CHAPTER ONE

General Introduction
1.1 Background Study
Petroleum tanks are used to store crude oil, aviation fuel, gasoline, diesel and other products
above and below ground. Leaking tanks may create significant environmental damage and
jeopardize safety. Soil and water contamination can be tremendous and be undetected for years.
A 45-litre gasoline leak contains about 230 grams of benzene, enough to contaminate 46 million
liters of water. According to existing statistics in developed countries, up to one third of
underground petroleum storage tanks installed prior to the 1990s are leaking or will do so before
they are removed.

Different methods have been developed and applied during the recent decades for non-
destructive evaluation of metal structures. Among these methods, acoustic emission
technology is unique as it not only detects flaws but also is used for on-line, real time monitoring
of structural integrity without interruption of operation, cleaning or product evacuation.
Today acoustic emission technology is widely applied for inspection of petroleum structures over
the world and has a proven experience in assessment of:

 Above ground storage tanks.

 Underground storage tanks made of steel and fiber-reinforced plastics.
 Petroleum piping (above and underground).
 Cisterns for rail and ground transportation of petroleum products.
 Fuel tanks of planes and ships.

1
Petroleum Storage tanks are used throughout the oil and gas industry for the bulk containment of
fluids at different stages of the refinery process. Most often, products are stored for a short time
before being transported for further processing.
The American Petroleum Institute’s API 650 standard outlines minimum requirements for the
design, fabrication, erection, and inspection of welded storage tanks in the oil and gas industry.

Types of storage tanks include;

1. Fixed Roof Storage Tanks

API 650 prescribes storage tank design requirements that minimize the risk of structural
failure and potential damage to the environment. The standard does not prescribe tank
dimensions or features that should be included in the design. These are specified by users
to suit their individual needs and application. Some primary features of fixed roof storage
tanks include:

 Sampling and gauging hatch: Sometimes referred to as a thief hatch, this is

necessary to retrieve samples of contents for analysis. It is also used as an
access point for a dip-stick to gauge the level in the tank and to check level
measuring instruments.
Vapor vent: The vapor vent is an essential feature of a tank and is often called
a breather valve. Without a properly functioning vapor vent, tanks are subject
to damage from the buildup of pressure when filling. They also are at risk of
imploding from the vacuum created during emptying.
 Relief valve: Relief valves are designed to relieve excess pressure should it
rise above the safe operating limit.
 Inert gas blanket: Inert gas blankets are used to displace air that may form an
explosive or flammable mixture with vapors from volatile liquids in the tank.
Nitrogen is often used for this purpose.
 Drain: Drains are used to remove any water that separates from the product.
They also are used to empty the tank during cleaning operations.
 Fire protection: Tanks are often fitted with a ring of nozzles that spray foam
into and over the surface of the tank in the event of a fire.

2
  Earth connection: Static electricity tends to form during filling and emptying
of the tank. This constitutes a potential explosion or fire hazard, especially
when handling flammable liquids. An earth connection prevents the buildup
of static electricity.
 Manhole: Manholes can be located on the roof of the vessel or at ground level
to facilitate access to the inside of the tank for inspection, cleaning and
maintenance.
2. Floating Roof Storage Tanks
Many tanks are designed with a roof that floats on top of the liquid. The floating roof
moves up and down as the level of liquid in the tank changes during filling, emptying or
with ambient temperature variation.
A floating roof minimizes the amount of vapor between it and the liquid, leaving little
space for evaporation and reducing vapor losses. In many older tanks, the floating roof is
merely a large flat disc covering the surface of the liquid. However, in recent years, the
design of floating roofs has substantially improved to minimize vapor loss.
There are two main types of floating roof storage tanks in use today. They are:
• The pontoon roof – Pontoons are closed compartments that are fitted to the outer edge
of a central plate under the roof, which allow the roof to float on top of the liquid.
• The double-deck roof – As the name suggests, this design incorporates two decks of
steel plates separated by compartments covering the entire surface area of the decks. This
provides added stability and is advantageous because the lower deck in closest proximity
to the liquid is not exposed to the sun’s rays, which considerably reduces vapor losses.
Floating roof storage tanks share many of the features as fixed roof tanks, with some
notable differences:
o Access ladder – The access ladder extends over the top and down the
inside of the tank. As the floating roof moves up and down, the internal
ladder slides back and forth on a track.
o Seal – A strip of flexible, rubberized material is used to provide a seal
between the rim of the floating roof and the tank shell to reduce vapor
leakage.

3
 o Water drain – The roof slopes slightly to a well in its center. Rainwater
runs into this water trap and is drained to the outside of the tank via a
flexible pipe.
o Roof supports – Support legs are fitted underneath the roof to leave a
space when the tank is empty. This enables access for cleaning and
maintenance.
3. Liquefied Natural Gas Storage Tank

A liquefied natural gas storage tank or LNG storage tank is a specialized type of storage
tank used for the storage of Liquefied Natural Gas. LNG storage tanks can be found in
ground, above ground or in LNG carriers. The common characteristic of LNG Storage
tanks is the ability to store LNG at the very low temperature of -162°C. LNG storage
tanks have double containers, where the inner contains LNG and the outer container
contains insulation materials. The most common tank type is the full containment tank.
Tanks are roughly 55 m (180 ft.) high and 75 m in diameter.
In LNG storage tanks if LNG vapors are not released, the pressure and temperature
within the tank will continue to rise. LNG is a cryogen, and is kept in its liquid state at
very low temperatures. The temperature within the tank will remain constant if the
pressure is kept constant by allowing the boil off gas to escape from the tank. This is
known as auto-refrigeration.
The world's largest above-ground tank (Delivered in 2000) is the 180 million liters full
containment type for Osaka Gas Co., Ltd. The world's largest tank (Delivered in 2001) is
the 200 million liters Membrane type for Toho Gas Co., Ltd.

4. Variable Vapor Space Tank

Variable vapor space tanks are equipped with expandable vapor reservoirs to accommodate
vapor volume fluctuations attributable to temperature and barometric pressure changes. Although
variable vapor space tanks are sometimes used independently, they are normally connected to the
vapor spaces of one or more fixed roof tanks. The two most common types of variable vapor
space tanks are lifter roof tanks and flexible diaphragm tanks. Lifter roof tanks have a
telescoping roof that fits loosely around the outside of the main tank wall. The space between the

4
roof and the wall is closed by either a wet seal, which is a trough filled with liquid, or a dry seal,
which uses a flexible coated fabric.
Flexible diaphragm tanks use flexible membranes to provide expandable volume. They may be
either separate gasholder units or integral units mounted atop fixed roof tanks. Variable vapor
space tank losses occur during tank filling when vapor is displaced by liquid. Loss of vapor
occurs only when the tank's vapor storage capacity is exceeded.

1.2 Construction of Petroleum Tanks

Tanks are generally used for storage and find wide range of applications in different fields both
domestically and industrially. These tanks are mostly made from steel and are located within the
proximity of product sources which are mostly estuarine/offshore environment.
Storage tanks are essential part of the oil and gas industry. They are used for storing crude oil as
well as the refined product of crude oil. The state of refined products of crude oil is highly
unstable and poses a risk of fire and explosion because of its high volatility and flammability,
and is more toxic than crude oil. With the high demand for products of crude oil, it is therefore
important to ensure a safe process for refining, transporting as well as its storage. Tank farms
have been set up to store the products of refined crude oil. The tanks are subject to the harsh
weather conditions as well as chemical interactions with the products. The tanks must therefore
be designed to accommodate these conditions and function safely. Tank design and construction
is a capital intensive project and several innovations have been introduced to reduce cost and
maximize profit. The basic design parameters which must be considered in the design of the
petroleum storage tank include the type of tank, the capacity of the tank, diameter of the tank,
height of the tank, the average wind speed of the environment, working pressure, average
temperature of the environment, the product to be stored, the physical and chemical properties of
the product to be stored, safety and maintenance. The most important consideration in the design
of the storage tank for the Nigerian environment is the product to be stored. Most refined product
of crude oil is volatile, the most being PMS because it vaporizes at temperatures at and above
room temperature. With losses in monetary and environmental values due to the evaporation of
refined petroleum products from storage tanks into the environment being a major and prevalent
challenge in the design of storage tank, it is important therefore to consider all relevant factors in
the design and development of petroleum storage tanks. To this end, minimal use of modern

5
materials/technology and incorporation of modern safety measures have been suggested by some
tank designers. In this design, two relief valves performing different functions were introduced in
an attempt to minimize the loss of petroleum product as a result of evaporation.

6
 CHAPTER TWO

Potential Hazards in Construction of Petroleum Tanks

2.1 Introduction

A hazard is an agent which has the potential to cause harm to a vulnerable target. The terms
"hazard" and "risk" are often used interchangeably. However, in terms of risk assessment, they
are two very distinct terms. A hazard is any agent that can cause harm or damage to humans,
property, or the environment. Risk is defined as the probability that exposure to a hazard will
lead to a negative consequence, or more simply, a hazard poses no risk if there is no exposure to
that hazard.

Hazards can be dormant or potential, with only a theoretical probability of harm. An event that is
caused by interaction with a hazard is called an incident. The likely severity of the undesirable
consequences of an incident associated with a hazard, combined with the probability of this
occurring, constitute the associated risk. If there is no possibility of a hazard contributing
towards an incident, there is no risk.

For many occupational toxicologists, industrial hygienists and others with stake in the field of
occupational health and safety, the safety of the work place has always been a major concern.
Indeed, the safety of many workplaces can hardly be guaranteed. This sometimes, is as a result
of the nature of the work in itself, with certain associated unavoidable hazards or the manner in
which such work is conducted. Thus, in spite of the immense benefits derived from work, work
itself has become a source of several deaths, ill-health and injuries as are clearly illustrated by
data from relevant authorities including the World Health Organization (WHO) and International
labor organization (ILO).
WHO in the World Health Report for the year 2000 concluded that workplace hazards are
responsible globally for 37% of back pain, 16% of hearing loss, 13% of Chronic Obstructive
Pulmonary Disease (COPD), 11% of asthma, 10% of injuries, 10% of lung cancer, and 2% of
leukemia. The magnitude of the problem is said to be grave for the developing countries.
In 2002, in sub-Saharan Africa alone, ILO estimated more than 257,000 total work-related
fatalities, including about 55,000 injuries. Thus, in both industrialized and developing countries,
the rapid pace of technological changes combined with the persistence of unsafe or

7
environmentally-threatening working conditions have served to focus attention on the need to
create a safe, healthy work environment and to promote a safety culture at the workplace.
Petroleum refining and distribution are among the occupational activities perceived to be
hazardous. Once extracted, crude oil is transported to an oil refinery where complex hydrocarbon
compounds are separated and converted through various refining operations (fractional
distillation, cracking, solvent extractions, then other treatments including formulating and
blending) to become useable fuel sources. Present day refineries produce a variety of products
including many required as feedstock for the petrochemical industry. The process of refining oil
manufactures nearly 2,500 useful products. However, the major end product of oil refining is
gasoline, followed by diesel fuel, jet fuel, fuel oil, kerosene, lubricating oil and asphalt used for
road paving, and all of these are of great toxicological interest. Beyond these, the refining
processes involve a wide array of chemicals including heavy metals compounds – either as
process chemicals or products, with resultant complex refinery effluents. Gas production and gas
flaring are also part of the fallouts of these processes. Refining operation activities also involve
heavy equipment that produces vibrations, radiations, heat, noise, etc. thus contributing to other
forms of pollution.

2.2 Potential Hazards in the Construction of Petroleum tanks

Ezejiofor et al (2014) made some findings that identified hazards as belonging to the traditional
five major hazard classification categories: physical hazard, chemical hazard, biological hazard,
psycho-social hazard and ergonomical hazards.
The physical hazards include noise, vibrations, radiations (ionizing or non-ionizing), heat/steam,
cold, winds, humidity, pressure extremes, electricity, lightning and thunder strikes, fires and
explosions, vehicular movement including forklifts as well as slips, trips and falls to mention this
few. This set of hazards applies to almost all sections of the construction particularly as pertains
to slips, trips and falls. However, those in the power plant utility (PPU), engineering and
technical services department (ETSD), flare stack area, various workshops of maintenance
department etc. are more at risk with regards to exposure to vibrations, noise, cold, heat
electricity and radiation (e.g. microwave, cathode rays, X-rays and radioactive substances).

8
Potential hazards and health outcomes
World Health Organization noted that physical and chemical agents generated by man’s
activities may have various effects on human being. Though some substances may not produce
adverse effects, others may be liable, if exposures are sufficient to affect such basic phenomena
as growth and development. Sometimes, environmental exposures may affect host susceptibility
or resistance, or produce functional or prepathological changes. Behavior may be modified by
exposures, especially to physical agents such as noise, light and radiation which are all generated
during industrial processes.
 Potential hazards associated with exposures to vibrations
Hand-Arm Vibration Syndrome (HAVS), Tinnitus, etc. are some of the health effects associated
with occupational exposures to vibrations. Vibrations militate against health generally, since
exposure to both are linked to sundry physiological and psychological health effects including
annoyance, sleep disturbances and cardiovascular disorders. Vibration is oscillatory motion
about a point. Occupational/Chronic exposure to hand transmitted vibration results in various
disorders sometimes collectively known as the “hand-arm vibration disease or “vibration
syndrome”. The syndrome includes vascular, neurological and musculoskeletal disorders that
may become manifest individually or collectively. This syndrome, otherwise known as
Raynaud’s phenomenon. Workers may be exposed to Segmental vibration responsible for such
neurological effects as numbness, tingling, and an elevated sensory threshold to touch,
temperature and pain. Different vascular problems such as a pure vasospastic phenomenon, a
digital organic microangiopathy, or an occlusive arterial thrombosis can be found. Diffuse
vibration neuropathies with involvement of mechanical skin receptors (or carpal tunnel
syndrome) are also often associated. The relation between these neurovascular disorders is not
clear but automatic dysfunction in carpal tunnel syndrome can induce a Raynaud’s phenomenon,
which is curable with surgery. Workers who use hand held vibrating tools are also exposed to
diverse environmental and occupation factors, accounting for the wide clinical spectra of the
disease. Epidemiological studies have pointed out that the prevalence of Vibration-induced
White Finger is very wide, ranging from 0-5% in warm climates to 80-100% in cold climates. In
the pure vasospastic Raynaud’s phenomenon, exposure to cold is probably the most triggering
factor, and cold protection the most effective preventive measure. In the case of digital blanching
associated with carpal tunnel syndrome, other ergonomic factors such as repetitive forceful use

9
of the hands are likely to play a dominant part and a workplace ergonomic modification is
indicated.
 Potential hazards associated with collapse during construction
Construction involves buildings going up and coming down, as well as excavations and the
building of trenches. At any given time, collapses could occur in excavations and trenches,
scaffolding and walls, through undermining, dangerous structures and accidental collapse as
structures are installed, erected or demolished. With vehicles, plant, equipment and movement of
materials, the busy nature of construction sites means that moving objects frequently results in
on-site fatalities – 20 (11%) of deaths in 2015-2016 alone. Particular risk comes from cranes and
plant, including forklifts, plus the actual volume of traffic which can form part of a working site -
let alone the heavy nature of the equipment and the materials they are transporting and dumping.
On top of these factors, it’s also significant that movement usually occurs within sites which are
uneven, exposed to the elements and difficult to manoeuvre around. These hazards could be
minimized by implementing protective systems for trenches and workers using them; including
exit and inspection, retaining and remedial structures; appropriate risk assessment of buildings at
risk of collapse or demolition schedules.
 Potential hazards associated with exposures to noise hazards
Noise is an intolerable sound (usually ≥ 90 decibel). The construction site working environment
is busy and noisy. Sudden loud volume can be hazardous for workers, but it’s also exposure to
long-term, repetitive sounds such as drills and compressors which can lead to short or long term
problems, including hearing loss. Construction site noise can also present a distraction which can
result in accidents. Impacts of noise on health could be better illustrated with reports of
community surveys around some airports, since these clearly suggested an association between
exposure to noise and attendance at general practitioners, self-reported health problems and use
of cardiovascular drugs including antihypertensive agents. Increased prevalence of hypertension
has been found in the areas or among populations exposed to aircraft noise. Stronger association
have also been found between annoyance and measures of maximum aircraft noise levels
compared with energy averaged levels and between increased blood pressure in cross sectional
studies of children and after exposure to high levels of military low altitude flight noise in field
studies and from recorded aircraft noise in laboratory settings. Given these reports, it is quite
clear that for different occupational groups servicing the operations at the different airports

10
across the world and members of their families who, for reasons of occupational activities, may
have residential abodes near the airports or air routes, the health implications of noise for them
are quite phenomenal.
In both developed and developing nations, occupational exposure to noise is an important
cause of hearing impairment and disability. Long-term exposure to noise at work causes hearing
loss. Although counter measures have successfully reduced noise levels in many industries, noise
is still a common occupational hazard, and noise-induced hearing loss is one of the major
occupational diseases worldwide
These hazards could be minimized by correct use, checking and maintenance of PPE; additional
noise risk assessments for workers and the public; role-specific risk assessment for workers
undertaking particularly hazardous activities, such as using noisy ground-breaking equipment.
 Potential hazards associated with exposures to electricity and radiations hazards
The risks of occupational exposures to physical hazards studied establishment are also likely to
extend to those caused by electricity and radiations (cathode rays, cosmic rays, x-rays, etc.)
because these were also recorded in some units of the constructions. Leukemia, Brain Tumor,
Cutaneous Malignant Melanoma and Other Malignancies, are among occupational hazards
associated with exposure to electricity and Electromagnetic Fields as noted among various
Generation and Transmission Workers. Many studies have now been reported which have
investigated risk of brain tumors and leukemia in electrical and electronic workers.
Health effects including cancers of various sites have also been reported in workers occupationally
and residentially exposed to various forms and doses of ionizing radiations in the nuclear power
plants of Trillo and Zorita (Spain). However, to date there is no conclusive epidemiological
evidence to support the hypothesis of greater cancer risk around the nuclear facilities. Some
Studies found an increased risk for leukemia and certain specific tumors. These hazards can be
minimized by allowing only qualified electricians to undertake electrical works; adding safety
warnings and barrier systems to protect those working alongside overhead cables and power lines;
implementing good practice for workplace organization and phases of work, to reduce risk of
incidents.
 Potential hazards associated with exposures to psychosocial and ergonomical
hazards

11
In terms of the Psychosocial hazards which is also obtainable in construction projects, these stem
from overloaded work pressure, prolonged hours of work, shift duty and/or call duty schedules,
and in some instances, monotony/boredom obtainable in some sectional operations marked with
repetitive schedules. Also included here are high human traffic, problems of industrial and/or
interpersonal relations, host community youth restiveness and the worries associated with of all
these. Talking about Shift and Call duty, prolonged working hours are several dimensions of this,
just as there are several implications for both Health and Work. “Normal” hours of work are
generally taken to mean a working day with hours left for recreation and rest and modern work
legislations puts this at eight working hours per day. Rest is a night time activity, work a daytime
activity. Prolonged/extended working hours is therefore part of what has been described as
“abnormal work schedule” and means working beyond the 8-hour working period prescribed by
various countries’ work legislations(working time directive) as harmonized by that of the
International Labor Organization(ILO). However, history shows that such “abnormal” working
hours are not modern phenomenon.
One of the most important physiological problems associated with Shift duty and the night shift
in particular, is that working, eating, and sleeping phases are changed. Humans (as with other
mammals have natural rhythmicity to many bodily functions with many operating a 25 hour
cycle circadian rhythms. Such free running cycles, which include body temperature, respiratory
rate, urinary excretion, cell division, and hormone production, can be modulated by exogenous
factors such as light-dark cycle, social climate, and of course work schedules. Other general
effects of shift/call duty include reduction in quantity and quality of sleep, wide spread complaint
of fatigue, anxiety, depression and increased neuroticism(indicators of mental health effects),
increased evidence of adverse cardiovascular effects, possible increase in gastrointestinal
disorders, increase evidence of reproductive effects, particularly in women( increased risk of
spontaneous abortion, low birth weight, and prematurity). Prolonged working hours lead to high
rate of exposure to toxic chemicals, other hazards and increased rates of accidents. Prolonged
working hours are among the ergonomic risk factors associated with back, neck and shoulder
complaints (musculoskeletal disorders).
 Potential hazards associated with exposures to biological hazards.
Based on the peculiarities of different work places vis-à-vis the hygienic standards, many
workers of different workplaces had been afflicted with one infection or the other on account of

12
biological hazards. Agents of biological origin cause biological hazards. The biological hazards
are mainly from exposure to disease agents of infections and infestations such as bacteria,
viruses, rickettsia, coxiella, chlamydia, fungi, helminthes, protozoan parasites, other parasites/
Pathogens including the vectors of these, and sundry other conditions that predisposes to diseases
and infirmities including bites from rodents, reptiles and insects including malaria-causing
mosquitoes, as well as contamination of food/water.
Bio aerosols occur ubiquitously as inhalable mixtures of air and microorganisms, or organic
substances of microbial and plant origin. Besides livestock breading and farming, the increasing
number of large-scale compost facilities for sewage sludge, and yard and solid wastes being
established within the scope of modern disposal concepts, can release bio aerosols. Health-
relevant molds (Aspergillus fumigatus) and actinomycetes accumulated in compost material
become airborne as vegetative cells or spores through movement of the materials. In the outdoor
air, exposure to bio aerosols (for example, containing Aspergillus fumigatus) can occur from
natural or anthropogenic sources. In various working populations asthma, chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease, extrinsic allergic alveolitis, and organic dust toxic symptoms (febrile
episodes with transient lung function changes not associated with occupational asthma or
extrinsic allergic alveolitis) are associated with inhalation of airborne microorganisms Health
effects typical for exposure to noninfectious microbial agents are usually not dependent on
viability of microorganisms but are caused by such specific agents as allergens and toxins that
are present in both viable and nonviable microorganisms.
 Potential hazards associated with exposures to chemicals hazards
A wide range of chemical hazards of diverse nature can lead to very dangerous hazards in
construction of these petroleum tanks, although this is not quite surprising given that a great deal
of chemical substances are associated with activities of this industrial sector, either as production
and/or process chemicals), products, or part of the discharged effluents in the form of solids,
liquids, solvents, gases, mists, vapors and fumes (including fuels and welding fumes), oil spills,
flammable and/or explosive substances. With regards to the vapor and fumes, all staff in the
construction site is at risk.
Man’s activities, particularly industrial activities, have resulted in an increasing circulation of
naturally occurring substances, and the massive introduction of synthetic chemicals (Xenobiotic)
in the environment. As the number and varieties of industrial types are legion, so also are the

13
chemicals. The number of chemicals is so staggering that well over 750,000 of them now exist.
A wide range of pathological states in different organs may be induced by exposure to
environmental agents and even death may be caused or hastened by such exposures. However,
the reaction to exposure to a chemical depends on inherited and acquired characteristics and the
life-style of the human subject (or other biological system), the properties and form of the
chemical and the circumstances of the contact. The outcome may be no effect, some adverse
effect with recovery, or toxicity with morbidity.
No matter the circumstance of contact (which may be recreational, residential, or occupational),
human health is affected by all the activities of an individual who is subject to a continuum of
chemical exposures in the external environment including air, water, soil and food. In spite of all
these, chemical exposure at work is almost without exception higher than the exposures of the
general population. Therefore, the adverse effect of chemicals are most likely to appear at work.
This is true for both acute poisoning and for the more insidious long-term effects. Exposure to
chemicals may cause human disease in several ways. First, a certain disease may result directly
from exposure to a specific chemical compound. Second, exposure to a chemical may be only
one of several factors contributing to the development of a disease, and, thus, be part of a multi-
causal relationship.
Chemical exposure may also aggravate a pre-existing disease. For example, air pollution with
nitrogen oxides will provoke airway symptoms in patients with respiratory diseases. Thus,
exposure to chemicals may constitute a leading factor in the development of a range of human
diseases. An important determinant of health however, is the balance between the status of the
milieu interieur and that of the milieu exterieur. Excess or deficiency of naturally occurring
chemicals may alter this balance by making the body tissues more vulnerable. Health effects of
chemical toxicity include organ system damages including those of the liver, kidneys,
bones/joints, gastrointestinal tract, respiratory system, brain and nervous system, blood-forming
system etc. Some of these effects are immediate and acute; others are delayed and result in
chronic situations, while others are long term effects including sterility, mutations and birth
defects. Chemicals have caused, and continue to cause immense sufferings in the form of acute
poisonings, reproductive failures and terata, cancers and allergic reactions. They are also the
cause of deterioration of the environment.

14
 CHAPTER 3
Identification of Hazards on Tank Construction Site.

3.1 Introduction
One of the "root causes" of workplace injuries, illnesses, and incidents is the failure to identify or
recognize hazards that are present, or that could have been anticipated. A critical element of any
effective safety and health program is a proactive, ongoing process to identify and assess such
hazards.

To identify and assess hazards, employers and workers must;

 Collect and review information about the hazards present or likely to be present in the
workplace.
 Conduct initial and periodic workplace inspections of the workplace to identify new or
recurring hazards.
 Investigate injuries, illnesses, incidents, and close calls/near misses to determine the
underlying hazards, their causes, and safety and health program shortcomings.
 Group similar incidents and identify trends in injuries, illnesses, and hazards reported.
 Consider hazards associated with emergency or non-routine situations.
 Determine the severity and likelihood of incidents that could result for each hazard
identified, and use this information to prioritize corrective actions.

3.2 Units of a tank construction site and potential hazards

The table below highlights some of the various units on a tank construction site, their activities/
functions with the potential hazards identified;

S/N Unit Name Activities/Functions Hazards

1. Administrative unit 1. Project managers offices 1.Slips, trips and falls
2. Meetings Prolonged sitting.
3. Administrations 2. Prolonged hours of work
3. High human traffic

15
 4.Community relations
problem
2. Technical and 1. Engineering and technical 1. Noise
Equipment unit staff. 2. Slips, trips and falls
2. Routine monitoring of 3. Heat
performances of process 4. Climbing
units and facilities. 5. Inhalation of
3. Carrying out special chemicals e.g. H2S
technical studies and 6. Prolonged sitting
process development 7. Prolonged hours of
work. work
4. Ensuring laid down 8. Poor work design
procedures are followed
in operations and
maintenance of equipment
and facilities.
5. Suggest modifications to
procedures and equipment
where necessary.
3. General engineering 1. Identifying and 1. Slips, trips and falls
unit developing for 2. Heat
implementation, 3. Climbing
improvement and capital 4. Noise
projects. 5. Prolonged sitting
2. Review and advise third position
party proposal inspection 6. Poor work design
of new technologies,
equipment, material and
practice.
3. Ensuring equipment
reliability and monitoring
troubleshooting.
4. Liaising with third parties
on project imparting on
plants operations.
4. Computer services 1. Maintenance of computer 1. Exposure to
unit systems emissions
2. Playing advisory role to 2. Prolonged sitting
the project management
on computer operations

16
 and other modernization
issues
3. Responsible for control
systems such as
construction monitoring
e.g. tank monitoring and
tank gauging system
4. The live camp unit 1. Provide transit 1. Noise
accommodation for contractor 2. Prolonged working
and expatriate staff hazards
3. Fire
5. Power plant Unit 1. Electric power generation for 1.Slips, Trips and Falls
the refinery. 2. Noise.
2. Operating the start-up and 3. Heat
shutdown of boilers, turbine 4.Cold
generators and their auxiliaries. 5. Manual handling.
3. Preparation of chemical to 6.Chemicals: Phosphate,
control the boiler water and steam hydrazine, Amine
parameters. 7. fire
6. Fire, Safety and 1. Playing advisory role to all 1. Noise
Environment operators in all locations on 2. Heat
– Safety Section safety issues. 3. Exposure to radioactive
materials e.g. microwaves
2. Ascertaining the safety aspect
4. Climbing and vehicular
of the work carried out by making movement.
sure that they are safety insured 5. Exposure to biological
e.g. toxic and corrosive hazard e.g. snakes.
substances.
7. Fire, Safety and 1. Pollution Control. 1. Noise
Environment 2. Conducts regular inspection of 2. Heat
-Environment work areas e.g. process 3. Vehicular Movement
Section workshop, canteen, storage tanks, 4. Exposure to chemicals
etc. e.g. H2S.
3. Ensure proper handling and 5. Exposure to biological
disposal of Industrial Wastes. hazards e.g. snakes.
4. Supervises directly the use of
weed killer chemicals along
product pipe ways
5. Inspection of purchased
material/equipment for
acceptance.

17
 8. Fire, Safety and 1. Fire fighting with the aid of
Environment extinguisher for rescue purposes
– Fire Section 2. Execution of rescue mission
with the use of hydraulic platform
3. Product of mechanical foam
for the fighting.
4. Undergoing fire training
9. Planning and 1. Planning and management
construction unit of construction activities.
2. Work breakdown
structure
3. Project network of
activities
10. General Warehouse 1. Distribution of materials,
unit safety equipment, plant
spares and industrial
chemicals to the user’s
department to keep the
plants alive.
2. Stacking and scaffolding
of heavy-duty equipment
to prevent corrosion.
11. The Security Gates/ 1. Protection of the Plants
Posts facilities, workforce and
operation from sabotage, arson
and pilfering
2. Manning of Security
Posts/Gates
3.Crime surveillance and
prevention
Access control
Investigation of relevant cases.
12. Staff Canteen/ 1. Receipt/Storage of raw food
Kitchen items.
1. Noise
2. Heat
3. Inhalation of chemicals
e.g. caustic
4. Climbing
5. Explosion of fire and the
vessels.
1. Slips, Trips and Falls
2. Vehicular Movement
3. Noise
4. Heat
5. Awkward work positions
6. Exposure to Solvents
7. Exposure to Chemicals
8. Shift work
Noise
Heat
Manual Handling
Inhalation of chemicals e.g.
Hydrogen sulphide, Carbon
monoxide and Benzene
Psychosocial hazards e.g.
Shift work, Overloaded
work.
1.Slip, Trips and Fall
2.Noise
3.Vehicular Movement
4. Exposure to Chemical
e.g. H2S, SO2 etc.
5.Boredom
6. Prolonged
Standing/Sitting Position.
7. Industrial Relations
Problems.
8. Community Relation
Problems.
1. Slip, trip and falls.
Manual handling
2. Awkward work positions.
18
 2. Preparation (cooking) of staff 3. Mechanical accidents
meal 4. Fire and explosion
3. Serving of meal to staff. 5. Food contamination.
6. High human traffic.
7. Industrial Relations
problems.
13. Capital projects 1. Provide general project 1. Noise
budget estimates; 2. Heat
2. Obtain architect/engineer 3. Slips, trips and falls
and consulting services; 4. Shift work
3. Ensure compliance with 5. Prolonged working
programs, budgets, hours
schedules, and codes;
4. Provide regular reports
and information in other
formats to keep the
Associate Vice President
of Facilities &
Construction Management
informed on the status of
current and upcoming
projects.

14. Construction health 1. Promotion and 1. Slips, Trips and

medics / First Aid maintenance of a healthy Falls
Unit workforce in the 2. Manual handling
construction site. 3. Vehicular
2. Ensuring a low (health) Movement
risk work environment. . 4. Attending to
3. Investigating and Psychiatric Patients
managing industrial 5. Biological hazards:
diseases such as Infectious Diseases,
occupational Asthma, TB, HIV, Hepatitis
Noise-Induced Hearing A, B, C etc.
Loss (NIHL), etc. 6. X-Ray Radiations
4. Routine and Emergency 7. Industrial Relations
health care delivery; In Problems
and Out Patient care. 8. Interpersonal
5. Personnel health Relations
monitoring. 9. Shift work

19
 6. Medical laboratory 10. Call duties.
Services 11. Prolonged working
hours
15. Fleet workshop 1. Construction vehicle fleet 1. Slips, Trips and Falls
maintenance 2. Manual Handling
3. Electricity
4. Chemical: Acids
5. Use of Fuel, PMS
6. Vehicular Movements
7. Insect bites
8. Reptile/Rodents

16. The fuel Dump 1. Filling of both official and 1.Work Pressure
(Petrol Station) private vehicles with PMS 2.Interpersonal relations
and AGO.
2. Filling of construction
equipment with PMS and
AGO.
17. Architectural 1. Responsible for visual 1. Slips, trips and falls
Engineering Unit appearance of the 2. Prolonged sitting.
buildings and structures
3. Prolonged hours of
before final structural
design. work
4. Prolonged hours of
2. Responsible for planning, sitting
developing and designing 5. Work pressure
construction plans.

3. Responsible for designing

and creating building
plans that are safe, secure
and aesthically thinking.

18. Human resources 3. 1. Stress

unit 2. Work Pressure
1. Determine needs of the
staff. 3. Interpersonal
2. Determine to use relations
temporary staff or hire

20
 employees to fill these
needs.
3. Recruit and train the best
employees.
4. Supervise the work.
5. Manage employee
relations, unions and
collective bargaining.
6. Prepare employee records
and personal policies.

21
 CHAPTER FOUR
Controls of Potential Hazards in Construction of Petroleum Tanks
4.1 Introduction
At a conference organized by the Health and Safety Commission in February 2001, to
address the problem, it was noted that at least two construction workers are being killed each
week. Targets were set to reduce the number of fatalities and major injuries by 40% over a 4-
year period. Due to the fragmented nature of the industry and its accident and ill-health
record, the recent construction industry legal framework has concentrated on hazards
associated with the industry, welfare issues and the need for management and control at all
stages of a construction project.

4.2 Methods of Hazard control Program

A hazard control program consists of all steps necessary to protect workers from exposure to
a substance or system, the training and the procedures required to monitor worker exposure
and their health to hazards such as chemicals, materials or substance, or other types of
hazards such as noise and vibration. A written workplace hazard control program should
outline which methods are being used to control the exposure and how these controls will be
monitored for effectiveness.

The methods of hazard control include;

1. Elimination: Elimination is the process of removing the hazard from the workplace. It is
the most effective way to control a risk because the hazard is no longer present. It is the
preferred way to control a hazard and should be used whenever possible. It involves
removing the hazard from the workplace, or substitute (replace) hazardous materials or
machines with less hazardous ones.

2. Engineering controls: This includes designs or modifications to plants, equipment,

ventilation systems, and processes that reduce the source of exposure. Engineering
controls are methods that are built into the design of a plant, equipment or process to
minimize the hazard. Engineering controls are a very reliable way to control worker
exposures as long as the controls are designed, used and maintained properly. The basic
types of engineering controls are:
22
 I. Process Control

Process control involves changing the way a job activity or process is done to reduce the risk.
Monitoring should be done before and as well as after the change is implemented to make sure
the changes did, in fact, control the hazard.

Examples of process changes include to:

 Use wet methods rather than dry when drilling or grinding. "Wet method" means that
water is sprayed over a dusty surface to keep dust levels down or material is mixed with
water to prevent dust from being created.
 Use an appropriate vacuum or "wet method" instead of dry sweeping (e.g. with a broom)
to control dust and reduce the inhalation hazard..

II. Enclosure and Isolation

These methods aim to keep the chemical "in" and the worker "out" (or vice versa).

An enclosure keeps a selected hazard "physically" away from the worker. Enclosed equipment,
for example, is tightly sealed and it is typically only opened for cleaning or maintenance.
Isolation places the hazardous process "geographically" away from the majority of the workers.
Common isolation techniques are to create a contaminant-free or noise-free booth either around
the equipment or around the employee workstations.

III. Ventilation

Ventilation is a method of control that strategically "adds" and "removes" air in the work
environment. Ventilation can remove or dilute an air contaminant if designed properly. Local
exhaust ventilation is very adaptable to almost all chemicals and operations. It removes the
contaminant at the source so it cannot disperse into the work space and it generally uses lower
exhaust rates than general ventilation (general ventilation usually exchanges air in the entire
room).

3. Administrative controls: Administrative controls limit workers' exposures by scheduling

shorter work times in contaminant areas or by implementing other "rules". These control

23
 measures have many limitations because the hazard itself is not actually removed or
reduced. Administrative controls are not generally favored because they can be difficult
to implement, maintain and are not a reliable way to reduce exposure. When necessary,
methods of administrative control include:

I. Restricting access to a work area.

II. Restricting the task to only those competent or qualified to perform the work.
III. Scheduling maintenance and other high exposure operations for times when few workers
are present (such as evenings, weekends).
IV. Using job-rotation schedules that limit the amount of time an individual worker is
exposed to a substance.
V. Using a work-rest schedule that limits the length of time a worker is exposure to a hazard.

The basic types of administrative controls include;

I. Work Practices

Work practices are also a form of administrative controls. In most workplaces, even if there are
well designed and well maintained engineering controls present, safe work practices are very
important. Some elements of safe work practices include:

 Developing and implementing safe work procedures or standard operating procedures.

 Training and education of employees about the operating procedures as well as other
necessary workplace training.
 Establishing and maintaining good housekeeping programs.
 Keeping equipment well maintained.
 Preparing and training for emergency response for incidents such as spills, fire or
employee injury.

II. Education and Training

Employee education and training on how to conduct their work safely helps to minimize the risk
of exposure and is a critical element of any complete workplace health and safety program.
Training must cover not only how to do the job safely but it must also ensure that workers

24
understand the hazards and risks of their job. It must also provide them with information on how
to protect themselves and co-workers.

III. Good Housekeeping

Good housekeeping is essential to prevent the accumulation of hazardous or toxic materials (e.g.,
build-up of dust or contaminant on ledges, or beams), or hazardous conditions (e.g., poor
stockpiling).

IV. Emergency Preparedness

Being prepare for emergencies means making sure that the necessary equipment and supplies are
readily available and that employees know what to do when something unplanned happens such
as a release, spill, fire or injury. These procedures should be written and employees should have
the opportunity to practice their emergency response skills regularly.

4. Personal protective equipment (PPE): Personal protective equipment (PPE) includes

items such as respirators, protective clothing such as gloves, face shields, eye protection,
and footwear that serve to provide a barrier between the wearer and the chemical or
material. It is the final item on the list for a very good reason. Personal protective
equipment should never be the only method used to reduce exposure except under very
specific circumstances because PPE may "fail" (stop protecting the worker) with little or
no warning. For example: "breakthrough" can occur with gloves, clothing, and respirator
cartridges.

4.3 Controls of Potential Hazard on a Construction site

Some potential hazards common on construction sites of petroleum tanks are highlighted below
alongside some of their controls;
1) Protection against fire and collapse hazards: Emergency procedures relevant to the site
should be in place to prevent or reduce injury arising from fire, explosions, flooding or
structural collapse. These procedures should include the location of fire points and
assembly points, extinguisher provision, site evacuation, contact with the emergency
services, accident reporting and investigation and rescue from excavations and confined

25
 spaces. There also needs to be training in these procedures at the induction of new
workers and ongoing for all workers.
2) Prevention against Noise Hazards: Noisy machinery should be fitted with silencers.
When machinery is used in a workshop (such as woodworking machines), a noise survey
should be undertaken and, if the noise levels exceed the second action level, the use of
ear defenders becomes mandatory. Noise hazards can also be minimized by correct use,
checking and maintenance of PPE; additional noise risk assessments for workers and the
public; role-specific risk assessment for workers undertaking particularly hazardous
activities, such as using noisy ground-breaking equipment.
3) Prevention from physical hazards: Physical hazards could result from trips, slips, falls,
collapse, excessive vibrations etc. In order prevent vibration exposure is to buy tools and
equipment that produce a minimum of vibration. Such tools and equipment have built in
controls to prevent harmful vibration exposure to the user. In order to prevent trips, falls
or slips, keeping walkways and stairways free of wet, debris and materials which could
cause slips; use temporary surfaces to cover holes and excavations; deploy non trip
footings; use warning signs; implement protocols for removing spills and for working in
bad weather.
4) Prevention from biological hazards: The collection and removal of waste from a
construction site is normally accomplished using a skip. The skip should be located on
firm, level ground away from the main construction work, particularly excavation work.
This will allow clear access to the skip for filling and removal from site. On arrival on
site, the integrity of the skip should be checked. It should be filled either by chute or by
mechanical means unless items can be placed in by hand. Skips should not be overfilled
and be netted or sheeted over when it is full. Sanitary and washing facilities (including
showers if necessary) with an adequate supply of drinking water should be provided for
everybody working on the site. Accommodation will be required for the changing and
storage of clothes and rest facilities for break times. There should be adequate first-aid
provision (an accident book) and protective clothing against adverse weather conditions.
Inadequate disposal of waste and poor sanitary activities leads to action of
microorganisms on site and these could lead to biological hazards.

26
5) Prevention from electrical/radiation hazards: Electrical hazards such as sparks, shocks
and explosions can be minimized by allowing only qualified electricians to undertake
electrical works; adding safety warnings and barrier systems to protect those working
alongside overhead cables and power lines; implementing good practice for workplace
organization and phases of work, to reduce risk of incidents. However, due to the
possibility of wet conditions, it is recommended that only 110 V equipment is used on
site. Where mains electricity is used (perhaps during the final fitting out of the building),
then residual current devices should be used with all equipment. Where workers or tall
vehicles are working near or under overhead power lines, either the power should be
turned off or ‘goal posts’ or taped markers used to prevent contact with the lines.
Similarly, underground supply lines should be located and marked before digging takes
place.
6) Prevention from health hazards on construction sites: These hazards include dust
(including asbestos), cement, solvents and paints and cleaners. A COSHH assessment is
essential before work starts with regular updates as new substances are introduced.
Copies of the assessment and the related safety data sheets should be kept in the site
office for reference after accidents or fires. They will also be required to check that the
correct personal protective equipment is available. The inhalation of very fi ne silica dust
can lead to the development of silicosis. HSE have produced a detailed information sheet
on silica. In addition to silica, there are three additional hazardous substances that are
particularly relevant to construction activities – cement dust and wet cement, wood dust
and the biological hazard tetanus. Cement dust and wet cement is an important
construction and is also a hazardous substance. Contact with wet cement can cause
serious burns or ulcers which will take several months to heal and may need a skin graft.
Dermatitis, both irritant and allergic, can be caused by skin contact with either wet
cement or cement powder. Allergic dermatitis is caused by an allergic reaction to
hexavalent chromium (chromate) which is present in cement. Cement powder can also
cause inflammation and irritation of the eye, irritation of the nose and throat, and,
possibly, chronic lung problems. Personal protective equipment in the form of gloves,
overalls with long sleeves and full length trousers and waterproof boots must be worn on
all occasions. If the atmosphere is dusty, goggles and respiratory protection equipment

27
 must be worn. An important factor in the possibility of dermatitis occurring is the
sensitivity of the worker to the chromate in the cement and the existing condition of the
skin including cuts and abrasions. Finally, adequate welfare facilities are essential so that
workers can wash their hands at the end of the job and before eating, drinking or using
the toilet. If cement is left on the skin for long periods without being washed off, the risk
of an allergic reaction to hexavalent chromium will increase.
Wood dust can be hazardous, particularly when it is hard wood dust which is known, in
rare cases, to lead to nasal cancer. Composite boards such as medium-density fiberboard
(MDF) are hazardous due to the resin bonding material used which also can be
carcinogenic.
At low exposure levels, it can cause irritation to the eyes, nose and throat and can lead to
dermatitis, asthma and rhinitis. The main problems are most likely to occur when the
MDF is being machined and dust is produced. A suitable risk assessment should be made
and gloves and appropriate masks should always be worn when machining MDF.
7) Prevention against Ergonomic/ psychosocial hazards: When Ergonomic Hazards are
identified, it may be necessary to redesign aspects of a workspace or employee routine.
Anything that could cause employees to experience long or short term strain should be
evaluated, and alterations to procedures and workspaces should be considered. If it’s
determined that Ergonomic Hazards cannot be removed from a workplace, controls can
help to reduce risks that are involved. These hazards can be controlled by;

a) Breaking down tasks and weight loads to reduce the exertion necessary by employees.

b) Limiting employee exertion by using equipment for heavy lifting.

c) Redesigning workspaces to accommodate individuals in order to reduce strain and

improve posture.

d) Ensuring that all workspaces provide employees the full range of motion required to
complete a task.

e) Repositioning objects and surfaces such as tables in the workplace to reduce the need for
reaching.

f) Provide employees with break periods that help to reduce short-term strain.

28
g) Adjusting the pace of work to reduce exertion.

h) Rotate employees working in repetitive or strenuous tasks, to reduce exposure.

i) Store objects and tools where employees can retrieve them while maintaining neutral
position.

j) Label any heavy loads with a weight.

k) Place requirements on weight loads by introducing group lifting policies.

29
 CHAPTER FIVE
Conclusion and Recommendation
5.1 Conclusion
The construction environments, facilities and activities involved in the building of petroleum oil
refining and distribution tanks in Nigeria are laden with numerous hazards that can be grouped
into five main hazard categories which include physical, chemical, biological, psychosocial and
ergonomic hazards. Given that this situation dispose staff and workers to sundry health risks and
impacts, with eventual reduction in efficiency and productivity, there is urgent need for facility
upgrade and industrial health policy/services update to ensure the abatement of these hazards and
mitigation of associated health risks, as well as securing safer facilities, healthier and more
productive work environment for the petroleum refining and distribution industries in Nigeria.

5.2 Recommendation
Also in conclusion, the following recommendations were deduced in order to achieve a safer
environment during construction of this petroleum tanks;
 All staffs and workers must put on adequate fit-for-purpose Personal protective
equipment such as overalls, gloves, glasses, nose masks, safety boots, and ear blockers at
all times while on the construction site.
 All machineries or equipment on the construction site must only be operated by
professionals in the field.
 All machineries or equipment must be serviced from time to time to avoid overhauling of
this machineries.
 Safety warnings and alerts should be installed especially round employees working
alongside overhead cables, power lines and high tension cables.
 Working environment must be kept clean and free of microorganisms at all time in order
to prevent biological hazards.
 Fire extinguishers, fire drills, assembly points should be introduced to personnel in order
to be alert in the case of a fire accident.

30
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