Math 20 Course Module

University of the Philippines Diliman
MATHEMATICS 20
Precalculus: Functions and Their Graphs
Course Module
Institute of Mathematics
MATHEMATICS 20
Precalculus: Functions and Their Graphs
Course Module
Unit 1
©2018 by the Institute of Mathematics, University of the Philippines Diliman.
All rights reserved.
No copies can be made in part or in whole without prior written permission from the
Institute of Mathematics, University of the Philippines Diliman.
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Mathematics 20 Module Writers and Editors:

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Gari Lincoln C. Chua

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Odessa D. Consorte
Russelle H. Guadalupe
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Marvin M. Olavides
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Thomas Herald M. Vergara

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Reviewed by:
Rovin B. Santos, Ph.D.
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Contents
0 Review Topics in Algebra 3

0.1 Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
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0.1.1 Definitions and Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
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0.1.2 Relations on Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
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0.1.3 Operations on Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
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0.1.4 The Set of Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
0.2 The Real Number System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
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0.2.1 Field Axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
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0.2.2 Equality Axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
0.2.3 Order Properties of R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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. . . . . . . 9
0.3 Integer Exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
0.4 Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
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0.4.1 Special Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

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0.4.2 Factoring Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

0.5 Rational Exponents and Radicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
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0.6 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

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0.6.1 Definitions and Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

0.6.2 Operations Involving Complex Numbers in Rectangular Form
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. . . . . . . 17
1 Equations and Inequalities 21

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1.1 Review of Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

1.1.1 Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.1.2 Quadratic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.1.3 Equations Involving Rational Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.1.4 Equations Involving Radicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.1.5 Equations in Quadratic Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.1.6 Equations Involving Absolute Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.2 Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.2.1 Solving Linear Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.2.2 Inequalities Involving Higher Degree Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.2.3 Inequalities Involving Absolute Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2 The Two-Dimensional Coordinate System 45

2.1 Two-Dimensional Cartesian Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.2 Graphs of Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
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iv Contents
2.3 Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.4 Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3 Conic Sections 57
3.1 Parabola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.2 Ellipse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.3 Hyperbola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4 Systems of Equations and Inequalities 71

4.1 Review of Linear Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.1.1 Two Linear Equations in Two Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.1.2 Systems of Three Linear Equations in Three Variables . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.1.3 Systems of Linear Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
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4.2 Nonlinear Systems of Equations and Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
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Unit 1
Module 0: Review Topics in Algebra

Module 1: Equations and Inequalities
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Module 2: The Two-Dimensional Coordinate System
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Module 3: Conic Sections
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Module 4: Systems of Equations and Inequalities
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Contents
Module 0
Review Topics in Algebra
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0.1 Sets
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0.1.1 Definitions and Notations
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Definition 0.1.1. A set is a well-defined collection of objects. Any object in the set is called an
element or member of the set. A set A is finite if it is possible to list down all of its elements or has
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no elements. Otherwise, A is infinite.
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We use the following notations and terminology:

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• If a is an element of set A, then we denote this by a ∈ A.

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• The empty or null set is a set without any elements and is denoted by ∅ or {}.
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• The universal set U is the set consisting of all elements under consideration.
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• The symbol n(A) denotes the cardinality of a finite set A; that is, the number of elements
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contained in A.
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There are two ways to describe the elements in a set:

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1. The listing/roster method describes the set by listing all the elements in the set.
2. The rule method uses a descriptive phrase in describing the elements that are in the set. This
method is usually used when there are too many elements to list down.
0.1.2 Relations on Sets

Definition 0.1.2. Let A and B be sets.
1. A is a subset of B or A is contained in B, written as A ⊆ B, if and only if every element of
A is an element of B; that is, if x ∈ A then x ∈ B. If A is not contained in B, we write this
as A 6⊆ B.
2. A is a proper subset of B or A is properly contained in B, written A ⊂ B, if and only if A
is a subset of B and there exists an element of B which is not in A.
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4 Module 0. Review Topics in Algebra
3. A and B are equal, written as A = B, if and only if they have precisely the same elements.
This means x ∈ A if and only if x ∈ B. Equivalently, A = B if and only if every element of
A is an element of B and every element of B is in A. If sets A and B are not equal, we write
A 6= B.
4. A is equivalent to B, written as A ∼ B, if and only if n(A) = n(B), that is, if sets A and B
have the same number of elements.
We can also define equivalence of two sets in terms of a one-to-one correspondence between
their elements. Two sets A and B are in one-to-one correspondence if each element of A
corresponds to a unique element of B and each element of B corresponds to a unique element of
A.
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Definition 0.1.3. Sets A and B are equivalent if and only if sets A and B are in one-to-one
correspondence.
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A Venn Diagram is used to visualize sets and their relations. The universal set U is usually
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represented by a rectangle and any set A ⊆ U is represented by some closed region inside the
rectangle. An element of a set may be represented as a point inside the set. To illustrate, if we have
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x ∈ A ⊆ U and y ∈ U but y ∈ / A, then these may be represented by Venn diagram (a). On the
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other hand, the relation B ⊆ A ⊆ U may be represented by Venn diagram (b):
(a) (b)
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U U
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A A
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B
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0.1.3 Operations on Sets

Definition 0.1.4. Let A and B be sets in a universal set U.
1. The union of A and B, denoted A ∪ B, is the set of elements that belong to either A or B or
both. In symbols,
A ∪ B = {x|x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.
2. The intersection of A and B, denoted A ∩ B, is the set of elements that belong to both A and
B. Equivalently,
A ∩ B = {x|x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.
A and B are said to be disjoint if A ∩ B = ∅.
0.1. Sets 5
3. The complement of A, denoted Ac or A′ , is the set of elements in U which are not in A. That
is,
Ac = A′ = {x ∈ U|x ∈ / A}.
4. The set difference A − B or A \ B (read as A minus B) is the set of elements in A which are
not in B. In symbols,
A − B = A \ B = {x ∈ U|x ∈ A and x 6∈ B}
Similarly, the set difference B − A is given by
B − A = B \ A = {x ∈ U|x ∈ B and x ∈
/ A}.
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The above operations are represented by the shaded regions in the following Venn diagrams:
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U U A
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A B
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A∪B Ac
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A B A B
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A∩B A−B
Definition 0.1.5.
1. An ordered pair (a, b) is a set with two elements in which we distinguish a first and second
element. For equality of ordered pairs, (a, b) = (x, y) if and only if a = x and b = y.
2. The Cartesian product (or cross product) of sets A and B, denoted A × B, is the set of
ordered pairs (a, b) where a ∈ A and b ∈ B. In symbols,
A × B = {(a, b) | a ∈ A and b ∈ B}.
Remark 0.1.6. Note that if a 6= b, the ordered pair (a, b) is not equal to (b, a). However, the set
{a, b} is equal to the set {b, a}. In general, for any sets A and B, A × B 6= B × A.
Note that to write down an ordered pair, we use parentheses instead of braces.
0.1.4 The Set of Real Numbers

Throughout the Math 20 module, the following sets of numbers and their corresponding nota-
tions are considered:
Natural Numbers or Counting Numbers, N = {1, 2, 3, . . .}
Whole Numbers, W = N ∪ {0} = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}
Integers, Z = {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}
Note that the set of integers consists of three disjoint sets: the set of natural numbers or
the positive integers, {0}, and the set of negative integers. Zero is neither positive nor
negative.
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Rational Numbers, Q = {x|x = p/q, p, q ∈ Z, q 6= 0}
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The rational numbers are those numbers that can be expressed as ratios of integers.
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Among these are fractions, terminating decimals, and nonterminating repeating deci-
1 1 1
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mals. e.g. = 0.5, = 0.25, = 0.3333 . . .
2 4 3
Irrational Numbers, Q′
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These are the non-repeating, nonterminating decimals. The numbers π = 3.1416 . . .,
√
e = 2.718281 . . . , 2 are examples of irrational numbers.
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The above sets of numbers are subsets of the set of real numbers which is the union of the set
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of rational numbers and the set of irrational numbers. That is,

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R = Q ∪ Q′ .
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Also, note that the sets of rational and irrational numbers are disjoint, that is, Q ∩ Q′ = ∅. The set
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R can be represented by a Venn diagram as shown below:

R
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Q
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Z
W
Q′
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We have the following relations:

N ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R.
0.2 The Real Number System

The real number system is the set of real numbers with two operations called addition and
multiplication. If a, b ∈ R, then the sum of a and b is a + b (where a and b are called addends or
terms) and the product of a and b is a · b or ab (where a and b are called factors).
0.2. The Real Number System 7
0.2.1 Field Axioms

1. Closure Axiom for Addition and Multiplication
For any real numbers a and b, a + b and a · b are unique real numbers, i.e. for all a, b ∈
R, a + b ∈ R and a · b ∈ R.
2. Associative Axiom for Addition and Multiplication

For all a, b, c ∈ R, (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) and (a · b) · c = a · (b · c).
3. Commutative Axiom for Addition and Multiplication

For all a, b ∈ R, a + b = b + a and a · b = b · a.
4. Distributive Axiom of Multiplication over Addition
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For all a, b, c ∈ R, c · (a + b) = c · a + c · b.
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5. Identity Axioms
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• Existence of Additive Identity
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There exists a real number, zero (0), such that for any real number a,
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a + 0 = 0 + a = a.
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0 is called the identity element for addition.

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• Existence of Multiplicative Identity

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There exists a real number, 1, such that for any real number a,
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a · 1 = 1 · a = a.
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1 is called the identity element for multiplication.

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6. Inverse Axioms
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• Inverse Axiom for Addition

For every real number a, there is a unique inverse element, −a, such that
a + (−a) = 0.
The number −a is called the additive inverse of a.

• Inverse Axiom for Multiplication
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If a 6= 0, there is a unique inverse element, , such that
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1 1
a· = 1 = · a.
a a
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The number is called the multiplicative inverse or reciprocal of a.
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0.2.2 Equality Axioms

1. Reflexive Property of Equality
For all a ∈ R, a = a.
2. Symmetric Property of Equality

For all a, b ∈ R, if a = b then b = a.
3. Transitive Property of Equality

For all a, b, c ∈ R, if a = b and b = c, then a = c.
4. Additive Property of Equality

For all a, b, c ∈ R, if a = b then a + c = b + c.
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5. Multiplicative Property of Equality
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For all a, b, c ∈ R, if a = b then a · c = b · c.
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Definition 0.2.1. If a, b ∈ R, then subtraction assigns to a and b a real number denoted a − b,
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called the difference of a and b, where a − b = a + (−b).
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Definition 0.2.2. If a, b ∈ R and b 6= 0, then division assigns to a and b a real number, denoted
a ÷ b = ab , called the quotient of a and b, where ab = a · 1b .
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Remark 0.2.3. Note that division by zero is NOT defined.

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Operations on Quotients
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Let a, b, c, d ∈ R with b, d 6= 0
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a c ad ± bc
• Sum/Difference:± =
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b d bd
a c ac
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• Product: · =
b d bd
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a c a d ad
• Quotient: ÷ = · =
b d b c bc
0.3. Integer Exponents 9
0.2.3 Order Properties of R
Definition 0.2.4. Let a, b ∈ R.

1. A real number a is a positive real number if a > 0.
2. A real number a is a negative real number if 0 > a.
3. We say a < b (a less than b) if b > a.

Order Axioms
1. Trichotomy Axiom. For all a, b ∈ R, exactly one of the following holds: a > b, a = b, or b >
a.
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2. Transitive Axiom for Order. For all a, b, c ∈ R, if a > b and b > c, then a > c.
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3. Addition Axiom for Order. For all a, b, c ∈ R, if a > b , then a + c > b + c.
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4. Multiplication Axiom for Order. For all a, b, c ∈ R, where c > 0, if a > b , then a · c > b · c.
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0.3 Integer Exponents
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Definition 0.3.1. If a ∈ R and n ∈ N, then

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an = a
| · a · a{z· · · · · a}
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n times
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is the nth power of a. The number a is called the base and n is called the exponent. If n = 0, we
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define an to be equal to 1.
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The following rules can be easily deduced from this definition.

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Theorem 0.3.2 (Laws of Exponents). Let a ∈ R and n, m ∈ N. The following hold:

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1. an · am = an+m
2. (an )m = anm
3. (ab)n = an bn
4. If a 6= 0, then  n−m

 a if n > m
n 
a 1
= if n < m
am  m−n
 a

1 if n = m
5. If b is a real number not equal to zero, then

a n an
=
b bn
Definition 0.3.3. If a is a nonzero real number and n ∈ N, we define
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a−n = .
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Example 0.3.4.
1. (210 )(211 ) = 221 4. (5x2 y 5 )(3y 4) = 15x2 y 9

2. (210 )11 = 2110
x14 1 24a6 b 3a5
3. 20
= x−6 = 6 5. =
x x 16ab7 2b6
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0.4 Polynomials
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Definition 0.4.1. An algebraic expression is any combination of variables and constants involving
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a finite number of basic operations. A polynomial is an algebraic expression involving nonnegative
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integers as powers of one or more variables. A term is a constant or a constant multiplied by a
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variable or variables. In a polynomial, terms are separated by plus or minus signs.
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0.4.1 Special Products

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There are certain products that are frequently encountered in manipulating polynomials. We
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call these products special products. We state the special products in the variables x and y but
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bear in mind that these variables may represent other variables, terms, polynomials, or algebraic
expressions.
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1. Difference of two squares: (x + y)(x − y) = x2 − y 2

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2. Square of a binomial: (x ± y)2 = x2 ± 2xy + y 2
3. Product of binomials I: (x + a)(x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab
4. Product of binomials II: (ax + b)(cx + d) = acx2 + (ad + bc)x + bd
5. Cube of a binomial: (x ± y)3 = x3 ± 3x2 y + 3xy 2 ± y 3
6. Sum or difference of two cubes: (x ± y)(x2 ∓ xy + y 2 ) = x3 ± y 3
Remark 0.4.2. We DO NOT distribute the exponents over addition or subtraction. That is,
(x + y)n 6= xn + y n .
0.4. Polynomials 11
0.4.2 Factoring Polynomials

Definition 0.4.3. A polynomial with integer coefficients is said to be
1. prime if it has no polynomial factors with integer coefficients other than 1 and itself (or −1
and its negative).
2. factored completely (or in completely factored form) if it is expressed as the product of prime
polynomials.
Example 0.4.4. x2 − y 2 = (x + y)(x − y) is completely factored since its factors can no longer
be factored further, that is, they are prime factors. On the other hand, 4x + 6 is not completely
factored since it can still be factored as 2(x + 3). Note that 2 is a monomial with degree 0.
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The following are several techniques in factoring polynomials.
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• Common Monomial Factor, ax ± ay = a(x ± y)
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Example 0.4.5.
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1. 6x5 y 4 − 14x9 y 2 = 2x5 y 2 (3y 2 − 7x4 ) at
2. x(x + 1)2 − (x + 1)(3x + 4) = (x + 1)[x(x + 1) − (3x + 4)] = (x + 1)(x2 − 2x − 4)
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• Difference of Two Squares, x2 − y 2 = (x + y)(x − y)

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Example 0.4.6.
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1. 9y 4 − 25 = (3y 2 )2 − 52 = (3y 2 − 5)(3y 2 + 5)

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2. 16m4 − n12 = (4m2 )2 − (n6 )2 = (4m2 + n6 )(4m2 − n6 )

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• Perfect Square Trinomial, x2 ± 2xy + y 2 = (x ± y)2

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Example 0.4.7.
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1. x4 − 6x2 y + 9y 2 = (x2 − 3y)2

2. 121m4 − 44m2 n4 + 4n8 = (11m2 − 2n4 )2
• Sum and Difference of Two Cubes, x3 ± y 3 = (x ± y)(x2 ∓ xy + y 2 )
Example 0.4.8.
1. 8y 3 − 27 = (2y)3 − 33 = (2y − 3)(4y 2 + 6y + 9)

2. 1 − 64m3 = (1)3 − (4m)3 = (1 − m)(1 + 4m + 16m2 )
• Trinomials: Case 1, x2 + (a + b)x + ab = (x + a)(x + b)
Example 0.4.9.
1. x2 + 5x − 6 = (x + 6)(x − 1)
2. x2 − 11x + 28 = (x − 7)(x − 4)
• Trinomials: Case 2, acx2 + (ad + bc)x + bd = (ax + b)(cx + d)

Example 0.4.10.
1. 6x2 + 7x − 3 = (2x + 3)(3x − 1)
2. 3x2 + 8x + 4 = (3x + 2)(x + 2)
• Factoring by Grouping
Here are some signs to watch out for in deciding which terms to group:
– terms with a common factor
– terms which form a factorable binomial or trinomial
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Ideally, the factored groups will exhibit a factor common to both groupings. This will lead
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to the final factored form.
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Example 0.4.11.
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1. xy 3 + 2y 2 − xy − 2
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xy 3 + 2y 2 − xy − 2 = y 2 (xy + 2) − (xy + 2)
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= (y 2 − 1)(xy + 2)
= (y + 1)(y − 1)(xy + 2)
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2. x2 − 2x + 2xy − 2y + y 2
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x2 − 2x + 2xy − 2y + y 2 = (x2 + 2xy + y 2) − (2x + 2y)

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= (x + y)2 − 2(x + y)
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= (x + y)(x + y − 2)
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• Completing the Square

This technique is applicable to polynomials that has a part which can be converted to a
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perfect square trinomial upon the addition (and then subtraction) of a perfect square term.
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The method will work if eventually, a difference of two squares is formed.

Example 0.4.12.
1. x4 + 4y 4
x4 + 4y 4 = x4 + 4y 4 + (4x2 y 2 − 4x2 y 2 )
= (x4 + 4x2 y 2 + 4y 4 ) − 4x2 y 2
= (x2 + 2y 2)2 − (2xy)2
= ((x2 + 2y 2) + 2xy)((x2 + 2y 2 ) − 2xy)
= (x2 + 2y 2 + 2xy)(x2 + 2y 2 − 2xy)
2. a8 + 5a4 b2 + 9b4
a8 + 5a4 b2 + 9b4 = a8 + 5a4 b2 + 9b4 + a4 b2 − a4 b2
= (a8 + 6a4 b2 + 9b4 ) − a4 b2
= (a4 + 3b2 )2 − (a2 b)2
= (a4 + 3b2 + a2 b) − (a4 + 3b2 − a2 b)
0.5. Rational Exponents and Radicals 13
0.5 Rational Exponents and Radicals

Definition 0.5.1. If a positive integer n > 1 and a and b are real numbers such that bn = a, then b
is an nth root of a. If n = 2 or 3, b is a square root or cube root, respectively, of a.
Definition 0.5.2. If n is√a positive integer where n > 1 and a is a real number, then the principal
nth root of a, denoted n a, is defined as follows:
√
1. If a is a positive integer, then n a is the positive nth root of a.
√
2. If a is a negative integer and n is odd, then n a is the negative nth root of a.
√
3. n 0 = 0.
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Definition 0.5.3.
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√
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1. If n > 1 is a positive integer, and a and n
a are real numbers, then
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√
a1/n = n a.
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2. If m and n are positive integers that are relatively prime, and a and n
a are real numbers,
then
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√
am/n = ( n a)m .
o
Example 0.5.4.
√ √
te
1. 641/3 = 3 64 = 4 3. (−32)1/5 = 5 −32 = −2

tu
√ √
2. 71/2 = 7 4. 322/5 = ( 5 32)2 = 22 = 4
sti
Remark 0.5.5. Because of how rational powers were defined, the laws of exponents for positive
In
and negative integral exponents can generally be extended to rational exponents. If r and s are
rational numbers, then
P
U
1. ar · as = ar+s 4. (ar )s = ars , a > 0

ar
2. ar · br = (ab)r 5. = ar−s , a 6= 0
as
ar a r m 1
3. = , b 6= 0 6. a− n = m
br b an
Note that when a < 0, (ar )s is not always equal to ars . For example, ((−4)2 )1/2 6= (−4)2(1/2)
because ((−4)2 )1/2 = 161/2 = 4 but (−4)2(1/2) = (−4)1 = −4.
Since radicals are powers with rational exponents, the laws of exponents imply the following
properties of radicals (provided the radicals are well-defined):
√ √ r √
1. n
an = ( n a)n = a a n
a
3. n
= √
b n
b
√
n √ √
n
√ m
2. ab = n
a· b 4. n
am = a n
These properties allow us to simplify radicals. A radical is in simplest form when the following
conditions are satisfied:
1. The radicand is positive.
2. The radicand of a radical of index n has no factor which is a perfect nth power.
3. There are no fractions under the radical sign.
s
ic
4. There is no radical in the denominator of a rational expression.
at
5. The index of the radical is the smallest possible.
m
Example 0.5.6. Simplify the following.
he
at
√ √
fM
1. 5 · 20
√ √ √
5· 20 = 5 · 20
o
√
= 100
te
= 10
tu
√
sti
3
54
2. √3
2
In
√
3
r
54 3 54
P
√ =
U
3
2 2
√3
= 27
= 3
p
3. 18x3 y 2
p p
18x3 y 2 = 32 · 2 · x2 · x · y 2
√
= 3xy 2x
p
4. 3
−8x7 y 2
p p
3
−8x7 y 2 = (−2)3 · x6 · x · y 2
3
p
= −2x2 3 xy 2
0.5. Rational Exponents and Radicals 15
√
6
5. 16x4
√
6
√6
16x4 = 24 x4
p
= 6 (22 x2 )2
= (22 x2 )2/6
= (22 x2 )1/3
√3
= 4x2
Rationalizing the Denominator in a Radical

Since a fraction inside a radical or a radical in the denominator of a fraction is not in its simplest
form, we look at the following techniques in rationalizing the denominator.
s
ic
• For a radicand containing a fraction or a rational expression with one term, a radical of index
at
n in the denominator, multiply both the numerator and denominator by the radical of index
n which will make the radicand in the denominator a perfect nth power.
m
he
• For a fraction whose denominator is the sum/difference of radicals, you may use the following
special products: at
1. (x − y)(x + y) = x2 − y 2
fM
2. (x + y)(x2 − xy + y 2 ) = x3 + y 3
3. (x − y)(x2 + xy + y 2 ) = x3 − y 3.
o
Example 0.5.7.
te
r
tu
4
3 10y
1.
3x2
sti
r r
In
3 10y 4 3 10y
4
32 x
= ·
3x2 r 3x
2 32 x
P
4
3 90xy
U
=
p 33 · x3
3
90xy · y 3
= √
3
33 · x3
√
y 3 90xy
=
3x
r
16x4
2.
3z r √
16x4 4x2 3z
= √ ·√
3z 3z√ 3z
4x2 3z
= √
2z2
3√
4x2 3z
=
3z
√ √
3x + 2x
3. √ √
3x − 2x √ √ √ √ √ √
3x + 2x 3x + 2x 3x + 2x
√ √ = √ √ ·√ √
3x − 2x √3x − √2x 2 3x + 2x
( 3x + 2x)
=
3x −√ 2x
3x + 2 3x · 2x + 2x
=
√x
5x + 2x 6
=
x√
= 5+2 6
s
1
4. √
ic
2− 34 √ √
at
3
1 1 4 + 2 3 4 + 42
√ = √ · √ √
m
2− 34 2 3 4 √4 + 2√3 4 + 3 42
3
4 + 2 3 4 + 42
he
=
8√− 4 √ at
3
4 + 2 3 4 + 42
=
fM
√
3
4 √ 3
4 16
= 1+ +
√2 √4
o
3
4 232
= 1+ +
te
2 4
tu
0.6 Complex Numbers

sti
In
0.6.1 Definitions and Notations

P
Definition 0.6.1. The set of complex numbers is defined as

U
C = {a + bi | a, b ∈ R, i2 = −1}.
An element a + bi ∈ C is called a complex number. The real number a is called the real part of
a + bi, denoted by Re(a + bi). The imaginary part Im(a + bi) of a + bi is b.
A complex number written in the form a + bi where a, b ∈ R is said to be in rectangular form.
Example 0.6.2. Find Re(z) and Im(z).
1. z = 4 − 7i 3 − 8i
2. z =
5
Solution.
1. Re(z) = 4 and Im(z) = −7 3 8

2. Re(z) = and Im(z) = −
5 5
0.6. Complex Numbers 17
Remark 0.6.3. Two complex numbers a + bi and c + di are equal if and only if they have the same
real and imaginary parts (i.e., a + bi = c + di ⇐⇒ a = c and b = d). If y > 0, the complex
number x + (−y)i is written as x − yi.
Remark 0.6.4.
1. Every real number r is a complex number because r = r + 0 · i ∈ C. Hence, R ⊂ C.
2. The number 0 + bi = bi is called a pure imaginary number.
0.6.2 Operations Involving Complex Numbers in Rectangular Form

Definition 0.6.5. Let z1 = a + bi and z2 = c + di be complex numbers. The sum z1 + z2 and
s
product z1 z2 of z1 and z2 are defined as follows.
ic
at
z1 + z2 = (a + c) + (b + d)i z1 · z2 = (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i
m
Remark 0.6.6. Clearly, the set C of complex numbers is closed under addition and multiplication.
he
The commutative, associative and distributive axioms on real numbers also hold for complex
numbers. The complex numbers 0 = 0 + 0 · i and 1 = 1 + 0 · i are the identity elements in C for
at
addition and multiplication, respectively. The additive inverse of a complex number z = a + bi is
fM
−z = −a − bi since z + (−z) = 0.
Example 0.6.7. Find the sum and product of z1 = 1 + 5i and z2 = 2 − 3i.

o
Solution.
te
1. z1 + z2
tu
z1 + z2 = (1 + 5i) + (2 + −3i)
sti
= (1 + 2) + (5 + (−3))i
= 3 + 2i
In
2
P
2. z1 · z2
U
z1 · z2 = (1 + 5i) · (2 − 3i)
= (2 + 15) + (−3 + 10)i
= 17 + 7i
2
Definition 0.6.8. The conjugate of z = a + bi is defined as z̄ = a − bi.
Remark 0.6.9. If z is a complex number, then z · z̄ = a2 + b2 .
Example 0.6.10.
1. For any real number r, r̄ = r.
2. 6 − 5i = 6 + 5i
3. 2i − 13 = −2i − 13
Remark 0.6.11.
If z = a + bi is a non-zero complex number, its multiplicative inverse (reciprocal) z −1 = 1/z is
given by
1 z̄ a − bi
z −1 = · = 2 .
z z̄ a + b2
Moreover, the quotient of two complex numbers z1 = a + bi and z2 = c + di (where z2 6= 0) is
z1 z1 z¯2 ac + bd bc − ad
= · = 2 + 2 i.
z2 z2 z¯2 c + d2 c + d2
z1
Example 0.6.12. Given z1 = 1 + 5i and z2 = 2 − 3i, find z1 − z2 and .
z2
s
Solution.
ic
1.
at
z1 − z2 = (1 + 5i) − (2 − 3i)
m
= (1 − 2) + (5 − (−3))i
= −1 + 8i
he
at 2
2.
fM
z1 1 + 5i
=
z2 2 − 3i
o
1 + 5i 2 + 3i
= ·
2 − 3i 2 + 3i
te
2 − 15 + (10 + 3)i
tu
=
22 + 32
sti
−13 + 13i
= = −1 + i
In
13
2
P
U
Exercises for Module 0

A. Simplify the following.
7−3 2(x3 yz 2 )2
1. 5.
7−16 (2x2 y 2z)3
32 + 9−1 − 90 (2a3 b−3 c−2 )3
2. 6.
24 − 3−1 (a3 b2 c−1 )−2
3 −3 −1 3
8x6 y 3 z 4 2a b c
3. 7.
2x5 yz 2 3a−2 b−2 c3
2 3 −1 4
3x21 y 12 z 19 abc
4. 8.
(−x−9 y 3z −3 )(−9x4 y 6 z 6 ) ab−2 c5
0.6. Complex Numbers 19
−3 2
40 x3 y −2z −4 185 · 203 x−1 y 2 z 4
9. 10.
32 x−1 y 3z −5 159 x−3 y −2z −1
B. Factor completely.
1. 4x3 y 2 + 6x2 y 3 15. 48 − 13q − q 2

2. a2 b3 c4 − a3 b4 c5 + 2a2 b4 c4 16. z 6 − 6z 3 − 72
3. 9a2 − 1 17. t4 − 9st2 − 10s2
4. 16x2 − 25y 2 18. a6 b4 − a3 b2 c − 42c2
4 8 2
5. 25x y − 64z
19. 4x2 − 4x + 1
4
6. 16x − 1
s
20. 4n2 − 12n + 9
ic
2
7. (s − 2t) − 4
21. 2r 2 − r − 3
at
2 2
8. (x + 3) − (y + 2)
22. 9a2 + 15ab + 4b2
m
9. x2 (x2 − 1) − 9(x2 − 1)
23. 7s6 − 9s3 + 2
he
10. 8x9 + z 12
11. 8j 3 − 125k 6 at 24. a2 + ab + 5a + 5b
12. (x − y)3 − 1 25. x3 − x2 − x + 1
fM
13. x2 − 2x − 3 26. 64x4 + 1

o
14. s2 + 7s + 10 27. 4m8 − 4m4 + 9

te
C. Perform the indicated operations and simplify.

tu
√ √
b2/5 · b1/3
sti
11. 2· 32
1.
b2/15 x2 − 1
In
24c−1/2 d2/3 12. √

2. x+1
18c−1/7 d−3/5 √
P
a2 − b2
√
U
(22/3 x1/2 y 1/6 z)6 13.

3. a2 + b2
4x2/3 yz 9/2 √
4
√ √
4/3 1/2 −2 −10 14. 36 − 54 + 96
r s t √
4. 2− 3
rs2/7 t3/5 15. √
√ 3− 2
5. 3
−84 √ √
p 6− 5
6. 384x3 y 6 16. √ √
√ 5+ 6
4
7. 9x2 x2 − 2x + 1
p√ 17. √
3
8. 9a4 b2 x+1
r
25c5 6
9. 18. p √
12a3 b 3− 3
2x2 y 1
10. p 19. √ √
3
12x2 y 4 3
4 + 3 −27
D. Perform the indicated operations and simplify.
1. 1 − i 3 + 4i
10.
2−i
2. 5i + 2 √ √
−9 + 8
3. 5 − i − 5 + i 11. √
√ √ √ √ −1
4. −1 − 3 + 2 − −4
√ √ 3i − 2
5. (4 − 2 −45) − (3 − −20) 12.
√ √ 3i + 2
6. −12 −75 (1 − i)(3i + 1)
13.
7. (1 + 2i) (3 − 4i) 2i − 1
√ ! √ √ !
8. (i − 1) (5 + 3i) −1 3 2 2
s
14. + i − i
ic
9. (2i − 3)2 2 2 2 2
at
m
he
at
o fM
te
tu
sti
In
P
U
Module 1
Equations and Inequalities
s
ic
At the end of his module, the student will be able to
at
• solve linear equations in one variable;
m
he
• solve quadratic equations using factoring and quadratic formula;
at
• solve equations involving rational expressions using the LCD;
fM
• solve equations involving radicals;
• identify extraneous solutions of some equations;

o
te
• recognize equations that can be solved using factoring;

tu
• solve for the solution set of an inequality;

sti
• express inequalities as intervals in the real number line;

In
• solve inequalities involving polynomials and rational expressions using table of signs; and
P
• solve inequalities involving absolute value.

U
1.1 Review of Equations

This section focuses on the solution of equations in a single variable. We begin with the simplest,
the linear type, and progress to those of the quadratic type, those involving rational expressions,
and those involving radicals and absolute value.
Definition 1.1.1. An equation is a statement declaring the equality of two given expressions.
Example 1.1.2. The following are equations:
1. 2x + 1 = x − 7 3. 2x2 + 1 = x + 7
1 2
2. = 4. x2 − 3x − 4 = 0
2−z 4 − 2z
21
22 Module 1. Equations and Inequalities
If an equation holds true for every admissible real value of the variable, then the equation is
called an identity. If an equation is never true for any real number, then the equation is called
a contradiction. If an equation holds true only for some real value(s), then the equation is a
conditional equation.
1 2
1. = is an identity because it holds true for any z 6= 2.
2−z 4 − 2z
2. 1 − 2x = 3 − 2x is a contradiction because it is never true for any value of x ∈ R.
3. 2x + 1 = x − 7 is conditional because it holds only if x = −8.
4. x2 − 3x − 4 = 0 is likewise conditional because it is true only for x = −1 or x = 4.
s
Definition 1.1.3. A solution of an equation is a value of the variable that makes the equation true.
ic
The solution set of an equation is the set of all solutions of the equation.
at
m
Remark 1.1.4. The terminologies root and solution will be used interchangeably.
he
Example 1.1.5. The equation 2x + 1 = x − 7 has −8 as a solution. In fact, {−8} is the solution
set of 2x + 1 = x − 7. at
fM
Unless specified, we only consider solution sets that are subsets of R.
Remark 1.1.6. “Solve for x", “find x" and “solve the equation" are all equivalent to finding the
o
solution set of the equation.

te
tu
sti
1.1.1 Linear Equations

In
In this section, we study the techniques in solving linear equations of a single variable.
P
Definition 1.1.7. A linear equation in one variable is an equation that can be written as
U
ax + b = 0,
where a and b are real numbers and a 6= 0.
Example 1.1.8.
1. 6x − 9 = 0 is a linear equation in variable x.
2. 4x − 5 = 2x + 7 is a linear equation since it can be simplified as 2x − 12 = 0.
In solving linear equations, we introduce the idea of equivalent equations.
Definition 1.1.9. Two equations are said to be equivalent if they have the same solution set.
Example 1.1.10. The following equations are equivalent since the solution set for each equation is
{2}.
1.1. Review of Equations 23
Equivalent Equations: Check the solution:

3x + 7 = 13 X
3(2) + 7 = 13
3x = 6 X
3(2) =6
X
x =2 2 =2
Solving linear equations involves the application of the equality axioms for addition and mul-
tiplication. These axioms allow us to add or subtract the same expression to both sides of an
equation. Moreover, we can also multiply and divide both sides of any equation by any expression.
Example 1.1.11.
1. Solve for the value of x in 5x − 5 = 2x + 7.
Solution. The following equations are equivalent by the corresponding axioms:
s
ic
5x − 5 = 2x + 7 Add 5 to both sides.
at
5x − 5 + 5 = 2x + 7 + 5 Combine like terms.
m
5x = 2x + 12 Subtract 2x from both sides.
he
5x − 2x = 12 Combine like terms.
3x = 12
at Divide both sides by 3.
fM
3x 12
= Simplify.
3 3
x = 4
o
te
It is always wise to check if the solution obtained is correct. This is done by substituting the
obtained value into the original equation and checking whether the left and right hand values
tu
will be equal. In this case, we check if x = 4 is correct.

sti
5x − 5 = 2x + 7 Substituting x = 4.
In
?
5(4) − 5 = 2(4) + 7 Simplifying both sides.
X
P
15 = 15
U
2. Find the solution of the general linear equation ax + b = 0, where a and b are real numbers
and a 6= 0.
Solution.
ax + b = 0
ax = −b
b
x = −
a
b
Again, we check the solution by substituting x = − .
a

b ?
a − +b = 0
a
?
−b + b = 0
X
0 = 0

b
Hence, the solution set is − .
a
Remark 1.1.12.
1. Solving a linear equation equivalently means isolating the variable involved. This is true for
all cases of solutions to equations.
2. Observe that a linear equation has only one solution.
1.1.2 Quadratic Equations
s
Definition 1.1.13. A quadratic equation is an equation that can be written in the form
ic
ax2 + bx + c = 0,
at
m
where a, b, andc are real numbers and a 6= 0.
he
Remark 1.1.14. If a quadratic equation is written in the form as above, the quadratic equation is
said to be in standard form.
at
fM
We present two ways of solving a quadratic equation: by factoring and by the quadratic formula.
o
For both cases, the quadratic equation must first be written in standard form.
te
tu
Solving Quadratic Equations by Factoring

sti
The first method usually resorted to in solving a quadratic equation is by factoring. This method
is used when the factors of the quadratic polynomial can easily be identified or determined.
In
This method applies the property that for any two real numbers a, b, if ab = 0, then either
P
a = 0 or b = 0. The knowledge of special products and the recognition of their factors are the key
U
elements to this approach.
Example 1.1.15.
1. Solve the quadratic equation x2 + 3x = 10.

Solution. We first write the expression in standard form, i.e., x2 + 3x − 10 = 0. Note that
the factors of the left side are x + 5 and x − 2. We have
x2 + 3x − 10 = (x + 5)(x − 2) = 0,
which implies x + 5 = 0 or x − 2 = 0. Hence, the possible solutions are x = −5 and x = 2.

Similar to the linear case, we check the obtained solutions. If x = −5, (−5)2 + 3(−5) = 10;
if x = 2, (2)2 + 3(2) = 10. Hence, the solution set is {−5, 2}.
2. Solve for x in 6x2 − 11x − 10 = 0.

Solution. Factoring the left-hand side, we get
6x2 − 11x − 10 = (3x + 2)(2x − 5) = 0,

2 5
which gives 3x + 2 = 0 or 2x − 5 = 0. Hence, x = − or x = .
3 2
2 2
2 2 2 5 5 5

If x = − , then 6 − − 11 − − 10 = 0. If x = , then 6 − 11 2
− 10 = 0.
3 3 3 2 2
2 5
Thus, the solution set is − , .
3 2
3. Let d be a nonnegative real number. Solve the equation x2 = d.
s
ic
Solution. If d is a nonnegative real number, then
at
x2 = d
m
2
√ −d = 0
x√
he
(x + d)(x − d) = 0,
√ √ at √ √
implying x + d = 0 or x − d = 0. Thus, x = − d or x = d. It can be verified √ that
fM
2
these are the solutions of the equation.Therefore, the solution set is x = d is {± d}.
o
Remark 1.1.16. Solving by factoring is only applicable when the quadratic equation is in standard
te
form, and of course, if it is factorable.

tu
Solving Quadratic Equations by the Quadratic Formula

sti
This method can be applied to any quadratic equation written in standard form.
In
Theorem 1.1.17. (Quadratic Formula) Let a, b, c ∈ R with a 6= 0. If ax2 + bx + c = 0, then

P
√
U
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x= . (1.1)
2a
Proof. Let ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a 6= 0, be the given quadratic equation. Rewriting the
left-hand side of the equation gives

2 2 b c
ax + bx + c = a x + x + .
a a
We can then solve the equivalent equation

2 b c
a x + x+ = 0.
a a
We now divide both sides by a, since it is non-zero, perform the technique of completing the
squares, factor the resulting difference of squares, and solve for the zeros.
b c
x2 + x + = 0
" a a
2 # " 2 #
b b c b
x2 + x + + − =0
a 2a a 2a
2 2
b b − 4ac
x+ − =0
2a 4a2
2 r !2
2
b b − 4ac
x+ − =0
2a 4a2
" r !# " r !#
2 2
b b − 4ac b b − 4ac
s
x+ − x+ + =0
ic
2a 4a2 2a 4a2
at
m
Equating both factors to 0 and solving for the values of x, we get
he
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac at
x= .
2a
fM
This proves the theorem. 2

o
Example 1.1.18.
te
1. We solve the previous example 6x2 − 11x − 10 = 0 using the quadratic formula.
tu
Solution. We have a = 6, b = −11, and c = −10. Using the quadratic formula (1.1), we get
sti
p √
11 ± 121−4(6)(−10) 11 ± 361 11 ± 19
In
x= = =
2(6) 12 12
P
11 + 19 30 5 11 − 19 −8 2
U
So x = = = or x = = = − . From the verification part of a

12 12 2 12 12 3
5 2
previous example, the solution set is indeed ,− .
2 3
2. Solve for x in x2 − 6x − 1 = 0.
Solution. Applying the quadratic formula with a = 1, b = −6, and c = −1,
p √
6 ± 36 − 4(1)(−1) 6 ± 40 √
x= = = 3 ± 10
2(1) 2
√ √
Hence, x = 3 + 10 or x = 3 − 10.
√ √ 2 √ √ √
Substituting x = 3+
√ 10, we get (3+
√ 2 10) −6(3+
√ 10)−1 = 19+6
√ 10−18−6
√ 10−1 =
0 while if x = 3− 10, we get (3−√ 10) −6(3−
√ 10)−1 = 19−6 10−18+6 10−1 = 0.
Hence, the solution set is {3 + 10, 3 − 10}.
Remark 1.1.19. The discriminant of the quadratic ax2 + bx + c = 0 is the quantity b2 − 4ac. This
number determines the nature of the solution of the quadratic equation.
1. If b2 − 4ac > 0, then the quadratic equation has two distinct real solutions;
2. If b2 − 4ac = 0, then the quadratic equation has one real solution which is a double root;
3. If b2 − 4ac < 0, then the quadratic equation has two imaginary solutions that are conjugates
of each other.
Example 1.1.20.
1. Find all solutions of 4x2 + 4x + 1 = 0.
s
ic
Solution. Note that the discriminant of the quadratic polynomial on the left-hand side is
42 − 4(4)(1) = 0. Hence, we expect the solution to be a unique real value. By factoring,
at
m
(2x + 1)2 = 0
he
2x + 1 = 0
at 1
x = − .
2
fM
2. Find all complex solutions of x2 − 2x + 2 = 0.

o
Solution. Note that the discriminant of the quadratic polynomial on the left-hand side is
(−2)2 − 4(1)(2) = −4. Hence we expect the solutions to be imaginary and are complex
te
conjugates of each other. Applying the quadratic formula (1.1), we get

tu
p √
sti
2 ± 4 − 4(1)(2) 2 ± −4 2 ± 2i
x= = = = 1 ± i.
2(1) 2 2
In
P
U
1.1.3 Equations Involving Rational Expressions

Recall that when we add fractions, we can take the LCD of all the fractions to simplify the
addition. We can employ the same technique when solving equations involving rational expressions.
Observe than when equating two rational expressions, if the denominators are the same, all that
remains is the solution of the equation involving the numerators.
Solving equations involving rational expressions usually requires the following steps:
1 Determine the LCD of the rational expressions.
2 Multiply both sides of the equation by this LCD.
3 Perform the resulting operations and simplify the remaining terms.
4 Solve the equation that arises.

5 Check the obtained solutions against the original equation and drop or omit those that will
make the rational expressions undefined.
Remark 1.1.21. The solutions omitted in Step [5] above are referred to as extraneous roots or
extraneous solutions. These omitted values are not included in the solution set.
x + 4 2x − 3 3x − 8
Example 1.1.22. Solve − = 2 .
x+2 x−5 x − 3x − 10
Solution. The LCD is (x + 2)(x − 5). Hence,

x + 4 2x − 3 3x − 8
s
(x − 5)(x + 2) − = (x − 5)(x + 2)
ic
x+2 x−5 x2 − 3x − 10
at
(x − 5)(x + 4)−(2x − 3)(x + 2) = 3x − 8
x2 − x − 20−(2x2 + x − 6)
m
= 3x − 8
x2 − x − 20−2x2 − x + 6 = 3x − 8
he
−x2 − 5x − 6 = 0 at
x2 + 5x + 6 = 0
fM
(x + 2)(x + 3) = 0
which implies x + 2 = 0 or x + 3 = 0. The possible solutions are x = −2 or x = −3.

o
−3 + 4 2(−3) − 3 9 17 3(−3) − 8 17
If x = −3, then − = −1 − = − while −
te
= .
−3 + 2 −3 − 5 8 8 (−3)2 − 3(−3) − 10 8
tu
If x = −2, one of the denominators in the original equation will become zero, rendering the
corresponding rational expression undefined. Thus, the solution x = −2 is dropped, being an
sti
extraneous root, and the solution set is {−3}.

In
P
U
1.1.4 Equations Involving Radicals

In this section, we show how to solve equations involving radicals. A typical approach is to
clear or eliminate the radicals from the equation. This is achieved by raising both sides of the
equation to an appropriate power. However, note that this process may lead to extraneous roots
which should be discarded. For instance, consider the equation
√
x = −1.
Clearly, the equation has no solution (since the principal square root is never negative). However,
if we square both sides of the equation, we get
x = 1.
This value produced is extraneous and is not a solution of the original equation. A general principle
is stated below.
Theorem 1.1.23. Let A and B be expressions and let n ∈ N. Then the solution set of the equation
A = B is a subset of the solution set of the equation An = B n .
Example 1.1.24. The solution set of the equation x + 1 = 2 is {1}. However, if we square both
sides of the equation and solve it, we have
(x + 1)2 = 22
x2 + 2x + 1 = 4
x2 + 2x − 3 = 0
(x + 3)(x − 1) = 0.
Thus, x = −3 or x = 1.
We obtain 1 (the solution to the equation) and −3. If we substitute −3 into the original equation,
we get x + 1 = −2. Although we obtained −3 algebraically, it is not a solution to the original
s
ic
equation. We call such solutions as extraneous solutions.
at
m
The preceding theorem gives us a strategy to solve equations involving radicals.
he
1. Raise both sides of the equations to the appropriate power.
2. Solve the equation that arises.

at
fM
3. Check for extraneous solutions.

o
Remark 1.1.25. In solving equations, we check for extraneous solutions whenever we raise both
sides of an equation to a power.
te
tu
Example 1.1.26.
√
sti
1. Solve for x in x − 2 = 2
Solution. Squaring both sides of the given equation and solving for x, we get
In
x − 2 = 4 =⇒ x = 6.
P
U
√
If x = 6, 6 − 2 = 2. Hence, solution set is {6}.
p √
2. Solve for x in x + x − 2 = 2.
Solution. The steps to solve the equation are outlined below:

p √
x+ x−2 = 2 Square both sides.
√
x+ x−2 = 4 Apply additive property of equality.
√
x−2 = 4−x Square both sides.
x − 2 = 16 − 8x + x2 Write in standard form.
x2 − 9x + 18 = 0 Factor the quadratic equations.
(x − 6)(x − 3) = 0
Hence, x = 6 or x = 3.
p √ p √ √ √
If x = 3, we get 3 + 3 − 2 = 2. If x = 6, we get 6 + 6 − 2 = 8 = 2 2 6= 2.
Hence, the solution set is {3}.
√ √
3. Find the solution set of 2 x − 1 − x − 2 − 2 = 0.
Solution.
√ √
2 x−1− x−2−2 =0
√ √
2 x−1−2 = x−2
√
4(x − 1) − 8 x − 1 + 4 = x − 2
√
3x + 2 = 8 x − 1
s
9x2 + 12x + 4 = 64(x − 1)
ic
9x2 − 52x + 68 = 0
at
m
(9x − 34)(x − 2) = 0
he
34
Hence, x = 2 or x = . We check these values in the original equation and see that both
9 at

34
values are indeed solutions. The solution set is thus 2,
fM
.
9
o
1.1.5 Equations in Quadratic Form

te
Definition 1.1.27. An equation is in quadratic form if it can be written in the form

tu
aω 2 + bω + c = 0,
sti
In
where a, b, c ∈ R and a 6= 0.
P
When an equation is in quadratic form, we make a substitution or change of variables in order

U
to turn it into a quadratic equation in ω. We solve the new equation for ω and use the solutions in a
“back-substitution” to get the solutions to the original equation.
Example 1.1.28.
2
1 1
1. Solve for x in 2 x + + x+ − 10 = 0.
x x
1
Solution. The equation is in quadratic form if we let ω = x + . We first solve for ω by
x
factoring:
2ω 2 + ω − 10 = (2ω + 5)(ω − 2) = 0,
5 1
so ω = − or ω = 2. To solve for x, we substitute the values obtained in ω = x + .
2 x
5
If ω = − , we have the equation
2
5 1
− = x+
2 x
5 1
2x − = x+ 2x
2 x
−5x = 2x2 + 2
2
2x + 5x + 2 = 0
(2x + 1)(x + 2) = 0.
1
Hence, x = − or x = −2. Now if ω = 2, we get the equation
2
1
2 = x+
x
s
1
ic
x(2) = x+ x
x
at
2x = x2 + 1
m
0 = x2 − 2x + 1
0 = (x − 1)2 .
he
1
at

1
2
1
Thus, x = 1. Note that if x = − , then 2 − − 2 + − − 2 − 10 = 2
2
5
− −
5
fM
2 2 2 2 2
2
25 5 1 1
10 = − −10 = 0. If x = −2, then by the preceding, 2 −2 − + −2 − −10 =
2 2 2 2
o
0. Finally, if x = 1, then 2(1 + 1)2 + (1 + 1) − 10 = 0.

te

1
Thus, the solution set is − , −2, 1 .
tu
2
sti
√ 2
2. Solve for x in 6 + 3 x + 1 = (x + 1) 3 .
In
1
Solution. Let ω = (x + 1) 3 . Then the equation can be written as a quadratic form in ω
which can then be solved for the values of ω .
P
U
ω2 − ω − 6 = 0
(ω − 3)(ω + 2) = 0
which gives us ω = 3 or ω = −2.
If ω = 3, then If ω = −2, then

1 1
(x + 1) 3 = 3 (x + 1) 3 = −2

1 3

1 3
(x + 1) 3 = (3)3 (x + 1) 3 = (−2)3
x + 1 = 27 x + 1 = −8
x = 26. x = −9.
√ 2
If x = 26, then 6 + 3 26 + 1 = 6 + 3 = 9 and (26 + 1) 3 = 9 as well. If x = −9, then
√ 2
6 + 3 −9 + 1 = 6 − 2 = 4 and (−9 + 1) 3 = 4.
Hence, the solution set is {26, −9}.
1.1.6 Equations Involving Absolute Values

In this subsection, we define what is an absolute value and discuss how to solve equations
involving it.
Absolute Value
Definition 1.1.29. If x is any real number, the absolute value of x, written as |x|, is defined as

 −x if x < 0
|x| = 0 if x = 0 .

x if x > 0
From the definition, it is easily seen that for any x ∈ R,
s
ic
1. |x| ≥ 0
at
m
2. −|x| ≤ x ≤ |x|
he
3. | − x| = |x|.
We also have the following theorem on absolute value:
at
fM
Theorem 1.1.30. Let x and y be two real numbers. Then
1. |xy| = |x| · |y|
o

te
x |x|
2. = , y 6= 0
y |y|
tu
sti
3. Triangle Inequality: |x + y| ≤ |x| + |y|

In
Example 1.1.31.
1. | − 7| = |7| = 7
P
U

−3 7 3 7 3 7 −4
2. − = − = − = = −1
4 4 4 4 4 4 4

3 − 9 −6 | − 6| 6
3. = = =
5 5 |5| 5
Solving Equations
Properties of absolute value still hold even if we replace x by any expression of a single variable.
We state this as a theorem.
Theorem 1.1.32. Let E be an expression in the variable x, a ∈ R, and |E| = a.
1. If a > 0, then E = a or E = −a.
2. If a = 0, then E = 0.
3. If a < 0, then |E| = a has no solution.
Remark 1.1.33. We shall also use the property that if a ≥ 0 and |E| = a, then |E|2 = a2 or,
equivalently, E 2 = a2 . This holds true even if a is another expression in the variable x. However,
E 2 = a2 does not imply E = a. Roots obtained from this new equation E 2 = a2 must be checked
if they indeed satisfy the original equation.
Example 1.1.34. Solve for x in the following expressions.

x
1.
=2
2x − 3
Solution. From Theorem 1.1.32(1), the above equation is equivalent to the following:
s
ic
x x
at
= 2 = −2
2x − 3 2x − 3
m
x x
(2x − 3) · = 2 · (2x − 3) (2x − 3) · = −2 · (2x − 3)
he
2x − 3 2x − 3
x = 4x − 6 at x = −4x + 6
6 = 3x 5x = 6
6
fM
x = 2 x =
5
o

2 2 6 6/5 6
If x = 2, then 2(2)−3 = = 2 while if x = , then 2(6/5)−3 = 5 · (− 35 ) = 2. Thus, the
te
1 5

6
tu
solution set is ,2 .
5
sti
2. |4x − 3| = |x + 6|
In
Solution. By Remark 1.1.33, squaring both sides of the equation gives

P
|4x − 3|2 = |x + 6|2 =⇒ (4x − 3)2 = (x + 6)2 .

U
So
(4x − 3)2 − (x + 6)2 = 0.
Factoring the above difference of two squares, we get
[(4x − 3) + (x + 6)] · [(4x − 3) − (x + 6)] = 0.
Thus
(4x − 3) + (x + 6) = 0 or (4x − 3) − (x + 6) = 0.
3
Solving for x, we obtain x = − or x = 3. One can verify that these are both solutions of
5
the original equation. Thus, the solution set is − 35 , 3 .
3. |4x − 3| = x
Solution. Similar to the solution of the previous example:
|4x − 3| = x Given.
|4x − 3|2 = x2 By Remark 1.1.33.
(4x − 3)2 = x2 By Remark 1.1.33.
(4x − 3)2 − x2 = 0
((4x − 3) + x)((4x − 3) − x) = 0 Factoring the LHS.
(5x − 3)(3x − 3) = 0
s

which gives x = 1 or x = . After checking, the solution set is 35 , 1 .
ic
5
at
4. |4x − 3| = −x
m
Solution. Note that this is similar to the previous example, except for the negative sign on the
he
right-hand side of the equation. Proceeding as before, if we square both sides, we obtain the
3
same expression (4x − 3)2 = x2 and thus, obtain the same roots x = 1 or x = , which are
at 5
both positive. However, if x is positive, by Theorem 1.1.32, the equation |4x − 3| = −x < 0
fM
has no solution. Hence, the solution set is the empty set.

o
1.2 Inequalities
te
tu
In this section, we solve algebraic expressions involving inequalities.

sti
Example 1.2.1. The following are examples of inequalities.

In
1. 3x − 2 < 3x + 1 3. x + 3 ≥ x + 7
P
2x
U
2. 1 − x ≤ 4. |2x − 1| > 1
x+1
If an inequality holds true for every admissible real value of the variable, then it is called
an identity. If an inequality does not hold true for any value of the variable, then it is called a
contradiction. If an inequality holds true for some value(s) of the variable, then it is called a
conditional inequality.
Example 1.2.2.
1. x2 ≥ 0 is an identity.
2. |x| < −1 is a contradiction.
3. 3x + 2 < x is a conditional identity.

1.2. Inequalities 35
Definition 1.2.3. A solution of an inequality is a value of the variable that makes the inequality
true. The solution set of an inequality is the set of all solutions of the inequality.
Remark 1.2.4. We note the following:
1. The solution sets of inequalities that we will consider are subsets of R.
2. Solution sets of inequalities are best illustrated as subsets of the real number line via interval
notation.
Definition 1.2.5.
• The set {x|a < x < b} is an open interval, denoted also by (a, b), where a is the left endpoint
and b is the right endpoint.
s
ic
• The closed interval from a to b, denoted also by [a, b], is the open interval (a, b) together with
at
the two endpoints.
m
The complete list of notations are given in the following table:
Interval Notation Set Notation

he
Number Line Graph Type
at
[a, b] {x | a ≤ x ≤ b}
fM
Closed
a b
[a, b) {x | a ≤ x < b} Half-open

o
a b
{x | a < x ≤ b}
te
(a, b] Half-open
a b
tu
(a, b) {x | a < x < b} Open

sti
a b
[a, +∞) {x | x ≥ a} Closed

In
(a, +∞) {x | x > a} Open

P
a
U
(−∞, b] {x | x ≤ b} Closed
b
(−∞, b) {x | x < b} Open

b
Example 1.2.6.
1. [−4, 1] ∪ (−2, 3] = [−4, 3] 2. [−4, 1] ∩ (−2, 3] = (−2, 1]
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
1.2.1 Solving Linear Inequalities

We now discuss how to algebraically obtain the solution set of some types of inequalities of
one real variable. Recall that if a and b are real numbers such that a < b, then:
s
ic
• a + c < b + c for all real number c;
at
• if c > 0, then ac < bc; and
m
• if c < 0, then ac > bc.
he
These properties tell us that we can perform the same operations on inequalities that we
at
perform on equations, with the exception that multiplying or dividing negative numbers reverses
fM
the inequality.
Example 1.2.7. Find the solution set of the following inequalities.
o
1. 3x + 1 > x + 7
te
Solution.
tu
3x + 1 > x + 7
sti
2x > 6
x > 3
In
Thus, the solution set, written in interval notation, is (3, +∞).

P
x+1 x 1
U
2. ≥ +
4 3 6
Solution.
x+1 x 1
12 ≥ + 12
4 3 6
3(x + 1) ≥ 4(x) + 2(1)
−x ≥ −1
x ≤ 1
Hence, the solution set is (−∞, 1].

3. 2 ≤ 5 − 3x ≤ 11
Solution. The given inequality is a combination of the two inequalities,
2 ≤ 5 − 3x and 5 − 3x ≤ 11,
that is, a solution of the given must satisfy both inequalities. Thus, one way to find the
solution set is to solve the inequalities separately, then take the intersection of their solution
sets.
We supply an alternative method by working simultaneously on combined inequalities. For
“double-sided linear inequalities” (those that can be transformed to the form a < mx + c < b
where a, b, c, m ∈ R, m 6= 0), we also use the Additive and Multiplicative Axioms of Order.
In applying these properties to isolate x in the middle term, we note that anything we do to
the middle term should also be done to the other two terms.
2 ≤ 5 − 3x ≤ 11
2−5 ≤ −3x ≤ 11 − 5
−3 ≤ −3x ≤ 6
s

1 1 1
ic
−3 − ≥ −3x − ≥ 6 −
3 3 3
at
1 ≥ x ≥ −2
m
−2 ≤ x ≤ 1.
he
Thus, the solution set is [−2, 1]. at
fM
1.2.2 Inequalities Involving Higher Degree Polynomials or Rational Expres-
sions
o
We introduce the Interval Method to help us solve inequalties involving polynomials (of degree
te
greater than one) or rational expressions. The following outlines the steps:
tu
sti
1. Transform the inequality in the form A < 0 or A > 0, that is, one side of the inequality is
zero. We call this the standard form of an inequality.
In
NOTE: In this step, we only multiply (or divide) both sides of an inequality with terms of
definite sign (positive or negative). We recall that multiplying an inequality by a positive
P
number retains the less than (or greater than) sign and that multiplying an inequality by a
U
negative number reverses the less than (or greater than) sign. We do not multiply both sides of
an inequality with an expression whose sign is not definite, for example terms involving odd
powers of a variable like x − 3 or x3 + 1, since they may be positive or negative, depending
on the value of x.
2. For A > 0 and A < 0, get all the factors of A. In case A is a rational expression, factor both
the numerator and denominator of A.
3. Equate each factor to zero and solve these equations. We call these solutions the critical
numbers of the inequality.
4. Make a Table of Signs:
a. Arrange the critical numbers in increasing order. The critical points divide the real
number line into intervals.
b. The rows of the table of signs correspond to the factors of the polynomial.
c. The columns of the table of signs (in increasing order) correspond to the (open) intervals
on the real number line made by the critical numbers as we go from −∞ to +∞.
d. Each cell corresponds to the factor in its row and an interval in its column. We put either
“+" or “−" sign in each cell. To do this, pick a test number in its corresponding interval
and substitute it into the cell’s corresponding factor. Put a “+" in the cell if we get a
positive number, otherwise put “−".
e. Add a new row to the table representing A. Multiply the signs in each column to fill out
the entries of this new row.
5. For the inequality A > 0 (respectively, A < 0), its solution set will be given by the union of
s
the intervals corresponding to the positive (respectively, negative) cells in the last row of the
ic
table of signs.
at
m
6. Check if the endpoints of the intervals are in the solution set. Endpoints are excluded when
the inequaliy is strictly positive or negative. Furthermore, endpoints that will make the
he
rational expression undefined shall be excluded in the solution set.
at
fM
Example 1.2.8. Solve the following inequalities.
1. x2 − 2x < 2x − 3
o
te
Solution. First, we make one side of the inequality zero:

tu
x2 − 4x + 3 < 0
sti
(x − 1)(x − 3) < 0.
In
Next, find the roots of the left side:

P
U
x = 1 and x = 3.
These are the critical numbers of the inequality. These critical numbers divide the real
number line into three intervals:
(−∞, 1), (1, 3), and (3, +∞).
In these intervals, the product (x − 1)(x − 3) is either positive or negative, depending on

the signs of its factors. To determine these signs, we choose a test number in each interval.
Suppose we choose −3, 2 and 5 as our test numbers. We substitute these test numbers into
each of the factors, and determine whether they make the factor positive or negative. So we
obtain the following table of signs:
The negative sign in the last row implies that the inequality (x − 1)(x − 3) < 0 is satisfied
when x ∈ (1, 3). Thus, the solution set is (1, 3).
(−∞, 1) (1, 3) (3, +∞)

x−1 − + +
x−3 − − +
(x − 1)(x − 3) + − +
x+2
2. ≤x
x
Solution. We transform the given inequality into the standard form

x+2
0≤x− .
x
To find the critical numbers, we transform the right hand side to obtain the inequality:
s
ic
x2 − x − 2
0 ≤
at
x
(x + 1)(x − 2)
m
0 ≤ .
x
he
We obtain the critical numbers −1, 2, and 0, which divide the real number line into intervals:
at
(−∞, −1), (−1, 0), (0, 2), and (2, +∞). We then have the table of signs:
fM
(−∞, −1) (−1, 0) (0, 2) (2, +∞)
x+1 − + + +
x − − + +
o
x−2 − − − +
te
x2 − x − 2
tu
− + − +
x
sti
The last row of the table implies that the given inequality is satisfied when x ∈ (−1, 0) or
In
when x ∈ (2, +∞). The critical points x = −1 and x = 2 also satisfy the inequality, but
x = 0 does not. Hence, the solution set is [−1, 0) ∪ [2, ∞).
P
U
1.2.3 Inequalities Involving Absolute Values

Theorem 1.2.9. Let E be an expression in one variable and a be a positive real number. Then
• |E| < a if and only if −a < E < a if and only if −a < E and E < a; and
• |E| > a if and only if E < −a or E > a.
Example 1.2.10. Solve the following inequalities.
1. |x − 1| ≤ 3
Solution. The given equation will be satisfied if −3 ≤ x−1 ≤ 3. Adding 1 to each expression
in the inequality, we obtain
−2 ≤ x ≤ 4.
Hence, the solution set is [−2, 4].

x
2. ≤1
x − 2
Solution. The inequality is equivalent to

x
−1 ≤ ≤ 1.
x−2
Note that we cannot simply multiply the inequality by (x − 2) since its sign is not definite.
It may be positive or negative, depending on the value of x. Hence we solve for x in the two
inequalities
x x
−1 ≤ and ≤ 1.
x−2 x−2
s
ic
The solution of the absolute value inequality is the intersection of the solutions sets of the
two inequalities given above.
at
m
x 2
a. The inequality ≤ 1 is equivalent to ≤ 0. The sign of the denominator x − 2
he
x−2 x−2
2 x
gives the sign of the expression . Thus, the solution set of
at ≤ 1 is (−∞, 2).
x−2 x−2
fM
x 2(x − 1)
b. The inequality −1 ≤ is equivalent to 0 ≤ . The critical numbers 1 and 2
x−2 x−2
give the table of signs:
o
(−∞, 1) (1, 2) (2, ∞)

te
2(x − 1) − + +
tu
x−2 − − +
sti
2(x − 1)
+ − +
In
x−2
x
P
Thus, the solution set of −1 ≤ is (−∞, 1] ∪ (2, ∞).

x−2
U
Getting the intersection of the solution sets of the two inequalites gives the solution set
(−∞, 1].
3. |2x − 1| > 4
Solution. Since |E| > a is equivalent to E > a or E < −a, the given inequality is equivalent
to 2x − 1 < −4 or 2x − 1 > 4.
For the first inequality,
2x − 1 < −4
2x < −3
3
x < − .
2

Thus, −∞, − 32 is the solution set for the first inequality.
Now, for the second inequality,

2x − 1 > 4
2x > 5
5
x > .
2
So, the solution set of the second inequality is 25 , +∞ .
Finally, the solution set of the given inequality is obtained by taking the union of the two
solution sets. Therefore, the solution set of |2x − 1| > 4 is −∞, − 32 ∪ 52 , +∞ .

x + 1
4.
≥2
x − 1
s
Solution. The given inequality is equivalent to
ic
x+1 x+1
at
≤ −2 or ≥ 2.
x−1 x−1
m
Solving the first inequality, we have
he
x+1
at ≤ −2
x−1
fM
x+1
+2 ≤ 0
x−1
(x + 1) + 2(x − 1)
o
≤ 0
x−1
te
3x − 1
tu
≤ 0.
x−1
sti
1
The critical numbers for the first inequality are and 1. We obtain the following table of
In
3
signs:
P
U
(−∞,1/3 ) (1/3 , 1) (1, ∞)

3x − 1 − + +
x−1 − − +
3x − 1
+ − +
x−1

Thus, the solution set for the first inequality is 31 , 1 .
Solving now the second inequality,
x+1
≥ 2
x−1
−2(x − 1) + (x + 1)
≥ 0
x−1
−x + 3
≥ 0.
x−1
The critical numbers for the second inequality are 1 and 3. We obtain the following table of
signs:
(−∞, 1) (1, 3) (3, ∞)

−x + 3 + + −
x−1 − + +
−x + 3
− + −
x−1
Thus, the solution set for the second inequality is (1, 3].

x + 1
Finally, taking the union of the two solution sets, the solution set of ≥ 2 is 1 , 1 ∪
3
x − 1
s
(1, 3].
ic
at
m
he
A. Solve the following equations.
1.
1
+
3
=0 14.
at
3x
=
x+4
fM
4−x 6+x x+2 x
3 7 4 x + 4 2x − 3 3x − 8
2. − =− 15. − = 2
2
x −9 x−3 x+3 x+2 x−5 x − 3x − 10
o
3 4 2
5x 2x
3. = 2 16. 1+ =
te
x2 − x − 6 2x + x − 6 6 3
tu
2 3 5 3x x+4
4. − = 17. =
y+1 1−y y x+2 x
sti
√
x + 17 x−2 x−4 18. x+5=3
5. + = √
In
2
x − 6x + 8 x − 4 x−2 19. 3x + 7 − x = 1
w w+2 p√
5x − 1 − x = 1
P
6. = 20.
3w 2 − 8w + 4 3w 2 + w − 2 √ √
U
3 21. 5w + 1 − 3w − 1 = 0
x −8 √
7. =1 22. x−2 =2
x−2 √
3 2 23. 2x + 5 + x = 5
8. = √
x+4 3x − 2 24. x2 − 8x = 3
x+4 2x − 3 p √
9. = 25. x+ x−2= 2
x+2 x−5 √ √
4 z 26. x−1− x−2−1= 0
10. = √ √
z−2 6 27. 2 x−1− x−2−2 =0
√ √
1 4 28. 3 − 3x − 3x + 2 = 3
11. = √
2x + 5 2x − 1 29. 2+2 3x−1= x
2 4 11 √ √
12. + = 30. 4
3x2 − 3x + 1 = x − 2
3x 5x 15 2
5 x+8 1 1
13. = −3 31. 8 x+ + 30 x + + 27 = 0
x+3 x+3 2x 2x
√ √
32. x+2 x= 3
4
45. |x − 4| = |5 − 2x|
√ √
x + 3

33. x − 5 4 x + 4 = 0 =7
46.
34. x6 − 64 = 0 x − 3

15 14 2x + 1
35. 2 − −8 =0 47.
=3
t t x−1
36. t4 − 4 = 0 48. |3t − 2| = t2
37. x4 − 2x2 − 15 = 0 49. |3x + 5| = 9
3 3
38. 2(2x + 2
) − 7(2x + 2
) +3=0 50. |−3x + 7| − 3 = 0
2 2 2
39. x (x − 1) − 9(x − 1) = 0 x
51.
=2
40. 2x2/3 − 5x1/3 − 3 = 0 2x − 3
s
2
1 1 3x − 4
ic
41. 3 4x − − 4 4x − − 15 = 0 52.
=1
4 4 2x + 3
at
√ p
42. 6 + 3 x + 1 = 3 (x + 1)2 53. |2x − 3| = |7 − 3x|
m
43. |7 − 2w| = 9 54. |4x − 3| = x
he
44. |3x − 2| = |2x + 3| 55. |4x − 3| = −x
at
fM
B. Find the solution set of the following inequalities.
2x − 4 x−1
1. x + 1 > ≥0
o
17.
5 2x + 5
te
2x − 3 7x 6 − 2x
2. ≥ 18. >5
tu
4 2 4+x
3. 5 ≤ 3x − 4 ≤ 7 x2 − x − 2
sti
19. ≤0
x
4. 2x − 1 ≤ 3x ≤ 4x + 1 3x − 1
In
20. ≤1
5. 3x2 ≤ 11x − 10 2
x −x−6
x
P
6. (x + 3)(x − 4) ≥ 3x 21. ≤1
U
x−2
7. x3 + x ≥ x2 + 1 1 1
22. ≤
8. x2 > 9 x−2 x
1 1
9. 4 − 3x − x2 ≥ 0 23. ≤
x−2 3
10. 4x2 + 4x + 1 < 0 x+1 1
24. ≥2+
11. 4x2 + 4x > −1 x−7 x−7
2
x 1
12. x2 − 2x < 2x − 3 25. ≥ −5 −
x+1 x+1
13. (x + 4)(x2 − 4) < 0 x
26. ≥1
2
(2 − x)(x + 1)
14. x − 2 ≥ (x − 2)(2x − x − 14)
2x − 7
27. ≤1
15. x(2x2 − 5x − 12) ≥ 2x2 − 5x − 12 2
x − 6x + 8
x x 2
16. > −1 28. ≥
x−1 x+1 x+3
4 1 35. |3x − 1| + 2 ≥ 1
29. <
2x − 1 x+1
36. |x2 − 6x + 7| ≥ 2
6
30. ≥w+1 4
3w − 4 37. + 1 ≥ 3
2x − 7 x
31. 2 ≤1
x − 6x + 8 x
≤1
38.
32. |x − 2| ≥ 3 2x − 3
33. |3 − 2x| > 2 39. 0 < |x − 5| < 2
34. |3 + 2x| + 8 ≤ 7 40. 3|8 − x| + 2 < 7 − 2|x − 8|
s
ic
at
m
he
at
fMo
te
tu
sti
In
P
U
Module 2
The Two-Dimensional Coordinate System
s
ic
At the end of this module, the student will be able to:
at
• show the correspondence between points on the plane and ordered pairs of real numbers;
m
he
• obtain the distance and midpoint between two points;
at
• know the graphical interpretation of solutions of equations in two variables;
fM
• determine the x and y intercepts of a graph;

o
• determine the different forms of equations of a line;

te
• recognize, algebraically, parallel and perpendicular lines; and

tu
sti
• determine the equation of a circle in center-radius form.

In
2.1 Two-Dimensional Cartesian Coordinate System

P
U
For any two sets A and B, the Cartesian product A × B is the set whose elements are ordered
pairs of objects coming from A and B respectively, i.e., A × B = {(a, b)|a ∈ A and b ∈ B}. In
particular, if A = B = R, then R × R = {(x, y)|x, y ∈ R}. For brevity, we denote this set by R2 .
There is a one-to-one correspondence between R2 and the set of points on the plane. Indeed,
consider two perpendicular lines oriented in such a way that one is horizontal and the other is
vertical. The horizontal line is designated as the x−axis while the vertical line is designated as the
y−axis. The point of intersection of these coordinate axes corresponds to the ordered pair (0, 0)
and is called the origin.
Elements of R2 of the form (a, 0) correspond to points that lie on the x−axis; if a > 0, then
the point lies to the right of the origin while if a < 0, then the point lies to the left of the origin.
Elements of R2 of the form (0, a) correspond to points that lie on the y−axis; if a > 0 then the
point lies above the origin while if a < 0 then the point lies below the origin. This motivates us to
divide the coordinate axes into positive (positive x−axis, positive y−axis) and negative (negative
x−axis, negative y−axis) parts.
45
46 Module 2. The Two-Dimensional Coordinate System
If a and b are both not equal to zero, then the ordered pair (a, b) ∈ R2 is associated to the point
of intersection of the vertical line passing through the point (a, 0) and the horizontal line passing
through (0, b).
We have demonstrated that every ordered pair of real numbers (a, b) corresponds to a point on
the plane. For the converse, a point on the plane can be related to an ordered pair of real numbers.
Get the distance a of a point from the y−axis, and take it to be positive if the point is to the right
of the y−axis or negative if it is to the left. Also, take the distance b of a point from the x−axis,
and take it to be positive if the point is above the x−axis or negative if it is below. So, we have
associated to a point an ordered pair of real numbers (a, b). We call a the x−coordinate or abscissa
of the point while we call b the y−coordinate or ordinate.
We call this one-to-one correspondence between points on the plane and ordered pairs of real
s
numbers the Two-Dimensional Cartesian Coordinate System.
ic
at
m
he
at
fM
y-axis
5
o
4
te
3
P (0, 3)
tu
2
T (π, 32 )
1
Q(−2, 0)
sti
In
1 2 3 4 5
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1
x-axis
−2
P
U
−3
S(−4, −4)
−4
R(2, −5)
−5
Remark 2.1.1. The axes divide the plane into four parts called quadrants. The first quadrant is
the region bordered by the positive x−axis and positive y−axis. If we start from the first quadrant
and go counter-clockwise, we encounter the second, third, and fourth quadrants (in that particular
order). The quadrants are also characterized by the signs of the coordinates of the points contained
in them, as illustrated below.
2.1. Two-Dimensional Cartesian Coordinate System 47
y-axis
5
4
Quadrant II Quadrant I
3
(−, +) 2
(+, +)
1
1 2 3 4 5
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1
x-axis
−2
Quadrant III Quadrant IV
−3
(−, −) −4
(+, −)
s
ic
−5
at
m
Now, given two points in the Cartesian coordinate system, a unique line (or a line segment) can be
formed. We define the following geometric properties given these two points.
he
Definition 2.1.2. Let P (x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ) be points on the Cartesian plane.
at
fM
p
1. The distance between P and Q is given by |P Q| = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 .

x1 + x2 y1 + y2
o
2. The midpoint of P Q is given by , .

2 2
te
←→ y2 − y1
tu
3. The slope of P Q is given by m←→ = , provided that x1 6= x2 .

PQ x2 − x1
sti
Remark 2.1.3.
In
1. The slope of a line measures how much the value of y changes per unit change in x. It also
describes how steep or how flat a line goes from left to right. Horizontal lines have zero slope
P
U
while vertical lines have undefined slope.
2. Three or more points are collinear (lie in the same line) if and only if the slopes computed from
all possible pairs of these points are equal.
Example 2.1.4. If M is the midpoint of the 3 (2, 3)

line segment AB given the points A(2, 3) and 2
B(5, −4), then 1
−1 2 3 4 5
2+5 3−4 7 −1 ( 72 , − 12 )
M= , = , . −2
2 2 2 2 −3
−4
(5, −4)
Example 2.1.5. The slope of the line passing

through P (2, 1) and Q(4, 5) is 5
(4, 5)
5−1 4 (2, 1)
m←→ = = = 2.
PQ 4−2 2 1
2 4
Example 2.1.6. The slope of the line passing

through P (2, 5) and Q(4, 1) is
1−5 −4 5
m←→ = = = −2. (2, 5)
4−2 2 (4, 1)
s
PQ
ic
1
at
2 4
m
Remark 2.1.7. Lines with positive slope go higher as one goes from left to right on the Cartesian
he
plane. For lines with negative slope, they go lower as one goes from left to right.
Example 2.1.8. The points A(−2, 4), B 0, 52 ,

at(−2, 4)
fM
4
and C(2, 1) are collinear since
5 3 (0, 52 )
−42
−3 3
m← = = 2 =−
o
→ 2
AB 0 − (−2) 2 4 (2, 1)
1
te
5 3
1− 2 − 3
m← = = 2 =−
tu
→
BC 2−0 2 4 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
1−4 3 −1
sti
m←→ = =− .
AC 2 − (−2) 4
In
2.2 Graphs of Equations

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In this section, we consider graphs of equations in two variables.

Definition 2.2.1. The graph of an equation in x and y is the set of all points on the Cartesian
plane whose coordinates satisfy the equation.
Example 2.2.2. The point (1, −4) is on the graph of the equation y = (x−1)2 −4 since substituting
the values into the equation gives an identity:
−4 = (1 − 1)2 − 4 = −4.
Example 2.2.3. The point (2, 5) is not on the graph of the equation y = (x − 1)2 − 4 since
substituting the values into the equation gives a contradiction:
5 6= (2 − 1)2 − 4 = −3.
Here are some equations and their graphs:

2.2. Graphs of Equations 49
y = x3 y = |x|
3 3
2 2
1 1
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1 −1
−2
−3
√
y= x
3
s
ic
2
at
m
1 2 3 4
he
Definition 2.2.4. Given a graph,
at
fM
• an x-intercept is a value of x where the graph intersects the x-axis.
• a y-intercept is a value of y where the graph intersects the y-axis.

o
te
Remark 2.2.5. Given an equation in x and y, the x-intercepts are values of x when y = 0. Similarly,
the y-intercepts are values of y when x = 0.
tu
sti
Example 2.2.6. We determine the x and y inter-

cepts of the graph of y = x3 − x2 .
In
3
We can solve for the intercepts algebraically.
P
For the x-intercepts, we set y = 0 and solve for 2

U
values of x:
1
x3 − x2 = 0
2
x (x − 1) = 0
x2 = 0 or x−1 =0 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
x=0 or x = 1. −1
To find the y−intercept, we set x = 0 and solve −2

for values of y:
−3
03 − 02 = y
0 = y.
Example 2.2.7. Consider the graph of y =

|x| + 1. We show that it has no x-intercepts, 3
while the y-intercept is 1.
Let us solve for the y-intercept algebraically 2
by setting x = 0 and solving for y:
y = |0| + 1 1
y = 1.
For the the x-intercept, we set y = 0 and solve −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
for x:
0 = |x| + 1
−1 = |x|.
s
Since |x| = −1 has no solution, the graph will
ic
not have an x−intercept.
at
m
2.3 Lines
he
In the previous section, when we have two points on the Cartesian plane, a (unique) line is
at
formed. The points on this line can be algebraically expressed in an equation. Recall also that
fM
when a line is formed, one can compute for its slope. Suppose we have two points P (x0 , y0 ) and
Q(x1 , y1 ), then the slope is given by
o
y1 − y0
m = m←→ = , x0 6= x1 .
te
PQ x1 − x0
tu
←→
If any point (x, y) is on the line P Q, then the slope of the line formed by (x, y) and P (or Q) is still
sti
y − y0
m, so that, for P , m = or that y − y0 = m(x − x0 ). Simplifying this further,
In
x − x0
y − y0 = m(x − x0 )
P
U
y − y0 = mx − mx0
y = mx − mx0 + y0
y = mx + b , where b = (−mx0 + y0 )
Note that b gives the y-intercept of the last equation. We now define two forms of the equation of a
line.
Definition 2.3.1. Given a line with slope m containing the point (x0 , y0), the point-slope form of
the equation of the line is given by
y − y0 = m(x − x0 ).
The slope-intercept form of the equation of the line is given by
y = mx + b.
2.3. Lines 51
Example 2.3.2. Give the point-slope form of the equation of the line that passes through the two
points (4, −2) and (−5, 3).
Solution. First, we compute the slope m of the line:
y2 − y1 3 − (−2) 5 5
m= = = =− .
x2 − x1 −5 − 4 −9 9
We can use any of (4, −2) or (−5, 3) as (x0 , y0 ) for the point-slope form. If we use (4, −2), we
have
5 5
y − (−2) = − (x − 4) or y + 2 = − (x − 4).
9 9
We may also use the point (−5, 3) to obtain the equation:
5 5
s
y − 3 = − (x − (−5)) or y − 3 = − (x + 5).
ic
9 9
at
Example 2.3.3. Give the slope-intercept form of the equation of the line that passes through the
m
two points (4, −2) and (−5, 3).
he
1
Solution. From the above example, either point-slope forms of the equation leads to y = (2 −5x).
at 9
5 2
The slope-intercept form is y = − x + .
fM
9 9
Example 2.3.4. Sketch the graph of 2y − 3x = 6.

o
Solution. First, we transform the given equation into the slope-intercept form
te
3
tu
y = x + 3.
2
sti
This gives us a slope of 23 and y-intercept of 3. This would mean we already have a point on the
In
line, namely, the point (0, 3). We only need to get one more point on the line since two points
determine a line. We can either fix a value of x in the equation and solve for the value of y or fix a
P
value of y in the equation and solve for the value of x. To be specific, if we substitute y = 0 into
U
the slope-intercept form, then we get x = −2, the x-intercept of the line. We now have two points
on the line, (0, 3) and (−2, 0), and we can sketch its graph as shown.
3 (3, 0)
1
(−2, 0)
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
−1
Remark 2.3.5.
1. When the slope is zero, then we have a horizontal line whose equation is y = b.
2. When x0 = x1 = a in our slope formula, then the slope is undefined and we have a vertical line
whose equation is x = a.
3. Using the axioms of equality on the equation of a line, we can transform its point-slope form
into the slope-intercept form.
4. Similarly, we can transform the previous two forms of the equation of the line into the general
form
Ax + By + C = 0,
where A, B, C ∈ R, and at least one of A and B is nonzero.
s
ic
5. To graph a line, we use the fact that two points determine a unique line.
at
m
6. Given P (x0 , y0 ) and m ∈ R, there exists a unique line passing through (x0 , y0 ) whose slope is
m.
he
at
We now describe parallel line and perpendicular lines using slopes.
fM
Theorem 2.3.6. Let ℓ1 and ℓ2 be distinct lines with slopes mℓ1 and mℓ2 , respectively. Then
• ℓ1 is parallel to ℓ2 , denoted by ℓ1 k ℓ2 , if and only if mℓ1 = mℓ2 .
o
• ℓ1 is perpendicular to ℓ2 , denoted by ℓ1 ⊥ ℓ2 , if and only if mℓ1 · mℓ2 = −1.

te
tu
Example 2.3.7. Find the slope-intercept form 5x − 4y = −20

4
sti
of the equation of the line that passes through

P (2, −3) and is parallel to ℓ1 : 5x − 4y = −20. 2
In
Solution. Let ℓ2 be the line. Note that

(13,0)
P
5 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 8
ℓ1 : 5x − 4y = −20 ⇔ y = x + 5
U
4 −2 y = 45 x − 11
2
5 5
Hence, mℓ1 = . Since ℓ1 k ℓ2 , mℓ2 = also.
4 4 −4
Thus,
5 5 11 −6
ℓ2 : y − (−3) = (x − 2) ⇔ y = x − .
4 4 2
Example 2.3.8. Find the slope-intercept form of the equation of the line that passes through
5
P (2, −3) and is perpendicular to ℓ1 : y = x + 5.
4
5
Solution. Let ℓ2 be the line. Note that mℓ1 = . If ℓ1 ⊥ ℓ2 , then mℓ1 · mℓ2 = −1. Hence,
4
4
mℓ2 =− . Thus,
5
−4 4 7
ℓ2 : y − (−3) = (x − 2)⇔ y = − x − .
5 5 5
2.4. Circles 53
y = 45 x + 5
4
(13
−4 −2 0 2
y = − 45 x − 7
5
−2
s
ic
2.4 Circles
at
m
Definition 2.4.1. A circle is a set of points which are equidistant from a fixed point called its center.
he
The fixed distance from the center to any point on the circle is called the radius.
at
fM
P
C(h, k)
r
o
te
tu
sti
In
p the circle has center C(h, k) and radius r > 0. If P (x, y) is a point on the
In the figure above,
circle, then we have (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r from the distance formula. Squaring both sides of
P
the equation gives us the following theorem.

U
Theorem 2.4.2. Let h, k, r ∈ R and r > 0. A circle with center C(h, k) and radius r has an
equation of the form
(x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r 2 .
Example
2.4.3. The circle with center
1 3
− , and radius 2 has the equation 3
2 2
2 2 2
1 3 C(− 21 , 23 )
x+ + y− = 4.
2 2 1
2
P
−3 −2 −1 0 1
r
Example 2.4.4. The unit circle is the circle 2

whose center is (0, 0) and radius is 1. The equa-
tion of the unit circle is therefore x2 + y 2 = 1. 1
(1,0)
−2 −1 0 1 2
−1
−2
Remark 2.4.5.
s
1. We refer to the equation (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r 2 as the center-radius form or standard form
ic
of the equation of a circle.
at
m
2. The standard form of the equation of a circle can be put in the general form:
he
x2 + y 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
at
for some D, E, F ∈ R.
fM
3. Any equation of the form x2 + y 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 can be put in the form

o
2 2
te
D E D 2 + E 2 − 4F
x+ + y+ =
tu
2 2 4
sti
using the method of completing the square.

In
In the last remark, the resulting equation from completing the square may not be the center-
P
radius form of the equation of a circle. This is because the value on the right side of the equation
U
may be negative, zero, or positive. The value, however, gives us an insight as to whether the graph
of the equation x2 + y 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 is indeed a circle or not. We have the following
theorem.
Theorem 2.4.6. The graph of the equation x2 + y 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

√
D E D 2 + E 2 − 4F
• is a circle with center − , − and radius if D 2 + E 2 − 4F > 0,
2 2 2

D E
• is the point (or degenerate circle) with coordinates − , − if D 2 + E 2 − 4F = 0, or
2 2
• is not a circle if D 2 + E 2 − 4F < 0.
Example 2.4.7. Show why x2 + y 2 − 10x + 6y + 36 = 0 does not describe the graph of a circle.
2.4. Circles 55
Solution. Completing the squares of x and y in the equation, we have
x2 + y 2 − 10x + 6y = −36
(x2 − 10x + 25) + (y 2 + 6y + 9) = −36 + 25 + 9
(x − 5)2 + (y + 3)2 = −2.
No real value of x and y satisfies this equation since the sum of the left hand side is always
nonnegative while the right side is negative. Thus, x2 + y 2 − 10x + 6y + 36 = 0 does not describe
the graph of a circle.
s
ic
1. Given A(4, 2), B(6, −4), and C(2, −7).
at
a. Find the midpoint M of AB.
m
b. Give the distance between C and M.
he
2. One endpoint of a line segment has coordinates at (−1, 2). If the midpoint of the segment has
at
coordinates (2, −1), find the coordinates of the other endpoint.
fM
3. Use the distance formula to find those points whose x−coordinates are either −4 or 4 and whose
distance from the origin is 5.
o
4. Do the points A(0, −1), B(1, 1), and C(3, 5) lie on the same line?
te
5. Find the slope-intercept form of the equation of the line ℓ given that
tu
sti
a. ℓ passes through P (6, −2) and mℓ = 2.

b. the y-intercept of ℓ is the y-intercept of the line with equation 4y + x = 2 and mℓ = 4.
In
c. the x-intercept of ℓ is the x-intercept of the line with equation −5x + 2y = 10 and mℓ = −2.
P
d. ℓ passes through the points P (−6, 1) and Q(4, −4).

U
e. ℓ is the perpendicular bisector of the line segment through (2, 4) and (6, −8).
f. ℓ has a positive slope, passes through the point A(−1, 3) and forms an isosceles triangle
with the coordinate axes.
6. Find a general equation of the line that is parallel to the line with equation 3x − y + 1 = 0 and
whose x-intercept is also the x-intercept of the line with equation 2x − 3y + 6 = 0.
7. Determine the value of k such that the lines with equations 8x + 3y − 4 = 0 and kx + 4y − 1 = 0
are perpendicular.
8. Prove that the points M(−2, 5), N(12, 3), and O(10, −11) are the vertices of a right triangle,
and find its area.
9. Determine whether or not A(1, 3), B(− 52 , 2), C(− 27 , 4), and D(2, 1) form the vertices of a
parallelogram.
10. Find the value of k such that the lines with equations 3x + 2y − 4 = 0 and kx − 3y + 8 = 0 are
parallel.
11. Solve algebraically for the x− and y−intercepts of the following equations.
a. y 2 = x − 2 d. x2 + y 2 = 25
y2
b. y = |x| e. x = y 4 −4
c. y = x2 + 1 f. xy = 1
12. Find an equation of the circle whose center is at (−1, 2) and whose radius is 3.
13. From the following equations, determine the center and radius of the circle if it exists.
s
ic
a. (x + 1)2 + (y + 3)2 = 5 c. x2 + y 2 − 3x + 10y − 1 = 0
at
b. x2 + y 2 + 8x + 7 = 0 d. x2 + y 2 − 6x + 13 = 0
m
he
14. Determine an equation of the circle centered at (3, 4) and
a. passing through (−1, 5).

at
fM
b. tangent to the x-axis.
c. tangent to the vertical line passing through (5, 0).
o
te
tu
sti
In
P
U
Module 3
Conic Sections
s
ic
at
• identify the conic sections and graph them; and
m
• find equations of conic sections given some of their properties.
he
We begin with a definition.
at
fM
Definition 3.0.1. A conic section (or simply conic) is a curve formed when a right circular cone is
cut by a plane. Below are samples of conic sections.
o
te
tu
sti
In
P
U
Anton, H., Bivens, I.C., Davis, S., Calculus: Early Transcendentals, 7th ed., John Wiley & Sons, 2002.
Figure 3.1
57
58 Module 3. Conic Sections
3.1 Parabola
Definition 3.1.1. A parabola is the set of all points in the plane that are equidistant from a fixed
line D (called the directrix) and a fixed point F not on the fixed line (called the focus).
We limit our discussion to parabolas whose directrices are either horizontal or vertical. Con-
sider the point F (p, 0) and the line D with equation x = −p, where p > 0.
y
D
s
2 b
P (x, y)
ic
at
F axis of symmetry
m
b
x
latus rectum
he
at
directrix
o fM
Figure 3.2
te
tu
A point P = (x, y) is on the parabola if

sti
In
distance of P from F = distance of P from D.

P
Thus,
U
p
(x − p)2 + (y − 0)2 = |x − (−p)|
p
(x − p)2 + y 2 = |x + p|
(x − p)2 + y 2 = (x + p)2
x2 − 2px + p2 + y 2 = x2 + 2px + p2
y2 = 4px.
Definition 3.1.2. The line passing through the focus, perpendicular to the directrix is called the
axis of symmetry. The point of intersection of the axis of symmetry with the parabola is called
the vertex. The line segment through the focus with endpoints on the parabola and parallel to the
directrix is called the latus rectum.
Similarly, we can consider other orientations of a parabola. They are summarized below.
3.1. Parabola 59
Table 3.1: Parabola with Vertex at the Origin
Equation of the Parabola Focus Directrix Orientation

p>0 opens upward
x2 = 4py (0, p) y = −p
p<0 opens downward
p>0 opens to the right
y 2 = 4px (p, 0) x = −p
p<0 opens to the left
The length of the latus rectum is |4p|.

1 2
Example 3.1.3. Sketch the graph of y = 12
x.
y
2
Solution. We write the given equation as x =
s
4
4(3)y, and we get p = 3. The parabola opens (0, 3)
ic
b
3 b b
upward since p > 0. The vertex is at (0, 0), (−6, 3) 2 (6, 3)
at
the focus is at (0, 3), and the directrix is the line 1
x
m
y = −3. The axis of symmetry of the parabola is −8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
the y–axis and the endpoints of the latus rectum
he
−2
are (−6, 3) and (6, 3). 2 at −3
y = −3
−4
fM
Figure 3.3
y
o
2
Example 3.1.4. Sketch the graph of 4x + 3y = 0.
2
te
2
Solution.
Writing the above equation as y = 1
tu
1 1 b
4 − 3 x, we get p = − 3 and the parabola opens − 31 , 0 F
b
x
The vertex is at (0, 0), the focus
to the left. is at
sti
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 b 1
1 1
− 3 , 0 , and the directrix is the line x = 3 . The −1
In
axis of symmetry of the parabola is the x–axis. −2

x= 1
3
The endpoints of the latus rectum are − 13 , − 23

P

and − 31 , 23 . 2
U
Figure 3.4
The parabolas considered above have vertices at the origin. In general, by translating the axes,
we may consider parabolas whose vertices are located at any point (h, k) apart from the origin. In
this case, we have the following modifications:
Table 3.2: Parabola with Vertex at the Point (h, k)
Equation of the Parabola

Focus Directrix Orientation
with Vertex at (h, k)
p>0 opens upward
(x − h)2 = 4p(y − k) (h, p + k) y =k−p
p<0 opens downward
p>0 opens to the right
(y − k)2 = 4p(x − h) (p + h, k) x=h−p
p<0 opens to the left
Example 3.1.5. Find the focus, the directrix, and the vertex of the parabola described by the
equation y 2 + 4x + 8y = 0 and sketch the graph.
y
2
Solution. The equation can be written as y + 2
8y + 16 = −4x + 16, or (y − (−4))2 =
4(−1)(x − 4). Thus, p = −1 and the parabola x
−6 −4 −2 2 4 6
opens to the left. The vertex is at (4, −4). The −2 (3, −2) b
focus is at (3, −4) and the endpoints of the latus −4 (3, −4) b b (4, −4)
rectum are at (3, −2) and (3, −6). The directrix
is the line x = 5. 2 −6 (3, −6) b
−8 x=5
−10
s
ic
Figure 3.5
at
m
Example 3.1.6. Find an equation of the parabola given that the focus is at (3, 2) and the directrix
is the line y = 4.
he
y
Solution. We plot the focus and draw the direc- at
5
trix. The vertex is halfway between the directrix
fM
4
(3, 3) y=4
and the focus. Thus, the vertex is at (3, 3), and 3 b
the parabola opens downwards. Hence, p = −1. 2 b b b

o
(3, 2)
Thus, an equation for the parabola is given by 1
te
x
(x − 3)2 = −4(y − 3). 2 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
tu
−1
−2
sti
−3
In
−4
Figure 3.6
P
U
3.2 Ellipse
Definition 3.2.1. The set of all points on a plane whose distances from two given fixed points sum
up to a constant is called an ellipse. We call the two fixed points the foci (singular: focus) of the
ellipse.
The midpoint of the line segment whose endpoints are the two foci is called the center. The
points of intersection of the ellipse with the line through the foci are called the vertices. The
line segment whose endpoints are the vertices is called the major axis. The line segment that is
a perpendicular bisector of the major axis whose endpoints lie on the ellipse is called the minor axis.
Let c > 0. Let us determine an equation of the ellipse with foci F1 (−c, 0) and F2 (c, 0). Suppose
this ellipse intersects the x–axis at V1 (−a, 0) and V2 (a, 0) with a > 0 and the y–axis at (−b, 0) and
(b, 0) with b > 0.
3.2. Ellipse 61
y
Q
b
b
P
b
a
V1 b F1 b F2 V2
b b
x
c
Figure 3.7
s
Let us examine the sum of the distances to the foci from the vertex V2 and from the point Q with
ic
coordinates (0, b). From the definition of the ellipse, these sums must be equal, and so we obtain
at
√
m
2 b2 + c2 = (a − c) + (a + c)
he
from which it follows that √
a=
at
b2 + c2 (1)
fM
or that √
c= a2 − b2 . (2)
o
From (1), the distance from a focus to an end of the minor axis is a, which implies that for all points
te
on the ellipse the sum of the distances to the foci is 2a.

tu
A point P (x, y) is on the ellipse if

sti
distance of P to F1 + distance of P to F2 = 2a.

In
Thus,
P
p p
(x + c)2 + y 2 + (x − c)2 + y 2 = 2a.
U
Hence,
p 2
p 2
(x + c)2 + y 2 = 2a − (x − c)2 + y 2
p
x2 + 2cx + c2 + y 2 = 4a2 − 4a (x − c)2 + y 2 + x2 − 2cx + c2 + y 2
p
4a (x − c)2 + y 2 = 4a2 − 4cx

a2 x2 − 2cx + c2 + y 2 = a4 − 2a2 cx + c2 x2

a2 − c2 x2 + a2 y 2 = a2 a2 − c2
x2 y2
+ = 1.
a2 a2 − c2
Note that the length of the line segment connecting a focus to one of the endpoints of the minor
x2 y 2
axis is a, the half of the given constant. Thus, b2 = a2 − c2 , and so we have 2 + 2 = 1. We may
a b
consider ellipses whose major axes are vertical. Doing the same computation, with a > b and
also √
c = a2 − b2 , we have the following table:
Table 3.3: Ellipse with Center at the Origin
Equation of the Ellipse Foci Vertices Major Axis

x2 y 2
+ 2 =1 (±c, 0) (±a, 0) horizontal
a2 b
2
x y2
+ =1 (0, ±c) (0, ±a) vertical
s
b2 a2
ic
at
x2 y 2
Example 3.2.2. Sketch the graph of + = 1.
25 9 y
m
x2
he
Solution. Writing the above equation as 2 + 4
B2
5 3 b
y2 at
= 1, we get a = 5 and b = 3. Thus, the ma- 2
32
fM
1
jor axis is horizontal, the center is at C(0, 0), the V1 F1 C F2 V2
vertices are at V1 (−5, 0) and V2 (5, 0), the foci
b b b b b
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1
are at F1 (−4, 0) and F2 (4, 0), and the minor axis
o
−2
has endpoints at B1 (0, −3) and B2 (0, 3). 2
te
−3 b
B1
tu
−4
sti
Figure 3.8
In
Example 3.2.3. Sketch the graph of 9x2 + 4y 2 = 36. y

P
x2
U
Solution. Rewriting the above equation as + b V2

22 3
y2 b F2
= 1, we get a = 3 and b = 2. Thus, the 2
32
major axis is vertical, the center is at C(0, 0), the 1
vertices are at√V1 (0, −3) and√V2 (0, 3), the foci B1
b b
C
b
B2
x
are at F1 (0, − 5) and F2 (0, 5), and the minor −2 −1 1 2
axis has endpoints at B1 (−2, 0) and B2 (2, 0). 2 −1
−2 b
F1
−3 b
V1
Figure 3.9
The ellipses considered above are those centered at the origin. In general, by translating the axes,
3.2. Ellipse 63
we may consider an ellipse centered at the point (h, k) different from the origin. We summarize
the two cases in the following table:
Table 3.4: Ellipse with Center at the Point (h, k)
Equation of the Ellipse

Foci Vertices Major Axis
with Center at (h, k)
(x − h)2 (y − k)2
+ =1 (h ± c, k) (h ± a, k) horizontal
a2 b2
(x − h)2 (y − k)2
+ =1 (h, k ± c) (h, k ± a) vertical
b2 a2
s
(x − h)2 (y − k)2
ic
Remark 3.2.4. Note that if a = b, then the equation of the ellipse becomes + = 1,
a2 a2
at
or equivalently, (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = a2 , which is an equation of the circle centered at (h, k) of
m
radius a. This tells us that the circle is a special type of ellipse.
he
Example 3.2.5. Find an equation of the ellipse centered at C(1, 1) with foci at F1 (−1, 1) and
F2 (3, 1) and vertices at V1 (−2, 1) and V2 (4, 1).
at
fM
Solution. Since the foci lie on the same horizontal line, the major axis of the given ellipse is
horizontal. From Table 3.4, we have (h, k) = (1, 1). Since |F1 F2 | = 2c
√ = 4, we have
√ c = 2. Also,
2 2
|V1 V2 | = 2a = 6, implying that a = 3. Consequently, we have b = 3 − 2 = 5. Hence, we
o
have
te
(x − 1)2 (y − 1)2
tu
+ = 1. 2
9 5
sti
Example 3.2.6. Sketch the graph of 25x2 + y 2 − 4y − 21 = 0.

In
y
2
(x − 0)
P
Solution. Rewriting, we get + 7 bb

V2
12
U
F
(y − 2)2 6 2
= 1. Thus, a = 5 and b = 1, and
52 5
the major axis is vertical. Moreover, the center 4
is at C(0, 2), the vertices are at V1 (0, −3) and
3
V2 (0, 7), the minor axis has endpoints B1 (−1,
√ 2) b b b
B1 2 C B2
and B2 (1, 2), and
√ the foci are at F1 (0, 2 − 24 )
1
and F2 (0, 2 + 24 ). 2
x
−2 −1 1
−1
−2
F1
−3 bb V
1
Figure 3.10
Example 3.2.7. Find an equation of the ellipse if one vertex is at V (3, 2) and its minor axis has
one endpoint at B(−1, −1).
Solution. The center cannot be at (3, −1) for if 5

so, we have |CV | = a = 3 and |CE| = b = 4, 4
contradicting the fact that a > b. The center 3
therefore is at C(−1, 2), with a = 4 and b = 3. Cb 2 b
V
Thus, the major axis is horizontal. Hence, an 1
equation for the ellipse is given by x
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1
b
1 2 3
−1
(x + 1)2 (y − 2)2 B−2
s
+ = 1. 2
ic
16 9
Figure 3.11
at
m
he a2
at
The lines which are perpendicular to the line containing the major axis and of distance units
c
fM
from the center are called the directrices of the ellipse.
y
o
te
B2
tu
b
sti
V1 F1 C F2 V2
In
b b b b b
x
P
U
B1
Figure 3.12: An Ellipse with Its Directrices
3.3 Hyperbola
Definition 3.3.1. The set of all points in a plane where the absolute value of the difference of whose
distances from two fixed points F1 and F2 (called the foci) is constant is called a hyperbola.
3.3. Hyperbola 65
P
b
F1 F2
b b
V1
b
V2
b b
x
s
ic
Figure 3.13
at
m
The midpoint of the line segment connecting the two foci is called the center. The points of
he
intersection of the hyperbola and the line through the foci are called the vertices. The line segment
connecting the vertices is called the transverse axis. at
fM
Let P (x, y) be a point on the hyperbola and let c > 0. Let us determine the equation of
the hyperbola with foci F1 (−c, 0) and F2 (c, 0). Suppose the hyperbola intersects the x–axis at
V1 (−a, 0) and V2 (a, 0) with a > 0. Note that the distance from a vertex to the farther focus minus
o
the distance from the same vertex to the closer focus is

te
[(c − a) + 2a] − (c − a) = 2a.

tu
sti
Thus, for all points on the hyperbola, the distance to the farther focus minus the distance to the
closer focus is 2a.
In
From Figure 3.12 and from the definition of the hyperbola, we have
P
U
p p
2 + y2 − 2 + y 2 = 2a.
(x + c) (x − c)
Simplifying, we get
x2 y2
− = 1.
a2 c2 − a2
Since 2a < 2c, it follows that c2 − a2 > 0, and so we can let b2 = c2 − a2 . The above equation then
becomes
x2 y 2
− 2 = 1.
a2 b
This is the desired equation of the hyperbola. If we solve for y in terms of x, we get
r
x2 b2
y=± − b2 .
a2
b b
The lines y = x and y = − x serve as asymptotes of the hyperbola.
a a
y
B2
b
F1 F2
b b
V1
b
V2
b b
x
b
B1
s
ic
Figure 3.14: A Hyperbola with Its Asymptotes and Conjugate Axis
at
m
To sketch a hyperbola, we construct the rectangle, called the auxiliary rectangle, with corners at
he
(±a, ±b). Note that the asymptotes are precisely the extended diagonals of the auxiliary rectangle.
y at
o fM
(−a, b) (a, b)
b b
te
b
x
tu
b b
(−a, −b) (a, −b)

sti
In
P
Figure 3.15: A Hyperbola with Its Auxiliary Rectangle

U
Note that the segment connecting the points B1 and B2 as shown in Figure 3.14 is called the
conjugate axis of the hyperbola.
We can consider hyperbolas whose transverse√axes are vertical. In a similar fashion, we can
derive the equation of such hyperbolas. With c = a2 + b2 , we have the following table.
Table 3.5: Hyperbola with Center at the Origin
Equation of the Hyperbola Foci Vertices Transverse Axis Equations of Asymptotes

2 2
x y b
2
− 2 =1 (±c, 0) (±a, 0) horizontal y=± x
a b a
y 2 x2 a
− 2 =1 (0, ±c) (0, ±a) vertical y=± x
a2 b b
3.3. Hyperbola 67
Example 3.3.2. Sketch the graph of x2 − y 2 = 4.

x2 y2
Solution. Rewriting the above equation as 2 − 2 = 1, we see that a = 2 and b = 2, and
√ 2 2
consequently, c = 2 2. Thus, the transverse axis √ is horizontal, the√center is C(0, 0), the vertices
are V1 (−2, 0) and V2 (2, 0), and the foci are F1 (−2 2, 0) and F2 (2 2, 0). The conjugate axis has
endpoints at B1 (0, −2) and B2 (0, 2). 2
y
3
B2
b
2
1
F1 V1 C V2 F2
b b b b b
x
s
1 2 3 4
ic
−4 −3 −2 −1
−1
at
−2 b
B1
m
−3
he
Figure 3.16
at
y
fM
Example 3.3.3. Sketch the graph of 9y 2 − 4x2 = 144.
b
y2 6
F2
o
Solution. Rewriting the equation above as 2 − b

4 4
V2
te
x2 2
= 1, we see that a = 4 and b = 6. Thus, the B1 b Cb B2
tu
62 b
x
transverse axis is vertical, the center is C(0, 0), −10 −8 −6 −4 −2
−2 2 4 6 8
sti
the vertices are V√1 (0, −4) and V2 (0,√

4), and the b
V1
−4
foci are F1 (0, −2 13 ) and F2 (0, 2 13 ). The
In
−6
b
conjugate axis has endpoints at B1 (−6, 0) and −8 F1
B2 (6, 0).
P
2
Figure 3.17
U
The hyperbolas considered above are those centered at the origin. In general, by translating the
axes, we may consider hyperbolas centered
√ at the point (h, k) different from the origin. Thus, we
have the following table where c = a2 + b2 :
Table 3.6: Hyperbola with Center at the Point (h, k)
Equation of the Hyperbola Equations of the

Foci Vertices Transverse Axis
with Center at (h, k) Asymptotes
(x − h)2 (y − k)2 b
− =1 (h ± c, k) (h ± a, k) horizontal y − k = ± (x − h)
a2 b2 a
(y − k)2 (x − h)2 a
− =1 (h, k ± c) (h, k ± a) vertical y − k = ± (x − h)
a2 b2 b
Example 3.3.4. Find an equation of the hyperbola and the equations of its asymptotes if the
hyperbola has its center at (1, −3), foci at F1 (1, −5) and F2 (1, −1), and vertices at V1 (1, −2) and
V2 (1, −4).
Solution. Since the center is at the point (1, −3), it follows that h = 1 and √ k = −3. Since√
|F1 F2 | = 2c = 4 and |V1 V2 | = 2a = 2, we get c = 2 and a = 1, and so b = 22 − 12 = 3.
Also, since the foci and the vertices all lie on the same vertical line, the equation of the hyperbola
is given by
(y + 3)2 (x − 1)2
− √ =1
12 ( 3)2
and its asymptotes are y − (−3) = ± √13 (x − 1). 2
s
Example 3.3.5. Find an equation of the hyperbola with foci (−1, 1) and (4, 1) and vertices (0, 1)
ic
and (3, 1).
at

Solution. Halfway between the foci (or between vertices) is the center, 23 , 1 . Note that a is the
m
distance from the center to a vertex. Thus, a = 32 . Also, c is the distance from the center to a focus.
he
Thus, c = 52 . Since a2 + b2 = c2 , we have b2 = 25 4
− 94 = 16 4
= 4. Since the transverse axis is
horizontal, an equation of the hyperbola is at
fM

3 2
4 x− 2 (y − 1)2
− = 1. 2
9 4
o
a2
The lines which are perpendicular to the transverse axis and of distance units from the center
te
c
are called the directrices of the hyperbola.
tu
y
sti
In
P
F1 V1 C V2 F2
U
b b b b b
x
Figure 3.18: A Hyperbola with Its Directrices

A. Identify the following conic sections.
1. 2x2 − 3y 2 + 4x + 6y − 1 = 0 4. 4x2 − x = y 2 + 1
2. 2x2 + 3y 2 + 16x − 18y − 53 = 0 5. 7y − y 2 − x = 0
3. 9x + y 2 + 4y − 5 = 0
3.3. Hyperbola 69
B. For each item, find the vertex, focus, equation of directrix, and the endpoints of latus rectum of
the parabola with the given equation. Provide a sketch of the parabola.
1. x2 + 8y = 0 3. 2x2 + 4x − 3y + 6 = 0
2. 3y 2 − 4x = 0 4. y 2 − 4y + 2x = 0
C. For each item, find the center, vertices, foci, and endpoints of the minor axis of the ellipse with
the given equation. Provide a sketch for the ellipse.
x2 (y − 1)2 3. 16x2 + 9y 2 − 64x + 18y − 71 = 0
1. + =1
4 9
2. 4x2 + 25y 2 = 100 4. x2 + 4y 2 + 2x − 16y + 13 = 0
s
ic
D. For each item, find the center, vertices, foci, and equations of the asymptotes of the hyperbola
at
with the given equation. Provide a sketch for the hyperbola.
m
x2 y2 3. −9x2 + 4y 2 − 54x + 16y = 101
1. − =1
he
25 49
2. 4y 2 − (x + 3)2 = 16 4. −x2 + y 2 + 6x − 6y + 4 = 0
at
fM
E. Find an equation of the given conic satisfying the prescribed properties.
1. parabola with focus at F (0, −2) and equation of directrix is y = 2

o
2. parabola with vertex at the origin, opens to the left, and passing through P (−2, 2)
te
tu
3. parabola which opens to the right, endpoints of latus rectum have coordinates (−8, 6) and
(−8, 2)
sti
4. ellipse with center at the origin, foci at F1 (0, −3) and F2 (0, 3), major axis of length 8 units
In
5. ellipse with foci at F1 (2, 0) and F2 (2, 12) and a vertex at V (2, 14)
P
6. ellipse with foci on the y–axis, distance between

foci is half the length of the major axis,
U
9
center at origin, point with coordinates 2 , 3 on the ellipse
7. hyperbola centered at the origin, a focus at F (5, 0), a vertex at V (4, 0)
8. hyperbola with foci at F1 (0, 0) and F2 (0, 4), passing through the point with coordinates
(12, 9)
9. hyperbola with center at origin, a vertex at V (8, 0), asymptotes with equations 2x ± 4y = 0
10. ellipse whose foci are the vertices of the hyperbola 11x2 − 7y 2 = 77 and whose vertices are
the foci of the same hyperbola
s
ic
at
m
he
at
fMo
te
tu
sti
In
P
U
Module 4
Systems of Equations and Inequalities
s
ic
at
• solve systems of linear equations using algebraic methods;
m
• solve nonlinear systems of equations via the same methods as above;
he
• look at the geometric interpretation of these systems of equations; and
at
fM
• identify regions which serve as solution sets for systems of inequalities.
o
4.1 Review of Linear Systems

te
Previously, we worked with equations in a single variable and their solutions. We will now
tu
study sets of equations in two or more variables and show how to obtain their solutions. We begin
sti
with some definitions.

In
Definition 4.1.1. A system of equations is a set of two or more equations in several variables. A
solution of a system is a solution common to all equations in the system. The solution set of a
P
system is the set consisting of all its solutions.

U
We will now look at algebraic methods of solving some basic types of systems of equations.
4.1.1 Two Linear Equations in Two Variables

Definition 4.1.2. Let a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 , c1 , c2 ∈ R. A system of two linear equations in two variables
has the form
a1 x + b1 y = c1
.
a2 x + b2 y = c2
The solution set of the pair of equations is the set of all ordered pairs (x, y) that satisfy both
equations. The graph of each equation in the system is a straight line. For a line with equation
a
ax + by = c, recall that if b 6= 0, the line is non-vertical and has slope equal to the quantity − .
b
For a pair of lines on the plane, there are three cases that can occur.
71
72 Module 4. Systems of Equations and Inequalities
1. The two lines have different slopes. In this case, the lines will intersect at a point. The
solution is the unique point with coordinates (x, y) satisfying both equations. Thus, the
system is said to be independent and consistent.
2. The two lines are distinct but have equal slopes. Hence they form a pair of parallel
lines. The equations of these lines do not have a common solution. This system is called
inconsistent and the solution set is the empty set.
3. The two lines coincide. Here the slopes of both lines are the same and every point on one
line is also on the other. Each equation can be reduced to the form of the other. This system
is called dependent and the set of points satisfying the system forms an infinite set.
s
We can solve a system of two linear equations in two variables by using algebraic methods.
ic
These methods consist of replacing the original system by another system that has exactly the same
at
solution set. Two systems with the same solution set are called equivalent systems.
m
We give two algebraic methods for solving a system of linear equations: elimination by addition
or subtraction and elimination by substitution. In both methods the aim is to eliminate one variable
he
first.
at
1. Elimination by Addition or Subtraction. Multiply each of the equations by suitable
fM
constants such that when the two equations are added or subtracted, one variable will be
eliminated.
o
2. Elimination by Substitution. Solve for one variable in one of the equations and substitute
te
it into the other.

tu
sti
Example 4.1.3. We illustrate these ideas and methods in the following examples.
In
1. Find the solution of the system

P

3x − 4y = 1
U
.
2x + 3y = 12
Solution. Note that the slopes of the lines having the given equations are different. Hence the
solution is a unique pair (x, y) satisfying both equations. We will use the addition method to
solve this system.
Let us eliminate the variable x. We multiply the first equation by 2 and the second by −3 to get
the equivalent system:
6x − 8y = 2
−6x − 9y = −36
We now add the second equation to the first (using the additive axiom of equality), to obtain
−17y = −34.
4.1. Review of Linear Systems 73
From the equation above, we get y = 2. We now substitute the value y = 2 in either of the
original equations and obtain the value for x. For example, substituting into the first equation,
we have
3x − 4(2) = 1.
Solving for x, we get x = 3. Thus, the solution to the system is x = 3 and y = 2.
If we interpret this system geometrically, we see that the lines with equations 3x − 4y = 1 and
2x + 3y = 12 intersect at the point (3, 2). 2
s
ic
4
at
3
m
(3, 2)
he
2 b
2x
1 +
= at 3y
4y =
1 − 12
3x
fM
x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6
o
−1
te
tu
Figure 4.1
sti
In
2. Find the point(s) of intersection of the lines with equations

P
3 1 3 3
U
ℓ1 : y = x − and ℓ2 : y = x + .
4 4 2 4
Solution. We saw earlier that finding the intersection of lines is equivalent to solving a system.
We observe that the lines are distinct because they have different slopes. Our problem is
equivalent to solving the system:

 3 1
 y =
 x−
4 4

 3 3
 y = x+
2 4
In the above system, since one variable, y, is already expressed in terms of the other variable x,
the substitution method can immediately be applied.
Since y = 34 x − 14 in the first equation, we can substitute this value for y in the second equation:
3 1 3 3
x− = x+ .
4 4 2 4
We now have an equation in the variable x, which we can solve. Multiplying both sides by the
least common denominator, 4, we obtain:
3x − 1 = 6x + 3.
Solving for x, we get

−3x = 4.
Hence, x = − 34 . We now substitute x = − 34 into any of the equations, say, into the first equation,
to get
s

ic
3 4 1
y= − − .
at
4 3 4
m
Simplifying, we obtain y = − 54 .
he

Thus, the two lines intersect at the point − 43 , − 45 , as illustrated in the figure below. 2
y
at 3
+
4
fM
x
3
2
=
2 1
y
4
x−
o
1 3
4
y=
te
x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
tu
− 34 , − 54 b −1
sti
−2
In
−3
P
Figure 4.2
U

4x + 6y = 6
3. Solve the system .
2x + 3y = 5
Solution. Observe that the two lines having the equations above have the same slope − 23 .
However, the first line has y-intercept equal to 1, while the second has y-intercept equal to 35 .
Thus the lines are parallel and are distinct. The system is an example of an inconsistent system
and therefore has no solution. 2

4x + 6y = 6
4. Solve the system .
2x + 3y = 3
Solution. Here, we see that one equation is a multiple of the other; thus, the equations represent
exactly one line. In this case, the solution set of the system is an infinite set, and we can express
the ordered pairs (x, y) satisfying the equivalent equations in the form (x, 3−2x 3
), where x is any
real number. 2
4.1. Review of Linear Systems 75
4.1.2 Systems of Three Linear Equations in Three Variables

An equation of the form ax + by + cz + d = 0, where a, b, c, d ∈ R and a, b, c not all zero,
is called a linear equation in the three variables x, y, and z. An ordered triple (r, s, t) of real
numbers is a solution of an equation in three variables x, y, z if the equation is satisfied when r, s,
and t are substituted into x, y, and z respectively.
Definition 4.1.4. A system of three linear equations in three variables has the form

 a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d2

a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d3
where ai , bi , ci , di ∈ R for all i = 1, 2, 3.
s
We can use the following procedure to solve such systems:
ic
at
1. Choose any two pairs of equations and for each pair, eliminate the same variable.
m
2. Solve the resulting system of two linear equations in the remaining two variables.
he
3. Substitute values obtained for the two known variables in any of the three original equations to
at
obtain the value of the variable eliminated in step 1.
fM
Example 4.1.5. Solve for x, y, z in the following system:

 x+y−z = 4 (1)
o
x − 2y + z = −1 (2)
te

x + 2y + z = 3 (3)
tu
Solution. Take the 1st and 2nd equations and eliminate z by adding them up. Label their sum
sti
as equation (4).
In
x+y−z = 4
x − 2y + z = −1
P
2x − y = 3 (4)
U
Next, take the 1st and 3rd equations and eliminate z again by adding these equations. Label their
sum as equation (5).
x+y−z = 4
x + 2y + z = 3
2x + 3y = 7 (5)
Now, we solve the resulting system of equations comprised by equations (4) and (5):

2x − y = 3
2x + 3y = 7
Subtracting the second equation from the first, we get
−4y = −4.
Hence, y = 1. We solve for the value of x by substituting y = 1 into equation (4):
2x − 1 = 3
⇔ 2x = 4
⇔ x = 2
Finally, we obtain the value for z from equation (1) by substituting x = 2 and y = 1.
x+y−z = 4
⇔ 2+1−z = 4
⇔ −1 = z
So, x = 2, y = 1 and z = −1 is the solution of the system. 2
s
4.1.3 Systems of Linear Inequalities
ic
at
Definition 4.1.6. A system of linear inequalities in two variables consists of at least two linear
inequalities in the same variables. A solution of a system of linear inequalities is an ordered pair
m
that is a solution to all inequalities in the system. The solution region of a system of inequalities is
he
the region consisting of all its solutions.
at
To find the solution region of a given system of inequalities, we first sketch the regions which
fM
correspond to each of the given inequality, and then taking the intersection of these regions will
give the solution region of the system.
o

x > 3
Example 4.1.7. Sketch the solution region of the system .
te
y ≤ −x + 2
tu
Solution. The graph of x > 3 is the region to the y

sti
right of the line x = 3, excluding the points on 1

the line itself. The graph of y ≤ −x + 2 is the x
In
region below the line y = −x + 2, including the −1

−1
1 2 3
bc
4 5 6 7
points on the line. The solution region is shown

P
−2
in Figure 4.3. 2
U
−3
−4
−5
Figure 4.3

 y < 2x − 3
Example 4.1.8. Sketch the solution region of the system y ≥ −3 .
 4 5
y ≤ −5x + 2
The graph of y < 2x − 3 is the region below the line y = 2x − 3 with the points on the line
excluded. The graph of y ≥ −3 is the region above the line y = −3 with the points on the line
included. The graph of y ≤ − 54 x + 52 is the region below the line y = − 45 x + 25 with the points on
the line included. Taking the intersections of these regions gives us the solution region as shown
in Figure 4.4. 2
4.2. Nonlinear Systems of Equations and Inequalities 77
3
2
1 bc
x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
−1
−2
bc
−3
−4
−5
Figure 4.4
s
ic
at
Remark 4.1.9. Here are some tips on how to easily identify regions resulting from linear inequal-
ities:
m
he
1. The solution of the inequality y > ax + b is the set of all points above the line y = ax + b.
at
2. The solution of the inequality y < ax + b is the set of all points below the line y = ax + b.
fM
3. The solution of the inequality x > ay + b is the set of all points to the right of the line x = ay + b.
4. The solution of the inequality x < ay + b is the set of all points to the left of the line x = ay + b.
o
Replacing “>” with “≥” and “<” with “≤” in the above statements simply includes the points that
te
lie along the line of consideration.

tu
sti
4.2 Nonlinear Systems of Equations and Inequalities

In
We first consider systems of equations that involve one linear equation and one quadratic
P
equation. For these systems, we commonly use the substitution method.

U
Example 4.2.1. A line and a parabola.

Solve for the intersection of the graphs of
ρ : y = x2 − 4x + 2 and ℓ : y = 2x − 3 .
Solution. We substitute the value of y in the equation of ℓ to the equation of ρ:

2x − 3 = x2 − 4x + 2
2
x − 6x + 5 = 0
(x − 1)(x − 5) = 0.
Hence, x = 1 or x = 5.
This implies that the graphs of ℓ and ρ intersect at two different points.
We solve for the values of y by substituting the values found for x into either of the two equations
of the system. If x = 1, then y = 2(1) − 3 = −1. If x = 5, then y = 2(5) − 3 = 7.
Thus, the line and the parabola intersect at (1, −1) and (5, 7), as illustrated in the following
figure. 2
y
9
8
b
7 (5, 7)
6
5
4
3
2
1
s
x
ic
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6
b
−1 (1, −1)
at
−2
m
−3
Figure 4.5
he
at
Remark 4.2.2. Note that it is also possible for a line and a parabola to have only one intersection
fM
point, or to not meet at all, as seen in the following figures:
o
te
tu
sti
In
Figure 4.6 Figure 4.7

P
U
Example 4.2.3. A line and a circle.

Find the intersection of the graphs with equations
ℓ : x + y = 2 and C : x2 + y 2 = 4 .
Solution. The equation of ℓ is equivalent to y = 2 − x. We substitute this expression for y in the

equation of the circle. After simplifying the resulting equation, we can solve for the values of x, as
shown in the following steps.
x2 + (2 − x)2 = 4
x + x2 − 4x + 4 =
2
4
2x2 − 4x = 0
2x(x − 2) = 0
x = 0 or x=2
Using the equation for ℓ, we obtain y = 2 if y

x = 0. If x = 2, then y = 0. Thus, the graphs of
3
the given equations intersect at (0, 2) and (2, 0),
(0, 2)
as shown in Figure 4.8. 2 2 b
1
(2, 0)
b
x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1
−2
Figure 4.8
s
ic
Remark 4.2.4. Similar to the previous remark, it is also possible for a line and a circle to have only
at
one intersection point, or to not meet at all, as seen in the following figures:
m
he
at
fM
Figure 4.10
o
Figure 4.9
te
We now consider systems of nonlinear inequalities. Analogous to a system of linear inequalities,

tu
a solution of a system of nonlinear inequalities is an ordered pair that is a solution to all inequalities
sti
in the system and the solution region is the region consisting of all these solutions.
In
(
x2 + y 2 ≤ 25
P
4x − 3y ≤ 0
U
Solution. The graph of x2 + y 2 ≤ 25 is the in- y

terior of the circle x2 + y 2 = 25 along with the
6
points on the circle. The graph of 4x − 3y ≤ 0 is 5
the region above the line 4x − 3y = 0 including 4
3
the points on the line. Taking the intersection of 2
these regions gives the solution region as seen in 1
x
Figure 4.11. 2 −7−6−5−4−3−2−1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6
−7
Figure 4.11
(
x < 2y − y 2
0 < x+y
Solution. The graph of x < 2y − y 2 is the region y

to the left of the parabola x = 2y − y 2 (exclud-
ing the points on the parabola). The graph of bc
3
0 < x + y is the region above the line 0 = x + y
2
not including the points on the line. Taking the
intersection of these regions gives us the solution 1
region in Figure 4.12. 2 bc

x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1
−1
s
ic
Figure 4.12
at
m
he
Exercises for Module 4 at
A. Solve algebraically for the solution sets of the following systems of equations.
fM

2x − y = 24 3u − v = 4
1. 10.
o
x + y = −3 2v − 6u = 8
te
( 
8s − 2t + 1 = 0  4 3
2. 1  +
 = 27
tu
t = s−3 x y
2 11.
2 5
sti

 −
 = −19
2a + 3b = 6 x y
3.
In
8a = 6b + 12 
 4x + 3y + z = 1
2x + 3y − 12 = 0
P
4. 12. x − y − 2z = −6
U
3x − 4y − 1 = 0 
2x − 2y + z = −2

−6x + 8y + 2 = 0 
5.  a+b = 8
3x − 4y − 1 = 0 13. 2a − c = 4

2x + 3y − 12 = 0 b + 2c = 9
6.
4x + 6y − 6 = 0 
 a+b−c = 3
2x − 3y = 4 14. a − b − c = −1
7. 2 
3
x − y = 11 a+b+c = 4

3k + 4m − 4 = 0 3 2
8. 
 − = 1
5k + 2m − 8 = 0 

 u v

 p q 1 1
 + = 1 15. − = 5
3 2 
 w v
9.  1 2
 p − q = −1 

 − = 5
4 3 w u

1 2 3 4x2 − y 2 = 4


 − + = −6 19.
 x

 y z y = x2
2 1
16. + + = 1 x2 + y 2 = 1

 x z 20.

 3 4 2 3y − 2x = 6
 −
 + = 10 (
x y z 4x2 + y 2 = 17
21.

2(x2 + 2x) − y = 4 x2 + y = 5
17. (
3(x2 + 2x) − 2y = −7 −ax + by = b2 − a2
22.
bx + ay = 2ab
x2 + xy = 20
18. where a, b are not both equal to zero
5y = x+1
s
ic
B. Sketch the solution region for each of the given system of inequalities.
at

3x + 2y ≤ 10  y < 5 − x2
1.
m
2x + 5y > 3 6. x ≥ −1

he
y > 0
x > 2y − 1
2. 2
y > x−2 at x + y2 > 1
 7.
 x−y < 0 x2 − y 2 ≤ 1
fM
3. 5x − 2y ≥ 6 2
 y < x
y > 4 8.
y < x−2
o

 −x + 2y ≤ 2
y > x2 − 2x − 3
te
4. 3x + y < 15 9.

y ≥ 0 y > x2 − 4x + 3
tu

6x − 3y ≤ 5 x2 + y 2 ≤ 25
sti
5. 10.
2x − y ≥ 4 3x2 − 16y > 0
In
P
U
References
1. L.L. Castillo, F.N. Reyes, F.V. Cejalvo and J.T. Tangco, College Algebra and Trigonometry,
National Bookstore, 2008.
2. P. Dawkins, College Algebra (available online at http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu).
3. Math 1310 College Algebra, University of Houston Department of Mathematics, 2011.
4. L. Leithold, College Algebra and Trigonometry, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 2002.
5. J. Stewart, Calculus: Early Transcendentals, Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning, 2008.
6. Math 17 Module, Institute of Mathematics, UP Diliman, 2012.
s
ic
at
m
he
at
o fM
te
tu
sti
In
P
U
U
P
In
sti
tu
te
o fM
at
he
m
at
ic
s

Math 20 Course Module

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Mathematics 20 Module Writers and Editors:

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0 Review Topics in Algebra 3

0.4.1 Special Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

0.4.2 Factoring Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

0.6 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

0.6.1 Definitions and Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

1 Equations and Inequalities 21

1.1 Review of Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2 The Two-Dimensional Coordinate System 45

4 Systems of Equations and Inequalities 71

Module 0: Review Topics in Algebra

Review Topics in Algebra

We use the following notations and terminology:

• If a is an element of set A, then we denote this by a ∈ A.

There are two ways to describe the elements in a set:

0.1.2 Relations on Sets

0.1.3 Operations on Sets

Similarly, the set difference B − A is given by

A × B = {(a, b) | a ∈ A and b ∈ B}.

0.1.4 The Set of Real Numbers

of rational numbers and the set of irrational numbers. That is,

R can be represented by a Venn diagram as shown below:

We have the following relations:

0.2 The Real Number System

0.2.1 Field Axioms

2. Associative Axiom for Addition and Multiplication

3. Commutative Axiom for Addition and Multiplication

4. Distributive Axiom of Multiplication over Addition

0 is called the identity element for addition.

• Existence of Multiplicative Identity

1 is called the identity element for multiplication.

• Inverse Axiom for Addition

The number −a is called the additive inverse of a.

0.2.2 Equality Axioms

2. Symmetric Property of Equality

3. Transitive Property of Equality

4. Additive Property of Equality

Remark 0.2.3. Note that division by zero is NOT defined.

0.2.3 Order Properties of R

Definition 0.2.4. Let a, b ∈ R.

2. A real number a is a negative real number if 0 > a.

3. We say a < b (a less than b) if b > a.

Definition 0.3.1. If a ∈ R and n ∈ N, then

The following rules can be easily deduced from this definition.

Theorem 0.3.2 (Laws of Exponents). Let a ∈ R and n, m ∈ N. The following hold:

5. If b is a real number not equal to zero, then

Definition 0.3.3. If a is a nonzero real number and n ∈ N, we define

1. (210 )(211 ) = 221 4. (5x2 y 5 )(3y 4) = 15x2 y 9

0.4.1 Special Products

1. Difference of two squares: (x + y)(x − y) = x2 − y 2

2. Square of a binomial: (x ± y)2 = x2 ± 2xy + y 2

3. Product of binomials I: (x + a)(x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab

4. Product of binomials II: (ax + b)(cx + d) = acx2 + (ad + bc)x + bd

5. Cube of a binomial: (x ± y)3 = x3 ± 3x2 y + 3xy 2 ± y 3

6. Sum or difference of two cubes: (x ± y)(x2 ∓ xy + y 2 ) = x3 ± y 3

0.4.2 Factoring Polynomials

• Difference of Two Squares, x2 − y 2 = (x + y)(x − y)

1. 9y 4 − 25 = (3y 2 )2 − 52 = (3y 2 − 5)(3y 2 + 5)

2. 16m4 − n12 = (4m2 )2 − (n6 )2 = (4m2 + n6 )(4m2 − n6 )

• Perfect Square Trinomial, x2 ± 2xy + y 2 = (x ± y)2