………………………
A = ld = Area of coil; m2
If D2 < 4 kJ, galvanometer is under-
l, d = Length of vertical and horizontal side
damped.
(width) of coil respectively; m
If D2 = 4 kJ, galvanometer is critically
G = Displacement constant of
damped.
galvanometer
If D2 > 4 kJ, galvanometer is over-
Controlling torque
damped.
Tc = K f
……………………………………………………………………………
Where, Total resistance of galvanometer circuit for
K = Spring constant of suspension; Nm/rad critical damping
θf = Final steady deflection of moving coil; G2
rad R =
2 KJ
Final steady deflection
External series resistance required for
 NBA  G critical damping
f =  i =  i
 K  K
G2
Dynamic behaviour of Galvonometers Re = R − Rg = − Rg
2 KJ
Torques in Galvonometers
Where, Rg = Resistance of galvanometer
Inertia torque
Sensitivity
d2 Current sensitivity
Tj = J
dt2
f G
Where, Si = = rad/A
i K
J = moment of inertia of moving system
about the axis of rotation; kg-m2,

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d d
Si = scale divisions/μA So = MΩ/scale division
i  106 i  10−6
2000 G Remember : …………………………………………………….
Si = mm/μA
K  106 Sensitive galvanometer is one which
Voltage sensitivity produces a large deflection for a small
current.
d
Sv = scale division/μV ……………………………………………………………………………..
iR g  106
Megohm sensitivity

Chapter 4
Analog Meters
Classification of Analog Meters
Torque in Analog Meter
1. Deflecting Torque (TD)
Deflecting torque is proportional to
quantity under measurement. This torque
deflect the pointer away from initial or zero
position.
TD  Measurable quantity
2. Controlling Torque (TC)
The controlling torque is opposite to
deflecting torque. When, deflecting torque
equals to controlling torque, pointer comes
to final steady state position.
At equilibrium, TC = TD
Note : …………………………………………………………………
Control torque is also used to bring the
pointer in zero initial position, if there is no
deflecting torque.
Except in PMMC, in all other instruments if
the control spring is failed or broken then
pointer moves to the maximum position of
scale.
Control torque is provided by
(i) Spring control
(ii) Gravity control
……………………………………………………………………………
3. Damping Torque
It is used to damp out oscillation at final
steady state position. The time response of
the instrument depends on damping
torque.
Damping torque provided by :
(i) Air friction damping : Used where low
magnetic fields are produced
(ii) Fluid friction damping : Used where
deflecting torque is minimum.
(iii) Eddy current damping : Used where
permanent magnet produces the
required deflecting torque.
Error in Analog Meters
1. Frictional Error
To reduce the frictional error, the torque to
weight ratio of the instrument should be
high.
2. Temperature Error
Due to change in temperature, change in
resistance of meters and shunts and series
multiplier occurs. To reduce this effect,
resistances are made up of manganin
material.
3. Frequency Error
Due to change in frequency, error produce
in instrument because change in frequency
cause change in reactance. To reduce this
error, a capacitance is used in case of
voltmeter and for ammeter, the time
constant and shunt impedances are
maintained at same value.
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC)

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Deflection torque l R
Where, m= =1+ m
TD = nBAl lm R sh
TD = Gl m = Multiplying factor for shunt
Where, Note : ………………………………………………………………….
G = nBA To reduce the temperature effect, swamp
n = Number of turns resistance made up of manganin is added
B = Flux density in series with ammeter.
A = Area of core …………………………………………………………………………….
l = Current to be measured 2. Universal or Ayrton Shunt
Final steady state deflection
G
 =  l
K 
Where, K = Spring constant
Note : ………………………………………………………………..
• PMMC instrument measures only DC or
average values.
• Scale is linear.
• Spring is used for controlling torque.
• Damping torque provided by eddy For switch at a position 1
current damping.
Rm
• It has more, torque to weight ratio so R1 =
accuracy and sensitivity is higher
(m − 1)
compare to other instrument. For switch at a position 2
• In direct measurement, the PMMC
R2 =
(R1 + Rm )
measures upto a current of 50 mA or a m2
voltage of 100 mV, without any
For switch at a position 3
external device.
…………………………………………………………………………….. R3 =
(R1 + Rm )
Enhancement of Ammeters and Voltmeters m3
1. Ammeter Shunts l1 l l
Where, m1 = ,m2 = 2 ,m3 = 3
lm lm lm
3. Voltmeter Multipliers

lsh R sh = lm R m
 R  Multiplying factor for multiplier
l = 1 + m  lm
 R sh  V R
m= =1+ s
Where, V Rm
l = Current to be measured; Resistance of multiplier
lm = lfs = Full scale deflection current; A RS = (m − 1) Rm
Rm = Internal resistance of meter; Ω
Where,
Rsh = Resistance of the shunt; Ω
Rs = Multiplier resistance
Shunt resistance
Rm = Internal resistance of meter
Rm 4. Potential Divider Arrangement
R sh =
m −1

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Shunts for Moving Iron Instruments

R1 = (m1 – 1) Rm
R2 = (m2 – m1) Rm
1 + (L / R )
2
R3 = (m3 – m2) Rm lsh R
=
R4 = (m4 – m3) Rm lm R sh 1 + L / R 2
( sh sh )
Where,
R1 = Resistance between point a and b Multipliers for Moving Iron Instruments
R2 = Resistance between point b and c
R3 = Resistance between point a and d
R4 = Resistance between point d and e
Voltmeter Sensitivity (SV)
1 R s + Rm
SV = =  /V
lfs V
Remember : ………………………………………………………
To reduce loading effect, a voltmeter with
higher value of sensitivity is preferred. Voltage multiplying factor
………………………………………………………………………………
(R + Rs )
2
V + 2L2
Moving Iron Instruments m= =
V R2 + 2L2
Deflecting torque
1 2 dL Errors in Moving Iron Instruments
Td = l
2 d
Deflection
1 l2 dL
 =
2 K d
For linear scale
dL
. = constant
d
Shunt capacitance
Scale is cramped at lower and higher end.
L
Note :………………………………………………………………….. C = 0.41
R 2s
• Moving iron instrument measure both
A.C. and D.C. quantities. Eddy currents
• In case of A.C., it measure RMS value. When ω is small
• Scale is non linear.  2ML el
l'e =
• Controlling torque is provided by spring R2e
and air friction damping is used. When ω is large
dL Ml
• Curve between and θ is l'e = = constant
d Le
rectangular hyperbola.
Where,
……………………………………………………………………………….
Re, Le = resistance and inductance of eddy
current path
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Note : …………………………………………………………………. dM
Td = l1 l2 cos  (Measure RMS value)
• Moving iron instrument is not suitable d
for measurement of current or voltage lm1 lm2
for frequency above 125 Hz because Where, l1 = and l2 =
2 2
eddy current is constant at higher
frequency. Note : ……………………………………………………………………
• If meter time constant is equal to • Electrodynamometer instrument is a
shunt time constant then ammeter is transfer instrument.
made independent of input supply • It measures both A.C. and D.C.
frequency. • Scale is nonlinear.
• The voltmeter is made independent of • Its sensitivity is lesser than PMMC and
input supply frequency by connecting a M.l. type instruments.
capacitor in parallel to the series ……………………………………………………………………………..
multiplier resistance Rs. Ratiometer
• To reduce hysteresis error, the iron
part of moving iron is made up of
Nickel iron alloy.
• To reduce the external stray magnetic
field, the instrument is kept inside the
iron case or iron shielding is done.
………………………………………………………………………………
Electrodynamometer

Deflecting torque acting on coil 1

Td1 = N1Bl1 d1 l1 cos 
Deflecting torque acting on coil 2
Td2 = N2Bl2 d2 l2 cos 
Where,
l1, l2 = current in coil 1 and 2
(a) If i1 and i2 and D.C. current i.e.i1=i2 =l N1, N2 = number of turns in coil 1 and 2
dM l2, l2 = length of coil 1 and 2
Td = l2 (Measure average value)
d d1, d2 = width of coil 1 and 2
(b) If i1 and i2 are A.C. current and no B = flux density of magnetic field
phase shift Deflection at equilibrium
i1 = i2 = l l 
dM  = k 1 
 l2 
2
Td = l (Measure RMS value)
d
(c) If i1 = lm1 sin ωt and i2 = im2 sin (ωt - ϕ)
Chapter 5
Instrument Transformers
Ratios of Instrument Transformers For potential transformer (P.T.)
1. Transformation Ratio (R) primary winding voltage
R=
It is the ratio of the magnitude of the secondary winding voltage
primary phasor to the secondary phasor. 2. Nominal Ratio (Kn)
primary phasor It is the ratio of rated primary winding
R =
secondary phasor current (or voltage) to the rated secondary
winding current (or voltage).
For current transformer (C.T.)
For C.T.
primary winding current
R= rated primary winding current
secondary winding current Kn =
rated secondary winding current
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For P.T.
rated primary winding voltage
Kn =
rated secondary winding voltage
3. Turns Ratio (n)
For C.T.
number of turns of secondary winding
n=
number of turns of primary winding
For P.T.
number of turns of primary winding
n=
number of turns of secondary winding
4. Ratio Correction Factor
R
RCF =
Kn Transformation ratio
Remember : ………………………………………………………. lp lo
R = n+ sin ( +  )
The ratio marked on the transformers is ls ls
their nominal ratio.
R n+
(lm sin  + le cos  )
……………………………………………………………………………… ls
Current Transformer 
le l 
Equivalent Circuit R n+ n 1 + e 
ls  lp 

Where, lm = lo cos α
le = lo sin α
Phase angle
180  lm cos  − le sin  
   degree
  nls 
Where,
rs, xs = resistance, reactance of secondary 180 lm
 degree
winding  lp
re, xe = resistance, reactance of external Ratio error
burden nominal ratio (Kn ) − actual ratio (R )
Ep, Es = primary and secondary winding Ratio error =
actual ratio (R )
induced voltage
Remember :……………………………………………………….
Np, Ns = number of primary and secondary
winding turns • The primary current of C.T. is
depending on load connected to system
lp, ls = primary and secondary winding
but it is not depending secondary
current
winding burden.
ϕ = primary and secondary winding current
• Primary winding is single turn or bar
θ = phase angle of transformer
winding and secondary has more
δ = angle between secondary winding
number of turns to reduce the current
induced voltage and secondary winding
at secondary.
current
• If primary current is very high, it
∆ = phase angle of secondary winding load
causes reduction in ratio error and
circuit
phase angle error. So to increase value
l0 = exciting current of primary current the primary is
lm = magnetizing component of exciting maintain with single turn.
current • The secondary number of turns are
le = loss component of exciting current reduce by 1 or 2 turns then the ratio
α = angle between exciting current and flux error reduces.
Phasor Diagram ……………………………………………………………………………..

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Potential transformer • Strip wound core is used to reduce

Actual transformation (voltage) ratio ratio error and phase angle error.
ls ………………………………………………………………………….
R p cos  + Xp sin   + le rp + lm xp
Application of C.T. and P.T.
R =n+ n
Vs • Multiple operation with a single device.
Phase angle • Higher current and higher voltages are
l x −l r step down to lower current and lower
ls
 =
Vs
( Xs cos  − R s sin  ) + e p m p rad.
nVs
voltage so that metering is easier.
• Measuring circuit is isolated from the
Note : ……………………………………………………………… power circuit.
• C.T. never operates with secondary • Low power consumption.
winding open but P.T. can be operated • Replacement is easier.
with secondary winding open.
Chapter 6
Measurement of Power and Wattmeters
Measurement of Power p = vi = Vm lm sin t  sin (t −  )
1. D.C. Circuits
Where, v = Vm sin ωt
Ammeter connected between load and
i = lm sin (ωt - ϕ)
voltmeter
Average power
Vm lm
P = Vl cos  = cos 
2
Where,
V, l = Rms values of voltage and current
cosϕ = Power factor of the load
m
Let v = Vo + V n sin (n t + n ) and
n = 1
Power consumed by load :
m
P = Vl − l2 R a i = lo + l n sin (n t + n ) then
n = 1
Where,
1 m
V = Voltage across voltmeter Pavg. = Vo lo +  Vn ln cos n − n 
2n=1
l = Current through ammeter
Ra = Resistance of ammeter
Voltmeter connected between load and Remember : ………………………………………………………
ammeter Wattmeter reads average active power.
…………………………………………………………………………….
Electrodynamometer Wattmeter

Power consumed by load :

V2
P = Vl −
RV
Where, Instantaneous torque
V = Voltage across voltmeter  dM 
Ti = i1 i2  
l = Current through ammeter  d 
RV = Resistance of voltmeter where, i1, i2 = instantaneous value of
2. A.C. Circuits current in pressure and current coils
Instantaneous power

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Deflecting torque Power in Poly-Phase Systems

Vl dM Blondel’s Theorem
Td = cos  .
Rp d If a network is supplied through n
conductors, the total power is measured by
Where,
summing the reading of n wattmeters so
Rp = resistance of pressure coil circuit
arranged that a current element of a
Controlling torque wattmeter is in each line and the
Tc = K corresponding voltage element is
Where, K = spring constant connected between that line and a
θ = final steady deflection common point, if the common point is
Deflection located on one of the lines, then the power
may be measured by (n – 1) wattmeters.
 dM 
 =  K1 P Two wattmeter method
 d 
Where,
P = power being measured = Vl cos ϕ
1
K1 =
Rp K
Note : ………………………………………………………………..
Scale is linear in terms of power as θ ∞ P.
…………………………………………………………………………….
Reading of P1 wattmeter
Errors in Electrodynamometer Wattmeters
Correction fActor (K) (
P1 = 3 Vl cos 30o −  )
The correction factor is a factor by which Reading of P2 wattmeter
the actual wattmeter reading is multiplied
to get the true power.
(
P2 = 3 Vl cos 30o +  )
For lagging power factor Total power consumed by load
cos  P = P1 + P2
K= Power factor
cos  cos ( −  )
  P − P2  
For leading power factor cos  = cos tan−1  3 1 
  P1 + P2  
cos 
K=
cos  cos ( +  ) tan  = 3 1
P − P2
P1 + P2
Where,
ϕ = Angle between current in the current Where,
coil and voltage of pressure coil V = Phase voltage
β = Angle between current and voltage of l = Phase current
pressure coil ϕ = Angle between phase current and
True power = Correction factor × actual phase voltage
wattmeter reading Reading of wattmeter at Different Power Factor
For β very small S. ϕ cos ϕ P1 P2 P = P1 Commen
No + P2 t
Actual wattmeter reading = true power (1
.
+ tan ϕ tan β) 1. 0 1 P1 = P2
3 3 3 VLlL
Error = tan ϕ tan β × true power = Vl sin ϕ 2 LL
Vl
2 LL
Vl
(equal
1.5 VLlL
tan β 2. 30 0.86 VLlL VLlL reading)
o 3
6 2 Vl P1 = 2P2
%error = tan ϕ tan β × 100 3 2 LL
3. Vl 0
True power = Vl cos ϕ 2 LL 0
60 0.5 VLlL Vl P2 = 0,
+ − LL
Where, 4.
o
2 2 P2 = P
V = Voltage applied to pressure coil 0
90 P1 = - P 2
l = Current in current coil o

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Note : ………………………………………………………………… t = Time in hrs.

When wattmeter reading comes into
negative, reverse either P.C. or C.C. Revolution of disc due
terminal and then take the reading of to creeping per hour
% Creeping Error =  100
negative wattmeter. Revolution of disc due
…………………………………………………………………………… to total load per hour
Measurement of Energy
For the measurement of energy, we use Remember : ……………………………………………………….
energy meter. Energy meter is an Potential coil of energy meter should be
integrating instrument which adds the highly inductive so that it measures true
energy cumulatively over a period of time. energy.
Energy = Power  time …………………………………………………………………………….`
t
Energy =  P  dt kWhr
0

Note : ………………………………………………………………… Compensation in Energy Meter

• Energy meter works on principle of 1. Lag compensation : Through lag coil or
induction motor. shading coil.
• The meter which measure A.C. energy 2. Low load or friction adjustment : By
is called watt hour meter. using shading loop.
• The meter which measure D.C. energy 3. Over friction or creeping : By providing
is called amp-hour meter. holes or slots on rotating disc.
…………………………………………………………………………… 4. Over load compensation : By keeping
Deflection torque saturable shunt magnet in series
magnet or current coil.
TD  P
5. Over voltage compensation : By
Breaking torque keeping saturable shunt magnet in
TB  N shunt magnet.
Where, N = Speed of disc in rps 6. Temperature compensation : By
At balance making permanent magnet of
Td = TB “mutemp” material.
7. Speed adjustment : By adjusting
 P  dt = K N  dt position of break magnet.
Energy   N  dt Remember : ………………………………………………………
Creeping error is always positive.
Energy meter constant (EMC)
If either potential coil or current coil is
Number of revolution made by disc
EMC = wrongly connected then the disc rotates in
Energy recorded in kWhr.
opposite direction.
Where, P = Power in kW ……………………………………………………………………………..

Chapter 7
Measurement of Resistance
Classification of Resistance 3. High resistance : All resistances of the
1. Low resistance : All resistance of the order order of 0.1 MΩ and above.
of 1 Ω and below. Example : Insulation of electrical cable and
Example : Winding coils of electrical windings, insulation of motors, generators
motors, generators and transformers. and transformers.
2. Medium resistance : Resistances form 1 Ω Measurement of Medium Resistance
upwards to about 0.1 MΩ. The different methods employed are :
Example : Resistance of heaters, (i) Ammeter – voltmeter method
potentiometers. (ii) Wheatstone bridge method
(iii) Ohmmeter method

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(iv) Substitution method Relative error

1. Ammeter Voltmeter Method Rm2 − R −R2m2
r = = [ R v  Rm2 ]
voltmeter reading V R R vR
Rm = =
ammeter reading l Approximate relative error
Where, Rm = measured value of resistance R
= − For R m  R 
(a) Circuit for higher resistance Rv  2 

• This circuit is suitable for measurement

of low resistance under medium scale
range to get minimum error.
Note : ………………………………………………………………….
Relative errors for above two cases are
equal when true value of resistance,
R = Ra Rv
True value of resistance …………………………………………………………………………….
R = R m1 − R a 2. Wheatstone Bridge
 R 
R m = R m1 1 − a 
 R m1 
 
Where,
Rm = = Measured value of resistance
1

Ra = Resistance of ammeter
Relative error
Rm1 − R Ra
r = =
R R
To get minimum error, the test resistance At balance
should be more than the ammeter P
R =S
resistance so that this adjustment is Q
suitable for measurement of high Sensitivity of Wheatstone bridge
resistance.
 SVESR
(b) Circuit for lower resistance SB = = ;mm
(R + S )
2
R / R
Sv E
SB =
P Q
+2+
Q P
Where,
Sv = Voltage sensitivity of galvanometer,
mm/volt
True value of resistance E = Bridge voltage
R m2 R v P, Q = Branch resistances
R =
R v − R m2 θ = Deflection of galvanometer, mm
Where, For a bridge with equal arms
Rm2 = Measured value of resistance SVE
SB =
4
Rv = Resistance of voltmeter
Note : ………………………………………………………………….
For R v  Rm2 • For maximum bridge sensitivity
 R m2  P R
R = R m2 1 +  = =1
 Rv Q S
 

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• Sensitivity of bridge is most important 3. Ohmmeters

parameter as compared to accuracy, (a) Series Type Ohmmeter
precision and resolution.
………………………………………………………………………………
Equivalent circuit of Wheatstone bridge

Half scale resistance

Galvanometer current
R2 Rm
E0 R h = R1 +
lg = R2 + Rm
R0 + G
Meter current
Where
E0 = Thenvenin’s or open circuit voltage ER2
lm =
appearing between terminals b and d with (Rh + Rx )(R2 + Rm )
galvanometer circuit open circuited. Full scale deflection current
G = Resistance of the galvanometer circuit ER2
lfs =
 R + R 1  R  Rh (R2 + Rm )
E0 = E  −   E  as DR << R
 2R + R 2   4R 
Friction of full scale reading
∆R = Change in resistance R lm Rm
Thevenin equivalent resistance of bridge S= =
lfs R x + Rh
RS PQ
R0 = + (b) Shunt Type Ohmmeter
R+S P+Q
Galvanometer deflection
SVES R Si E SR
 = =
(R + S ) ( R 0 + G ) (R + S )
2 2

Where,
Si = Current sensitivity of galvanometer
Bridge sensitivity
 Si E SR Half scale reading of unknown resistance
SB = =
R / R ( R 0 + G ) (R + S )
2 RX is
R1 R m
Current sensitivity Rh =
R1 + R m

Si = ;mm/μA Half scale reading of the meter
lg
ERh
θ = Deflection in galvanometer lh = 0.5lfs =
R1 Rm + Rh (R1 + Rm )
lg = Current in galvanometer
Voltage Sensitivity Where,
Rm = Internal resistance of meter

Sv = ;mm/V R1 = Adjustable resistor (as shown in
VTh
figure)
VTh = Voltage across galvanometer E = Supply voltage
Note :………………………………………………………………. Measurement of low Resistance
In Wheatstone bridge method, the effect of The different methods employed are :
lead resistance is not eliminated hence it is
(i) Kelvin’s double bridge method
not suitable for measurement of low
(ii) Ammeter voltmeter method
resistance.
(iii) Potentiometer method
…………………………………………………………………………….

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Kelvin’s Double Bridge Method 0.4343t

R =
 V
C log10  
 VC 
2. Meggar
• Meggar works on the principle of
electrodynamometer.
• Meggar is used to measure the
insulation resistance of cable, motor
and generator, etc.
• Deflecting torque angle is proportional
to the resistance of the insulator, which
is under test.
For zero galvanometer deflection
• It is also used to check the continuity
Eab = Eamd
of cable.
P qr P p • No external control torque provided.
R = .S +  − 
Q p+q+r Q q • Air friction damping is used.
P p • No need of external power supply.
If =
Q q Note :…………………………………………………………………….
High resistance have a guard terminal
P
then R= .S which is used to avoid leakage current.
Q
………………………………………………………………………………
Note : …………………………………………………………………..
Carry Foster Slide Wire Bridge
Accuracies by Kelvin double bridge method
(i) From 1000 μΩ to 1.0 Ω : 0.005%
(ii) From 100 μΩ to 1000 μΩ : 0.5% to
0.05%
(iii) From 10 μΩ to 100 μΩ : 0.5% to 0.2%
………………………………………………………………………………
Measurement of High Resistance
The difference methods employed are :
(i) Loss of charge method From bridge (1)
(ii) Meggar P R + S + Lr
+1 = …(i)
(iii) Direct deflection method Q S + (L − l1 ) r
(iv) Megohm bridge From bridge (2)
1. Loss of Charge Method
P R + S + Lr
+1 = …(ii)
Q R + (L − l2 ) r
Equating equation (i) and (ii)
R − S = (l2 − l1 ) r
Note : …………………………………………………………………..
Carry Foster bridge method is used for
medium resistance measurement by
comparing with standard resistance.
………………………………………………………………………………

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Chapter 8
A.C. Bridges
Introduction Measurement of Self Inductance
Used to measure self inductance, Mutual 1. Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge
inductance, capacitance, and frequency.

R3
R1 =
R4
(R2 + r2 )
General equation for bridge balance
R3
Z1 Z4 = Z2 Z3 L1 = .L 4
R4
Magnitude condition
Where,
| Z1 || Z4 | =| Z2 || Z3 |
L1 = Unknown inductance of resistance R1
Angle condition L2 = Variable inductance of fixed resistance
1 + 4 = 2 + 3 r2
Note :………………………………………………………………….. R2 = Variable resistance connected in
Magnitude condition and angle condition series with L2
both must be satisfied for the bridge to be R3, R4 = Known non-inductive resistance
balanced. 2. Maxwell’s Inductance-Capacitance
……………………………………………………………………………. Bridge
Depending upon the frequency, different
null detectors are used
Vibration galvanometer - 5 Hz to 1 kHz
Head phones - 250 Hz to 4kHz
Tuned amplifier detector - 10Hz to 100kHz
D’Arsonval Galvanometer-DC frequency=0
Hz
Depending upon phase angle θ,
elements are
R 2R 3
θ Elements R1 = and L1 = R2R3C4
R4
0o R
Q factor of the coil
90o L1
L1
-90o C1 Q= = C 4 R 4
R1
0 < θ1 < 90o
o R1, L1
-90 < θ1 < 0o R1, C1 Note : ……………………………………………………………………
• Not suitable for measurement of high Q
Convergence to balance point :
coil because phase angle criteria does
If the variables are in the same arm of not satisfy.
bridge then minimum time is required for
• Not suitable for measurement of low Q-
balancing of bridge. This is called
coil because of sliding balance problem.
convergence to balance point.
• Suitable for measurement of medium Q
Quality factor (Q.F.)
coil i.e. (1 < Q < 10).
Energy stored ………………………………………………………………………………
Q.F. =
Energy disspiated
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3. Hay’s Bridge r1 = Resistance connected in series with

self-inductor
r, R2, R3, R4 = Known non-inductive
resistances
C = Fixed standard capacitor
5. Owen’s Bridge

 2R 2R 3R 4C24 R 2R 3  1 
R1 = =  2 
1 +  2 C24 R 24 R4 1 + Q 
R 2 R 3 C4 R 2 R 3 C4
L1 = =
1 +  2 C24 R 24 1
2

1+ 
Q L1 = R 2 R 3 C4
For Q > 10 C4
R1 = R 3
L1 = R 2 R 3 C4 C2
L1 1 Where,
Q= =
R1 C 4 R 4 L1 = Unknown self inductance of resistance
Where, R1
L1 = Unknown-inductance having a R2 = Variable non-inductive resistance
resistance R1 R3 = Fixed non-inductive resistance
R2, R3, R4 = known non-inductive C2 = Variable standard capacitor
resistance C4 = Fixed standard capacitor
C4 = Standard capacitor Note : …………………………………………………………………
Note : ………………………………………………………………….. Owen’s bridge is used for measurement of
The Hay’s bridge is suited for the unknown inductance and incremental
measurement of high Q inductors. inductance and incremental permeability
…………………………………………………………………………….. (μ).
4. Anderson’s Bridge ……………………………………………………………………………
Measurement of Incremental Inductance

R2 R3
R1 = − r1
R4 Incremental inductance
CR 3
L1 = r (R 4 + R 2 ) + R 2 R 4  L1 = R2 R3 C4
R4 
Incremental permeability
L1 
Where, =
N2 A
L1 = Self-inductance to be measured
Where,
R1 = Resistance of self-inductor
N = Number of turns

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A = Area of flux path 2. Schering Bridge

l = Length of flux path
R2 = Variable non-inductive resistance
R3 = Fixed non-inductive resistance
C4 = Fixed standard capacitor
Note : ……………………………………………………………….
• External D.C. source is used to
compensate residual magnetism.
• Capacitor, C is to block D.C. to enter
into A.C. and inductor, L is to block
A.C. to enter into D.C.
………………………………………………………………………….
Measurement of Capacitance
1. De Sauty’s Bridge
(a) For lossless capacitor
C2 R 4
C1 =
R4
Where, C1 = Capacitor whose
Capacitance to be measured
C2 = A standard capacitor
R3, R4 = Non-inductive resistors
(b) For imperfect capacitor
dielectric loss
R 3 C4
r1 =
C2
R 
C1 = C2  4 
 R3 
Dissipation factor
D = C1r1 = C4R 4
where,
C1 = capacitor whose capacitance is to be
determined
r1 = Series resistance representing the loss
in the capacitor C1
C2 = Standard loss-free capacitor
R3 = Non-inductive resistance
C4 = Variable capacitor
R4 = Variable non-inductive resistance in
parallel with variable capacitor C4
Note : ………………………………………………………………….
Schering bridge is shielded with metal
screen to reduce the stray capacitance
exists between the arms and arms to the
having earth.
………………………………………………………………………………
Measurement of Frequency
Wien’s Brdige

C1 R 4 R 2 + r2
= =
C2 R 3 R1 + r1
Where, Frequency
r1, r2 = Resistance representing the loss R 4 R 2 C1
component of the two capacitor. = +
R 3 R1 C2
Dissipation factor 1
D = tan  = C1r1 = C2r2 f = Hz
2 R1 R 2 C1 C2

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For R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C If the input signal is not a sinusoidal or

1 signal containing harmonics then balancing
f = of bridge is not possible because null
2 RC
R4 detector is sensitive to the frequencies.
=2
R3
Limitation of Wein’s Bridge
Chapter 9
Magnetic Measurements
Flux density 4k 2f f 2 B2m t2
pe =
 R Kq 1 2
B= =
As 2N As Where, kf = Form factor
where, t = Thickness of laminations; m
ϕ = Flux linking search coil ρ = Resistivity of material; Ω-m
As = Cross-sectional area of specimen Total iron loss per unit volume
R = Resistance of the ballistic 4k 2f f 2 B2m t2
pi = ph + pe =  f Bkm +
galvanometer circuit 3
Kq θ1 = Charge indicated by ballistic Maximum flux density
galvanometer
E2
N = Number of turns in the search coil Bm =
4k f f A s N2
Hysteresis loss per unit volume
For sinusoidal supply
ph =  f Bkm
E2
where, Bm =
4.44 f A s N2
η = Hysteresis coefficient
Where,
f = Frequency; Hz
E2 = Voltage induced in secondary winding
Bm = Maximum flux density; Wb/m2
E2 = 4kf f ϕm N2
k = Steinmetz coefficient
Kf = Form factor (= 1.11 for sinusoidal
Note : ………………………………………………………………..
supply)
The value of k varies from 1.6 to 2.
f = Frequency
……………………………………………………………………………
As = Cross-sectional area of specimen
Eddy current loss per unit volume for
N2 = Number of turns in secondary winding
laminations
ϕm = Maximum flux linkage

Chapter 10
Electronic Instruments

Average current through diode vacuum

tube voltmeters
Eav Erms E
lav = = = 0.45 rms
2R 2  1.11  R R
Where,
Erms = RMS value of applied voltage
Eav = Average value of applied voltage
R = Load resistance
Difference amplifier type of electronic
voltmeter

Thevenin’s voltage across terminal X-Y

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 r R  Basic measurable quantity in digital meter

VTh = gm  d D  v1 is D.C.
 rd + RD 
1. Resolution (R) of Digital Meter
Thevenin’s resistance looking into terminals
The smallest change in the input which a
X-Y
digital meter can be able to detect is called
2rd R D resolution.
R Th =
rd + R D
1
R =
Where, 10n
Rd = A.C. drain resistance in Ω where, n = Number of full digit.
gm = Transconductance in mho 2. Sensitivity (S)
Current through ammeter The smallest change in input that can be
VTh gm rd RD / (rd + RD ) displayed within given range.
i= = .v1
R Th + R m 2rd RD / (rd + RD ) + R m S = Resolution × Range of meter
Where, RD << rd 3. Over ranging
Switch on the extra half (1/2) is called over
gm R D
i= .v1 ranging. Due to this over ranging the range
2R D + R m
of the instrument increases.
Digital Meters
Chapter 11
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
CRO is a digital instrument, which works on e = Charge of an electron; Coulomb
the principle of thermionic emission i.e. Ey = Electric field intensity in Y-direction;
emission of electron from a heated surface. V/m
It is a linear device. With the use of CRO m = Mass of electron; kg
one can measure peak to peak, rms, peak Vox = Velocity of electron when entering
or average value of voltage and current. the fields of deflecting plates; m/s
Calibration of CRO x = Displacement in x-direction; m
Deflection
Calibration of CRO is done by applying a
L ld Ed
known quality of square signal having a D=
frequency of 1 kHz and peak to peak 2d Ea
magnitude of 1 mV. where,
The rise time (tr), of signal applied to CRO L = Distance between screen and the
and bandwidth of CRO are related as centre of deflecting plates; m
tr × B.W. = 0.35 ld = Length of deflecting plates; m
If this condition fails then the signal is Ed = Potential between deflecting plates; V
distorted at the output of CRO. d = Distance between deflecting plates; m
Electrostatic Deflection Ea = Voltage of pre-accelerating anode; V
Deflection sensitivity
D L ld
S= = m/V
Ed 2dEa
Deflection factor
1 2dEa
G= = V/m
S L ld
Sawtooth Generator

1 e Ey 2
y= x
2 mv2ox
where,
y = Displacement in y-direction; m
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V0 = Vcc 1 − exp ( −t / RC )  Finding the phase angle ϕ from given

Lissajous pattern
where,
(a) When Lissajous pattern is in first and third
V0 = Instantaneous voltage across the quadrant
capacitor at time t; V
Vcc = Supply voltage
Lissajous patterns

If horizontal and vertical deflecting plate

are applied with sinusoidal signal, the
waveform pattern appearing on the screen
is called Lissajous pattern.
Application
First possibility
• Used for finding the phase angle
difference between the signal applied  x1  −1  y1 
 = sin−1   = sin  
to vertical and horizontal plate.  x2   y2 
• Used for finding the frequency ratio Second possibility = 360o – ϕ
between vertical and horizontal plates (b) When Lissajous pattern is in second
voltage. and fourth quadrant

First possibility
 x1 
 = 180o − sin−1  
 x2 
Second possibility = 360o – ϕ
Measurement of Frequency Using Lissajous
Pattern
(number of intersections of the
fy horizontal line with the curve)
=
fx (number of intersections of the
vertical line with the curve)
Where,
fy = Frequency of signal applied to Y plates
fx = Frequency of signal applied to X plates

Chapter 12
High Frequency Measurements

Q-meter
It works on the principle of series
resonance.
Measurement of the Storage Factor Q
Resonant frequency of Q-Meter

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1 1
f0 = f1 = ;
2 LC 2 L ( C1 + Cd )
Measured value of Q 1
f2 =
0L 2 L ( C2 + Cd )
Qm =
R + R sh
When, f2 = nf1
True value of Q
C1 − n2 C2
0 L then, Cd =
Qt = n2 − 1
R
where,
 R   C 
Qt = Qm 1 + sh  = Qm 1 + d  C1 = Tuning capacitance at frequency f1
 R   C
C2 = Tuning capacitance at frequency f2
Where,
R = Resistance of coil Measurement of Unkown Capacitance Cx
L = Inductance of coil Adjust capacitor C = C1 to get resonance
Rsh = Shunt resistance frequency f1 with unknown capacitance Cx
C = Tuning capacitance in parallel.
Cd = Distributed or self-capacitance 1
f1 = …(i)
Measurement of inductance 2 L ( Cx + C1 )
1
L = Now remove Cx and again adjust C = C2 to
4 fo2 C
2
get same resonance frequency f1
Measurement of effective resistance 1
o L f1 = …(ii)
R = 2 LC2
Qt
By equating equation (i) and (ii),
Measurement of Distributed or self-
Cx = C2 − C1
capacitance
Resonance frequency

Chapter 13
Transducers
lateral strain
Poisson' s ratio ( v ) =
Strain Gauge longitudinal strain
−D / D
=
L / L

Gauge factor of strain gauge Strain

L
R / R  /  Strain () =
Gf = = 1 + 2v + L
L / L 
where,
Where,
L
 = Per unit change in length
= Per unit change in resistivity L

v = Poission’s ratio Thermistor
∈ = Strain Resistance of thermistor
  1
For →0 1 
 R T1 = R T2 exp    − 
  T2 T2  
Gf  1 + 2v
Where,
Poission’s ratio
R T1 = Resistance of thermistor at absolute
temperature T1 ; oK
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R T2 = Resistance of thermistor at absolute

temperature T2 ; oK
β = A constant depending upon the
material of thermistor
Steinhart-Hart equation

1
= A + B lnR + C (lnR )
3

T
where, Where,
T = Temperature; oK, r = Radius of semi circular palte
R = Resistance of thermistor; Ω θ = Angular displacement in radian
A, B, C = Curve fitting constant
Thermistor resistance Sensitivity
R T = aR0 exp (b / T ) Sensitivity of parallel plate capacitive
transducer
Where,
C w
RT, R0 = Resistance of thermistor at S= =
x d
temperature T oK and ice point respectively
Where,
Thermocouple
x = Length of overlapping part of cylinders;
E.M.F. produced in a thermocouple
m
E = a (  ) + b (  )
2
D2 = Inner diameter of outer cylindrical
Where electrode; m
∆θ = Difference in temperature between D1 = Outer diameter of inner cylindrical
the hot thermocouple junction and the electrodes; m
reference junction of thermocouple; oC Sensitivity of cylindrical capacitive
a, b = Constant transducer
2 
LVDT S= F /m
loge (D2 / D1 )
Sensitivity of LVDT
Sensitivity of variable capacitance
Output voltage transducer
Sensitivity =
displacement r 2
S=
Capacitive Transducers 2d
Capacitance Piezo-Electric Transducer
Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor Voltage sensitivity of crystal
 A  xw Electric field 
C= = g= = Vm/N
d d Stress P
Where,
Where, P = Pressure or stress; N/m2
A = Overlapping area of plates
x = Length of overlapping part of plates Charge sensitivity
w = Width of overlapping part of plates d =r 0 g C/N
d = Distance between two plates Output voltage
∈ = Permittivity of medium Eo = gtp
Capacitance of cylindrical capacitor
Where,
2  x
C= F t = Thickness of crystal; m
loge (D2 / D1 )
Capacitance at angular displacement θ
 r 2
C=
2d

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