of this species had apelike face
Australopithecus
Afarensis
Australopithecus afarensis
Nickname: Lucy's species
Where Lived: Eastern Africa
(Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania)
When Lived: Between about 3.85
and 2.95 million years ago
Australopithecus afarensis is one
of the longest-lived and best-
known early human species—
paleoanthropologists have
uncovered remains from more
than 300 individuals! Found
between 3.85 and 2.95 million
years ago in Eastern Africa
(Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania), this
species survived for more than
900,000 years, which is over four
times as long as our own species
has been around. It is best
known from the sites of Hadar,
Ethiopia (‘Lucy’, AL 288-1 and
the 'First Family', AL 333);
Dikika, Ethiopia (Dikika ‘child’
skeleton); and Laetoli (fossils of
this species plus the oldest
documented bipedalfootprint
trails).
Similar to chimpanzees, Au.
afarensis children grew rapidly
after birth and reached
adulthood earlier than modern
humans. This meant Au.
Afarensis had a shorter period of
growing up than modern humans
have today, leaving them less
time for parental guidance and
socialization during childhood.
Au. afarensis had both ape and
human characteristics: members
climbing trees like other living
proportions (a flat nose, a African apes?
strongly projecting lower jaw)
The species Au. Afarensis existed
and braincase (with a small
through a period of
brain, usually less than 500 cubic
environmental fluctuation yet
centimeters -- about 1/3 the size
showed no adaptations to the
of a modern human brain), and
changing environment—why?
long, strong arms with curved
Was it because they were able to
fingers adapted for climbing
migrate to where their usual food
trees. They also had small canine
sources were located? Or were
teeth like all other early humans,
their food sources somehow
and a body that stood on two legs
unaffected?
and regularly walked upright.
Their adaptations for living both Au. afarensis shows strong
in the trees and on the ground sexual dimorphism in that the
helped them survive for almost a body sizes between males and
million years as climate and females are quite different;
environments changed. however, sexual dimorphism in
other primates is usually
Year of Discovery: 1974
characterized by size differences
History of Discovery: in bodies and teeth. Fossil
evidence shows that male Au.
The species was formally named
Afarensis individuals had canine
in 1978 following a wave
teeth comparable in size to those
of fossil discoveries at Hadar,
of females. Did male dominance
Ethiopia, and Laetoli, Tanzania.
in Au. afarensis individuals not
Subsequently, fossils found as
include the need to bear large
early as the 1930s have been
canine teeth, as it does in many
incorporated into this taxon.
other male primates?
Height:
The teeth and jaw of Au.
Males: average 4 ft 11 in (151 afarensis are robust enough to
cm); chew hard foods, but dental
Females: average 3 ft 5 in (105 microwear studies show Au.
cm) afarensis individuals ate soft
foods like plants and fruit
Weight: instead. While most scientists
think that Au. afarensis ate
Males: average 92 lbs (42 kg) ; hard, brittle foods during tough
Females: average 64 lbs (29 kg)
times when vegetation was not
Below are some of the still
easily found, further microwear
unanswered questions about Au.
studies show that eating hard
afarensis that may be answered
foods did not coincide with dry
with future discoveries:
seasons of little vegetation. So
A fossil similar to Au. how do properties of Au.
afarensis and dating to 3.5 afarensis teeth relate to their
million years ago has been found diet?
in Chad—did this species extend
so far into central Africa?
We know Au. afarensis were
capable of walking upright
on two legs, but they would have
walked differently than modern
humans do today; so, what did
their bipedal locomotion look
like?
Did Au. afarensis usually walk
upright like modern humans, or How They Survived:
did they spend more time
Au. afarensis had mainly a plant-
based diet, including leaves,
fruit, seeds, roots, nuts, and
insects… and probably the
occasional small vertebrates, like
lizards.
How do we know what Au.
afarensis ate?
Paleoanthropologists can tell
what Au. afarensis ate from
looking at the remains of their
teeth. Dental microwear studies
indicate they ate soft, sugar-rich
fruits, but their tooth size and
shape suggest that they could
have also eaten hard, brittle
foods too – probably as ‘fallback’
foods during seasons when fruits
were not available.
Evolutionary Tree Information:
This species may be a direct
descendant of Au. Anamensis
and may be ancestral to later
species of Paranthropus,
Australopithecus, and Homo.
‘Lucy’ (AL 288-1) is an adult
female, 3.2 million-year-old A.
afarensis skeleton found at
Hadar, Ethiopia. Because she
could walk upright on the ground
and climb trees, she and other
members of her species were able
to use resources from woodlands,
grasslands, and other diverse
environments.
This child's baby teeth had
erupted in a pattern similar to a
three-year-old chimpanzee’s,
telling us she grew up at a rate
similar to a chimpanzee. But her
brain size indicates that a human
growth rate was evolving. CT-
scans shows small canine teeth
forming in the skull, telling us
this individual was female.
Australopithecus
Anamensis
Australopithecus anamensis
Where Lived: Eastern Africa
(Lake Turkana, Kenya and
Middle Awash, Ethiopia)
When Lived: About 4.2 to 3.9
million years ago
Australopithecus anamensis has
a combination of traits found in
both apes and humans. The
upper end of the tibia (shin bone)
shows an expanded area of bone
and a human-like orientation of
the ankle joint, indicative of
regular bipedal walking (support
of body weight on one leg at the
time). Long forearms and
features of the wrist bones
suggest these individuals
probably climbed trees as well.
Year of Discovery: 1995
History of Discovery:
In 1965, a research team led by
Bryan Patterson from Harvard
University discovered a single
arm bone (KNM-KP 271) of an
early human at the site of
Kanapoi in northern Kenya. But
without additional human
fossils, Patterson could not
confidently identify the species to
which it belonged. In 1994, a
research team led by
paleoanthropologist Meave
Leakey found numerous teeth
and fragments of bone at the
same site. Leakey and her
colleagues determined that the
fossils were those of a very
primitive homininand they
named a new species called
Australopithecus anamensis
(‘anam’ means ‘lake’ in the
Turkana lanaguage).Researchers
have since found other Au.
anamensis fossils at nearby sites
(including Allia Bay), all of which
date between about 4.2 million
and 3.9 million years old..
Below are some of the still
unanswered questions about
Australopithecus anamensisthat
may be answered with future
discoveries:
Is Au. anamensis a separate
species from Au. afarensis? Many
scientists think the fossil
material of Au. Anamensis and
Au. Afarensis represents a single
lineage that evolved through
time?
Is Au. amanensis a direct
descendant of the 4.4 million year
old species Ardipithecus
ramidus?
How They Survived:
Australopithecus anamensis indi
viduals had thickly-built, long,
narrow jaws with their side rows
of teeth arranged in parallel
lines. Their strong jaws
combined with heavily enameled
teeth suggest Au. Anamensis
individuals may at times have
eaten hard, abrasive foods,
but they likely were plant-eaters
in general, relying on both fruits
and tough foods such as
nuts. The sites where remains
of Au. anamensis have been
found were forests and
woodlands that grew around
lakes.
Evolutionary Tree Information:
Jaw remains suggest that this
species was the direct ancestor
of Australopithecus afarensis,
and possibly the direct
descendent of a species
of Ardipithecus.
A team led by Meave Leakey
found the A. anamensis type
specimen, mandible KNM-KP
29281, in Kenya in 1994. In 2006,
Tim White’s team found A.
anamensis fossils in the Middle
Awash, Ethiopia, including the
largest hominin canine yet
discovered and the earliest
Australopithecus femur.
Australopithecus
Africanus
Australopithecus africanus
Where Lived: Southern Africa
(South Africa)
When Lived: About 3.3 to 2.1
million years ago
Au. africanus was anatomically
similar to Au. afarensis, with a
combination of human-like and
ape-like features. Compared
to Au. afarensis, Au.
africanus had a rounder cranium
housing a larger brain and
smaller teeth, but it also had
some ape-like features including
relatively long arms and a
strongly sloping face that juts out
from underneath the braincase
with a pronounced jaw. Like Au.
afarensis, the pelvis, femur
(upper leg), and foot bones of Au.
africanus indicate that it walked
bipedally, but its shoulder and
hand bones indicate they were
also adapted for climbing,
Year of Discovery: 1924
History of Discovery:
The Taung child, found in 1924,
was the first to establish that
early fossil humans occurred in
Africa. After Prof. Raymond
Dart described it and named the
species Australopithecus
africanus (meaning southern ape
of Africa), it took more than 20
years for the scientific
community to widely accept
Australopithecus as a member of
the human family tree.
Height:
Males: average 4 ft 6 in (138 cm);
Females: average 3 ft 9 in (115
cm)
Weight:
Males: average 90 lbs (41 kg);
Females: average 66 lb (30 kg)
Below are some of the still
unanswered questions about Au.
africanus that may be answered
with future discoveries:
Au. africanus is currently the
oldest known early human from
southern Africa. Where did it
come from? Was it a descendent
of Au. afarensis from Eastern
Africa?
Is Au. africanus part of the
lineage that led to our own
species, Homo sapiens?
In 1994, scientist Ron Clarke
found four left early human foot
bones while searching through
boxes of fossils at Sterkfontein, a
site in South Africa where
most Au. africanus fossils come
from. He dubbed this fossil
"Little Foot", and has since found
that it comes from a 3.3-million-
year-old partial skeleton, most of
which is still embedded in the
cave sediments. When this fossil
is completely excavated, it will
shed light on several questions
about this species (if it is
designated as an Au.
africanus individual):
How big was it? What did its
post-cranial skeleton look like?
How They Survived:
The hunter or the hunted?
No stone tools have been
discovered in the same sediments
as Au. Africanus fossils; however,
for a long time researchers
believed Au. africanus was a
hunter. Raymond Dart created
the term ‘osteodontokeratic’
culture (osteo = bone, donto =
tooth, keratic = horn) in the
1940s and 1950s because
remains of this species were
found alongside broken animal
bones. Dart assumed these
broken animal bones, teeth and
horns were used by Au.
africanus as weapons; however,
in the 1970s and 1980s, other
scientists began to recognize that
predators such as lions, leopards,
and hyenas were instead
responsible for leaving these
broken animal bones. These
predators even ate Au.
africanus individuals, too.
Despite the carnivorous
preferences of their
contemporaneous predators, Au
africanus individuals had a diet
similar to modern chimpanzees,
which consisted of fruit, plants,
nuts, seeds, roots, insects, and
eggs.
How do we know what they ate?
Scientists can tell what Au.
africanus may have eaten from
looking at the remains of their
teeth---tooth-size, shape, and
tooth-wear can all provide diet
clues. Dental microwear studies
found more scratches than pits
on Au. Africanus teeth compared
to a contemporaneous species, P.
robustus. This pattern indicates
that Au. Africanus ate tough
foods but also had a very variable
diet including softer fruits and
plants.
Evolutionary Tree Information:
Many scientists consider either
this species or Au. afarensis of
East Africa to represent a viable
candidate for the ancestor of the
genus Homo.
Vertebrate from the spine of
an Australopithecus africanus
individual show it walked
upright in a way very similar to
modern humans. The uniquely
human curve of your lower back
absorbs shock when you walk.
This early human's spine had the
same curve.
Often found alongside animal
bones, Australopithecus
africanus was once considered a
“killer ape.” Now we know they
were sometimes eaten by
predators. Living together in
groups helped these early
humans protect themselves.
This 3-year-old child's skull is the
first early human skull ever
discovered in Africa. It was found
in 1924, but it took over 20 years
after that before scientists
accepted the importance of Africa
as a major source of human
evolution.
Homo sapiens
Where Lived: Evolved in Africa,
now worldwide
When Lived: About 300,000
years ago to present
The species that you and all
other living human beings on this
planet belong to is Homo sapiens.
During a time of dramatic
climate change 300,000 years
ago, Homo sapiensevolved in
Africa. Like other early humans
that were living at this time, they
gathered and hunted food, and
evolved behaviors that helped
them respond to the challenges of
survival in unstable
environments.
Anatomically, modern humans
can generally be characterized by
the lighter build of their
skeletons compared to earlier
humans. Modern humans have
very large brains, which vary in
size from population to
population and between males
and females, but the average size
is approximately 1300 cubic
centimeters. Housing this big
brain involved the reorganization
of the skull into what is thought
of as "modern" -- a thin-walled,
high vaulted skull with a flat and
near vertical forehead. Modern
human faces also show much less
(if any) of the heavy brow ridges
and prognathism of other early
humans. Our jaws are also less
heavily developed, with smaller
teeth.
Scientists sometimes use the
term “anatomically modern
Homo sapiens” to refer to
members of our own species who
lived during prehistoric times.
History of Discovery:
Unlike every other human
species, Homo sapiens does not
have a true type specimen. In
other words, there is not a
particular Homo sapiens
individual that researchers
recognize as being the specimen
that gave Homo sapiens its
name. Even though Linnaeus
first described our species in
1758, it was not customary at
that time to designate type
specimens. It is rumored that in
1994 paleontologist Robert
Bakker formally declared the
skull of Edward Drinker Cope as
the “lectotype”, a specimen
essentially serving as the type
specimen. When Cope, himself a
great paleontologist, died in
1897, he willed his remains to
science, and they are held by the
University of Pennsylvania. But
a type specimen must be one
examined by the original author
who names a species, so Cope’s
remains do not qualify.
Below are some of the still
unanswered questions about
Homo sapiens that may be
answered with future
discoveries:
Who was our direct evolutionary
ancestor? Was it Homo
heidelbergensis, like many
paleoanthropologists think, or
another species?
How much interbreeding
occurred between our species
and Homo neanderthalensis?
What does the future hold for our
species in an evolutionary sense?
How They Survived:
Prehistoric Homo sapiens not
only made and used stone tools,
they also specialized them and
made a variety of smaller, more
complex, refined and specialized
tools including composite stone
tools, fishhooks and harpoons,
bows and arrows, spear throwers
and sewing needles.
For millions of years all humans,
early and modern alike, had to
find their own food. They spent a
large part of each day gathering
plants and hunting or scavenging
animals. By 164,000 years ago
modern humans were collecting
and cooking shellfish and by
90,000 years ago modern humans
had begun making special fishing
tools. Then, within just the past
12,000 years, our species, Homo
sapiens, made the transition to
producing food and changing our
surroundings. Humans found
they could control the growth and
breeding of certain plants and
animals. This discovery led to
farming and herding animals,
activities that transformed
Earth’s natural landscapes—first
locally, then globally. As humans
invested more time in producing
food, they settled down. Villages
became towns, and towns became
cities. With more food available,
the human population began to
increase dramatically. Our
species had been so successful
that it has inadvertently created
a turning point in the history of
life on Earth.
Evolutionary Tree Information:
Fossils and DNA confirm
humans are one of more than
200 species belonging to the
order of Primates. Within that
larger group, humans are nested
within the great ape family.
Although we did not evolve from
any of the apes living today, we
share characteristics with
chimpanzees, gorillas, and orang-
utans (the great apes), as well as
other apes. We most likely
evolved from Homo
heidelbergensis, the common
ancestor we share with
Neanderthals, who are our
closest extinct relatives.
Modern humans evolved a
unique combination of physical
and behavioural characteristics,
many of which other early human
species also possessed, though
not to the same degree. The
complex brains of modern
humans enabled them to interact
with each other and with their
surroundings in new and
different ways. As the
environment became more
unpredictable, bigger brains
helped our ancestors survive.
They made specialized tools, and
use tools to make other tools, as
described above; they ate a
variety of animal and plant foods;
they had control over fire; they
lived in shelters; they built broad
social networks, sometimes
including people they have never
even met; they exchanged
resources over wide areas; and
they created art, music, personal
adornment, rituals, and a
complex symbolic world. Modern
humans have spread to every
continent and vastly expanded
their numbers. They have altered
the world in ways that benefit
them greatly. But this
transformation has unintended
consequences for other species as
well as for ourselves, creating
new survival challenges.
Cro-Magnon 1 is a middle-aged,
male skeleton of one of the first
modern human fossils ever
found, at Cro-Magnon, France in
1868. Scientists estimate his age
at death at less than 50 years old.
Except for the teeth, his skull is
complete, though the bones in his
face are noticeably pitted from a
fungal infection.
Skhūl V was recovered from the
Skhūl Cave near Mount Carmel,
Israel, along with the skeletons of
nine other adults and children.
Some anatomical features, like
the brow ridges and occipital bun
of the male Skhūl V skull are
reminiscent of earlier humans;
however, Skhūl V also has the
high, vertical forehead and
rounded skull typical of modern
human skulls.
Homo Habilis
Homo habilis
Nickname: Handy Man
Where Lived: Eastern and
Southern Africa
When Lived: 2.4 million to 1.4
million years ago
This species, one of the earliest
members of the genus Homo, has
a slightly larger braincase and
smaller face and teeth than in
Australopithecus or older
hominin species. But it still
retains some ape-like features,
including long arms and a
moderately prognathic face.
Its name, which means ‘handy
man’, was given in 1964 because
this species was thought to
represent the first maker of stone
tools. Currently, the oldest stone
tools are dated slightly older than
the oldest evidence of the
genus Homo.
Year of Discovery: 1960
History of Discovery:
A team led by scientists Louis
and Mary Leakey uncovered the
fossilized remains of a unique
early human between 1960 and
1963 at Olduvai Gorge in
Tanzania. The type speciman,
OH 7, was found by Jonathan
Leakey, so was nicknamed
"Jonny's child". Because this
early human had a combination
of features different from those
seen in Australopithecus, Louis
Leakey, South African scientist
Philip Tobias, and British
scientist John Napier declared
these fossils a new species, and
called them Homo habilis
(meaning 'handy man'), because
they suspected that it was this
slightly larger-brained early
human that made the thousands
of stone tools also found at
Olduvai Gorge.
Height: average 3 ft 4 in - 4 ft 5 in
(100 - 135 cm)
Weight: average 70 lbs (32 kg)
Below are some of the still
unanswered questions about
Homo habilis that may be
answered with future
discoveries:
Was H. habilis on the
evolutionary lineage that evolved
into later species of Homo and
even perhaps our species, Homo
sapiens?
Are H. habilis and Homo rudolfe
nsis indeed differentspecies, or
are they part of a single, variable
species? Or was one the ancestor
of the other?
If H. habilis is not the ancestor
of Homo erectus, how does it fit
into our evolutionary tree?
H. habilis is one of the earliest
members of the genus Homo.
Was there a relationship between
the origin of this genus
and climate change – either with
an increased period of climatic
fluctuations, or major episodes of
global cooling and drying leading
to the spread of C4 grasslands?
How They Survived:
Early Homo had smaller teeth
than Australopithecus, but their
tooth enamel was still thick and
their jaws were still strong,
indicating their teeth were still
adapted chewing some hard foods
(possibly only seasonally when
their preferred foods became less relatively early 1.55 million-
available). Dental microwear year-old H. erectus from the
studies suggest that the diet of H. same area of northern Kenya
habilis was flexible and versatile (Ileret, Lake Turkana)
and that they were capable of challenged the conventional view
eating a broad range of foods, that these speciesevolved one
including some tougher foods like after the other. Instead, this
leaves, woody plants, and some evidence - along with other fossils
animal tissues, but that they did demonstrate that they co-existed
not routinely consume or in Eastern Africa for almost half
specialize in eating hard foods a million years.
like brittle nuts or seeds, dried
meat, or very hard tubers.
Another line of evidence for the
diet of H. habilis comes from
some of the earliest cut- and
percussion-marked bones, found
back to 2.6 million years ago.
Scientists usually associate these
traces of butchery of large
animals, direct evidence of meat
and marrow eating, with the
earliest appearance of the
genus Homo, including H.
habilis.
This fossil is one of the most
Many scientists think early complete skulls of this species,
Homo, including H. best known from the Turkana
habilis, made and used the first Basin and Olduvai Gorge in East
stone tools found in the Africa. It is likely from a female,
archaeological record—these also and had a small brain size for H.
date back to about 2.6 million habilis.
years ago; however,
this hypothesis is difficult to test
because several other species of
early human lived at the same
time, and in the same geographic
area, as where traces of the
earliest tool use have been found.
Evolutionary Tree Information:
This species, along with H.
rudolfensis, is one of the earliest OH 24 is the oldest fossil skull
members of the genus Homo. found at Olduvai Gorge;
Many scientists think it is an besides it is the most complete.
ancestor of later species of Homo, Its third molars had erupted, so
possibly on our own branch of the we know it was an adult at death,
family tree. Naming this species yet the molars show no sign of
required a redefining of the wear, indicating that this
genus Homo (e.g., reducing the individual probably died soon
lower limit of brain size), after their eruption.
sparking an enormous debate
about the validity of this species.
While scientists used to think
that H. habilis was the ancestor
of Homo erectus, recent
discoveries in 2000 of a relatively
late 1.44 million-year-old Homo
habilis (KNM-ER 42703) and a

By this time, the feet of early
humans had a modern-type arch.
Want to read about the evidence
that this individual was attacked
by a crocodile?
Homo erectus
Homo erectus
Where Lived: Northern, Eastern,
and Southern Africa; Western
Asia (Dmanisi, Republic of
Georgia); East Asia (China and
Indonesia)
When Lived: Between about 1.89
million and 143,000 years ago
Early African Homo erectus
fossils (sometimes called Homo
ergaster) are the oldest
known early humans to have
possessed modern human-like
body proportions with relatively
elongated legs and shorter arms
compared to the size of the torso.
These features are considered
adaptations to a life lived on the
ground, indicating the loss of
earliertree-climbing adaptations,
with the ability to walk and
possibly run long distances.
Compared with earlier fossil
humans, note the expanded
braincase relative to the size of
the face.
The most complete fossil
individual of this species is
known as the ‘Turkana Boy’- a
well-preserved skeleton (though
minus almost all the hand and
foot bones), dated around 1.6
million years old. Microscopic
study of the teeth indicates that
he grew up at a growth rate
similar to that of a great ape.
There is fossil evidence that this
species cared for old and weak
individuals. The appearance
of Homo erectus in the fossil
record is often associated with
the earliest handaxes, the first
major innovation in stone tool
technology.
Early fossil discoveries from Java
(beginning in the 1890s) and
China (‘Peking Man’, beginning
in the 1920s) comprise the classic
examples of this species.
Generally considered to have
been the first species to have
expanded beyond Africa, Homo
erectus is considered a highly
variable species, spread over two
continents (it's not certain
whether it reached Europe), and
possibly the longest lived early
human species - about nine times
as long as our own species, Homo
sapiens, has been around!
Year of Discovery: 1891
History of Discovery:
Eugène Dubois, a Dutch surgeon,
found the first Homo erectus
individual (Trinil 2) in Indonesia
in 1891. In 1894, Dubois named
the species Pithecanthropus
erectus, or ‘erect ape-man.’ At
that time, Pithecanthropus (later
changed to Homo) erectus was
the most primitive and smallest-
brained of all known early
human species; no early human
fossils had even been discovered
in Africa yet.
Height: Ranges from 4 ft 9 in - 6
ft 1 in (145 - 185 cm)
Weight: Ranges from 88 - 150 lbs
(40 - 68 kg)
Below are some of the still
unanswered questions about
Homo erectus that may be
answered with future
discoveries:
Was Homo erectus the direct
ancestor of Homo sapiens, our
own species?
Data suggest that increasing
body size, greater reliance on
animal food resources, and
increased range size were part of
a web of factors that facilitated
the initial early dispersal of H.
erectus from Africa. Was one of
these factors more important
than the others?
Are the fossils from earlier time
periods in East Africa, and from
Georgia, all part of a single
species (Homo erectus),
regionally variable in size and
shape? Or are there actually
several species of early human
represented by what we are now
calling Homo erectus?
How well did Homo erectus
master the control of fire and
how widespread was fire used?
What does this say about
possible dietary shifts in this
species?
Did Homo erectus grow up in a
more human-like pattern and
rate, or a more ape-like
one? Was Homo erectus the first
early human species to
experience an adolescent growth
spurt?
How They Survived:
The tall bodies and large brains
of Homo erectus individuals
required a lot of energy on a
regular basis to function. Eating
meat and other types of protein
that could be quickly digested
made it possible to absorb
nutrients with a shorter digestive
tract, making more energy
available faster. There is also
speculation that honey and
underground tubers may have
been significant food sources
for Homo erectus.
Soon after we see evidence in
the fossil record of the
earliest Homo erectus fossils (by
about 1.9 million years ago), we
see evidence in the archeological
record for the first major
innovation in stone tool
technology (by about 1.76 million
years ago). Known as the
Acheulean stone tool industry, it
consisted of the creation of large
cutting tools like handaxes and
cleavers. Increased reliance on a
broader set of tools may have
helped Homo erectus survive
during changing climates.
The earliest evidence of hearths
(campfires) occur during the time
range of Homo erectus. While we
have evidence that hearths were
used for cooking (and probably
sharing) food, they are likely to
have been places for social
interaction, and also used for
warmth and to keep away large
predators.
with several other early human
species including Homo
rudolfensis, Homo habilis, and
Paranthropus boisei. Sometimes
they were even found at the same
fossil sites. At the end of its time
range, around 143,000 years ago,
it coexisted with Homo sapiens
and possibly Homo floresiensis in
Indonesia.
This Homo erectus youth lived in
a hot, dry part of East Africa near
an ancient marsh. His teeth
indicate that he grew up quickly,
at a rate similar to that of a living
great ape. His is one of the most
complete early human skeletons
ever found.
This elderly male belonged to a
population of Homo erectus that
spread from Africa to the
Caucasus Mountains in western
Asia. Most of his teeth fell out
long before he died, and his jaw
deteriorated as a result.
Members of his social group must
have taken care of him.

When this skull cap was

Evolutionary Tree Information:
Some scientists distinguish
between the African (Homo
ergaster) and Asian (Homo
erectus sensu stricto) fossils of
this taxon, while others lump
them together as Homo erectus
sensu lato. In either case, there
is general agreement that it
descended from an earlier species
of Homo (e.g., Homo habilis) and
represents one of the widest
dispersals of early humans in our
evolutionary history. It is likely
that distinct populations
of Homo erectus sensu lato led to
the emergence of later hominin
species, such as Homo
heidelbergensis, and ultimately
to our own species, Homo sapiens
At the beginning of its time
range, around 1.9 Mya, H.
erectus coexisted in East Africa
An outer layer of abnormal bone
on this female’s thigh shows
evidence of bleeding just before
death. After consulting doctors
and accounts of wilderness
explorers, researchers concluded
that an overdose of vitamin A—
perhaps from eating a carnivore’s
liver, which concentrates vitamin
A—caused the bleeding and her
death.
discovered in 1891, it was the
first early human fossil
recognized outside Europe. It is
sometimes called "Java Man"
because it was found on the
island of Java, Indonesia.
Homo Sapien
Sapien
Homo Sapiens Sapiens
It is believed that modern
humans like you and I first
originated on the Earth around
50,000 years ago in Africa. These
modern humans are referred to
by historians as Homo sapiens
sapiens. Within just a few
thousand years these modern
humans had spread to every
continent across the entire
planet, and onto many islands.
As Homo sapiens sapiens
migrated outward from Africa, it
is believed that they wiped out
Neanderthals, either by
absorbing them through
intermarriage, or by destroying
them through war and
competition.
Cro-Magnons
The earliest Homo sapiens
sapiens were the Cro-Magnons.
These early modern humans are
named after the location of their
discovery in France in the 1860s.
Since their original discovery,
many other Cro-Magnon fossils
and artifacts have been found
throughout Europe, Asia and
Africa.
Cro-Magnons were taller than
the Neanderthal, but they were
not as muscular. A very
important advantage is that they
had much improved technologies,
languages and cultures over
those of the Neanderthals.
The advanced tools and
technology of Cro-Magnons
allowed them to quickly adapt to
and master their environments.
In addition to stone, Cro-
Magnons used other materials
for making tools. These materials
included bones, antlers, teeth
and ivory.
With these new materials, they
were able to create sharper
blades, needles for sewing, and
fishhooks for fishing. Cro-
Magnons also invented new
kinds of long distance weapons,
such as bow and arrows and
spear throwers.
Axes allowed humans to chop
down trees. Evidence has been
found to show that early humans
used some of these logs to make
canoes.
New technologies dramatically
increased the amount of food
available. This in turn allowed
for the population of Cro-Magnon
to explode.
Cro-Magnon Social Life
At first, Cro-Magnon life was not
all that different from the lives of
earlier hominids. They lived in
caves or temporary structures,
and spent their lives hunting and
gathering in small groups.
As food sources increased,
humans’ settlements became
more permanent.Many groups
began building homes out of logs
or stone. Smaller groups joined
together forming larger groups.
As these groups developed, so did
the need for order. In order to
allow individuals to interact with
one another, it was necessary
that these groups developed
rules, or laws. To help enforce
these laws, there had to be
leaders appointed.
Each group or tribe had their own
methods for appointing leaders.
Sometimes leaders were selected
through fighting. In other cases
they were appointed according to
religious beliefs or through
inheritance.