UNITS

UNIT 1: The Verb and its forms

UNIT 2: Active – Passive

UNIT 3: Questions

UNIT 4: Modal Constructions

UNIT 5: Subordinate Clauses

UNIT 6: The Unreal Past

UNIT 7: Reported Speech

UNIT 8: Nouns and Determiners

Unit 9. Adverbs and Adjectives

Unit 10: The Academic Text

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 Unit 1
The verb and its forms

Objectives:
 understand and apply correctly the forms of the English tense system
 understand the relationship between chronological time and grammatical tense
 form correct communicative units in terms of tense blends
 use the correct adverbial specific to each tense

Key words:
 tense, aspect, adverbial

Contents:
 the present tenses
 the past tenses
 verb forms that express the future

Bibliography:
 Loghin, D, Felea, C., Sonea I, Pop, L, (2010). Compendiu de gramatică engleză (English
Grammar. Compendium), Echinox.
 Palmer, F., Robert. (1988) The English verb, Longman.
 Vince Michael (with Emerson, Paul). (2003) Intermediate Language Practice, Macmillan.
 Vince, Michael (with Sutherland, Peter). (2003). Advanced Language Practice, Macmillan
Publishers Limited.
 Uchiyama, Kent. (2006). English Verb Tenses: An informal reference for ESL students, the
good folks who teach them, and the idly curious.
 Murphy, Raymond (with Altman, Roann) (1989) Grammar in use. Reference and practice
for intermediate students of English, Cambridge University Press.

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 I. Timpul chronologic şi timpurile gramaticale Time and the Tense
System
The chronological distribution of actions and states
The constant change that we notice in and around us has materialized in a form of
expression that has generically been termed as ‘time.’ As we all know, time is an abstraction
that has a unanimously accepted conventional determination. We use time to express basic
orientation coordinates related to the spatial position we occupy successively during various
referential landmarks, such as a moment, a day, a week, a month, etc. In short we use time as
an explanatory basis for our existence.
In communication, we use tense structures in order to express the various relations
between our actions and states at various stages of our existence. The time-tense relationship
has various forms of representation. In English, the study of language revolves to a great
extent around this backbone configuration called tense.
In terms of aspect, we have Simple (Indefinite) tenses, Continuous (Progressive) tenses
and Perfect tenses (which can be, in turn, Simple or Continuous).
Thus, there are twelve tense forms:
The Present Tense Continuous, The Present Tense Simple, The Past Tense Continuous,
The Past Tense Simple, The Future Tense Simple, The Future Tense Continuous, The Future
Perfect Simple, The Future Perfect Continuous, The Present Perfect Simple, The Present
Perfect Continuous, The Past Perfect Simple, The Past Perfect Continuous, The Present
Perfect Continuous, The Past Perfect Simple, The Past Perfect Continuous
These are most of the time accompanied each by its corresponding adverbial form.

I.1. Exprimarea Timpului Prezent Expressing Present Time

Timp Construcţie Caracteristici Exemple Ortografiere

Tense Formation rules Features Examples Spelling rules
Prezentul Afirmativ - exprimă We spend our - verbele de persoana
Simplu Affirmative adevăruri holidays abroad a III-a singular
Present general-valabile I never leave primesc desinenţa de
Simple S + verb (all (adevăruri eterne, home late. pers./nr.
persons except rutine personale, She works hard. -s sau -es, pentru
IIIrd person legi al naturii, My train leaves verbele care se
singular) legi consemnate at 5.42 p.m. termină în -ch, -sh,-s,
S + verb + -s ştiinţific), acţiuni Does my train -z, -x
(IIIrd person generale, acţiuni leave at …? - verbele care se
singular) repetate; I get up late at termină în consoană
Este folosit weekends. + -y, la adăugarea - s,
Interogativ - în instrucţiuni Mary often drops schimbă -y în- ies
Interrogative sau în by for a cup of - verbele care se
demonstraţii/ coffee. termină în vocală + -y
Do + S + verb? prezentări; Do you ever primesc doar
(all persons - în titluri, watch the terminaţia –s.
except IIIrd comentarii (în Discovery - 3rd person singular
person singular) presă); Channel? verbs always get the
Does + S + verb? - ca timp narativ; The constitution -s ending
(IIIrd person - pentru a descrie stipulates that - verbs ending in –o,
singular) sentimente; every citizen -ch,-sh, -s, -z, -x get
- ca mijloc de should vote. -es
Negativ exprimare a She feels like a verbs which end in

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Formule Negative viitorului fish in the pond. consonant t + -y,
adverbiale S + verb + do (exprimă acţiuni The museum when receiving -s
Adverbial not/don’t stabilite oficial). closes at 6 p.m. change -y → -ies
construction (all persons - este însoţit de Exposed verbs which end in
s except IIIrd adverbe şi aluminium alloys vowel +-y, only
person singular) locuţiuni corrode under the add –s
S + verb + does adverbiale influence of
not/doesn’t specifice. oxygen and
(IIIrd person - expresses humidity.
singular) general, habitual
and recurrent
truths, habitual
or repeated
actions,
- is also used in
giving
instructions,
directions or for
making
demonstrations;
- in headlines,
commentaries or
as a narrative
device;
- in describing
feelings;
- as a means of
expressing future
actions (official
actions).
- accompanying
adverbials:
in the afternoon/
evening/morning/
at noon/
(mid)night/ one
o’clock/
weekend, on
Monday /time,
often, sometimes,
usually, always,
never, as a rule.
Prezentul Afirmativ
Continuu Affirmative - exprimă acţiuni We are spending we double the
Present S + be + verb + care se petrec în our holiday consonant and add –
Continuous -ing (sau aproximativ) abroad. ing:
acest moment I am leaving for cut – cutting; run –
- expresses Sibiu. running; swim –
actions which She is working swimming.
are happening hard. (now) - după –y, -w sau –x

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 Interogativ now or around se adaugă direct –ing
Interrogative now Are you talking to after –y, -w or –y, we
be + S + verb + - temporary me? simply add
-ing ? actions and –ing:
habits Is the student mix – mixing; delay –
- plans or coming today? delaying, snow -
Negativ arrangements snowing
Negative (as a means of They are - la adăugarea -ing la
S + be + not + expressing future not/aren’t vb. terminate în –ie,
verb + -ing time) listening! -ie → -y
- annoying habits We are not/ aren’t when adding -ing to
(+ always/ travelling home. vbs. ending in
forever/ - ie, –ie → –y
continually) A: Are you busy? lie –lying, die-dying
B: At the moment
I’m working to
finish my project.
Formule (right) now, at
adverbiale the After a busy
Adverbial moment , this month, Julia is
construction week, tonight, resting this week.
s this afternoon,
etc

I.2. Exprimarea Timpului Trecut Expressing Past Time: Past

Simple and Past Continuous, ‘used to’/’would’, Past Perfect Simple and
Past Perfect Continuous

TO BE
a. – present forms-+
b.
I am you/we/they are he/she/it is
c. – past forms:
Past Tense Simple
I/he/she/it was we/you/they were
Past Perfect Simple
I/he/she it/we/you/they had been
Used to be
I/he/she it/we/you/they used to be

În mod invariabil, verbele regulate primesc la forma de bază (rădăcina), terminaţia -ed, care
rămâne neschimbată la toate persoanele.
Regular verbs end invariably in -ed

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Verbele neregulate îşi schimbă forma de bază, şi, prin urmare, trebuie învăţate ca atare. La
finalul oricărei gramatici sau dicţionar al limbii engleze există o listă cu verbele neregulate.
Irregular verbs change their form and must be learnt as such. Any grammar or dictionary is
provided with a list of irregular verbs.

Timpul Caracteristici Construcţie Exemple Adverbe

Tense Features and Formation rules Examples Adverbials
meaning
Past Tense - păstrează în mod Affirmative: of Time and Place
Simple omogen, aceeaşi S + verb +-ed We met last year in
formă pentru toate (for regular Brussels. last year/month /
persoanele. verbs) week/yesterday, two
Exprimă S + 2nd from of The asked the years ago, at 2.30, in
- o acţiune începută verbs (Past tourists to check the park, in front of
şi încheiată în trecut; Tense) (for out before midday. the university, etc.
- o acţiune repetată irregular verbs)
în trecut (+ advebe Mary managed to subordinate clauses
de frecvenţă: often, Interrogative: get to the airport He liked listening to
rarely, seldom, (for all persons) by taking a music while (he was)
frequently, always, Did + S + verb? shortcut. working.
never, sometimes)
- este însoţit de Negative: What did you do I stopped reading
adverbe sau S + did when you found when/after/before
locuţiuni adverbiale not/didn’t + verb out about that they returned.
de timp şi loc sau de accident?
o propoziţie Ortografiere Mark told me to
subordonată care Spelling rules It’s a pity you hurry as I had to be
indică împrejurările - consoană finală didn’t buy the there in time.
în care a avut loc precedată de o book I mentioned
acţiunea. vocală scurtă şi last week. If she needed money,
- has the same form neaccentuată + she tried to get it.
for all persons; it -ed → dublarea She always visited
- expresses a consoanei finale all her relatives I always felt awful
completed past - consoană + -y when she came to talking/having to talk
action. + Romania. about that tragic
- is used together -ed → -ied accident.
with adverbials of - short and Didn’t you ever
time and/or place stressed vowel try to learn to
ora subordinate before final drive while you
clause to indicate consonant + -ed had the car?
the circumstances in → double final
which the action consonant Before I got
took place. stop → stopped married I
- expresses a permit sometimes/often
repeated past action →permitted spent my summers
(+ often, never, - consonant + -y at my
sometimes, rarely, + grandparents’
frequently, seldom, -ed → -ied cottage.
etc.) cry - cried
study - studied

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Past Tense Exprimă Affirmative: At around 5.30 I Adverbials
Continuous - o acţiune care se Pentru was driving back for Past Continuous
afla în desfăşurare la persoanele I şi to Cluj. at the moment, at
un moment dat sau III sg 2.30, all that time,
pe o perioadă S + was /were + I saw Mary when that week(end), then,
limitată de timp verb + -ing she was getting off at the time
(acţiuni temporare); Pentru the car.
Expresses persoanele I pl;
- an action in II sg/pl; III pl A; What were you pentru acţiuni
progress at a certain S + were + verb doing when she simultane for
moment or during a + -ing called? simultaneous actions
limited period of B: I was (just)
time (temporary Interrogative: looking for my car while, when, as,
actions) Was/Were + S + keys. during which time
- with always/ verb + -ing? My music teacher
forever/ continually, was always falling
criticism of Negative: asleep during our
annoying habitual S + was/were + tutorials.
actions. not/wasn’t/weren She was cooking
Acţiuni simultane ’t + verb + -ing. dinner while he
Simultaneous was mending the
actions: car.
Past Continuous + She was cooking
Past Continuous dinner while he
Past Continuous + mended the car.
Past Tense
Past Tense + Past They were
Tense watching the film
Past Tense + Past when the doorbell
Continuous rang (incidental).
Acţiune în
desfăşurare şi
acţiune incidentă
Action in progress
and incidental
action

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Would Used to + verbe de Afirmativ The
and acţiune şi verbe de Affirmative accommodation
Used to stare S + used used to be better
+ both state and to/would + verb last year.
action verbs They used
Would + exclusiv to/would exercise
verbe de acţiune more when they
+ only action verbs were younger.
- sunt forme
echivalente ale lui When we lived in
Past Simple folosite Andalusia we used
în contextele to/would visit
narative pentru places like
evitarea redundanţei. Córdoba or
- exprimă acţiuni sau Interogativ Málaga.
stări recurente în Interrogative
trecut, care s-au Did + S + use to
încheiat demult. + verb? Did you really use
- are forms Would + S + to like going out
equivalent to Past verb? every weekend?
Simple used in
narrative contexts in Negativ
order to avoid Negative Didn’t your
redundancy. S + did parents use to tell
- express repeated not/didn’t use to you bedtime
events and actions + verb stories when you
in the past, usually S + would were little?
things that not/wouldn’t + My sister didn’t
happened a long verb use to be like that,
time ago and are picky and moody
now finished. as she is today.
Past Exprimă Afirmativ Your friends had until, before, after
Perfect - o acţiune încheiată Affirmative left the airport by
Simple înaintea unei acţiuni For all persons noon.
sau unui moment had + Past Your friends had
trecut. Participle left the airport by
- o acţiune the time you got
anterioară ce are S + had + Past there.
consecinţe asupra Participle (III
altei acţiuni trecute. form) When the
- succesiuni de secretary entered
acţiuni trecute în the office she
care Past Perfect e Interogativ found out that her
folosit ca marcă Interrogative boss had left.
temporală. Had + S + Past
- o relaţie cauzală Participle By weekend all
între două acţiuni the staff had
trecute. written their
- după conjuncţia proposals.
after şi înainte de

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 before, poate fi Negativ She had
înlocuit de Past Negative completed a
Tense. S + had cooking course
- used for actions not/hadn’t + before she found
previous to and Past Participle that job. / After
affecting a she had completed
nominated time in a cooking course,
the past. she found that job.
- expresses
sequences of past They ran home as
actions with the past it had already
perfect used as a started to rain
time marker. heavily.
- used to show
causal relationship
between past
actions.
- Past Tense can
replace it when They had asked
followed by after or several times
preceded by before. whether there was
- de obicei, acest anyone on duty
timp se află în raport that night.
de variaţie liberă cu They had been
Past Perfect Simple. asking whether
ther was anyone
on duty that night.
Past - exprimă o acţiune Afirmativ
Perfect care se afla în Affirmative George and Diana
Continuous desfăşurare de o For all persons had already been
perioadă de timp had + been + living there for a
până la un moment verb + -ing + month when the
dat sau până când a (since/for) Smiths moved
intervenit o altă nextdoor.
acţiune.
- usually this tense Interogativ The two teams
is at free variation Interrogative had been fighting
with the Past Had + S + been for the final goal
Perfect Simple; + verb + -ing for already half an
- expresses an hour when the
action which was in Negativ referee gave the
progress forsoem Negative end-of-game
timeup to a given S + had signal
moment or until not/hadn’t +
another past action been + verb +
occurs. -ing

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I. 2. 3 Prezentul Perfect The Present Perfect

TO BE
I/we/you/they have been
He/she/it has been

Timpul Caracteristici Construcţie Exemple Adverbe

Tense Features Formation rules Examples Adverbials
Present - face legătura S + have/ has + Adverbials
Perfect Sinple dintre timpul trecut Past Participle so far, lately,
şi timpul prezent (IIIrd form) just, already,
(uneori şi viitor); yet, always,
- aruncând o privire Afirmativ I’ve been to many usually, never,
retrospectivă către Affirmative places and I’ve ever, seldom/
trecut, ne I/we/you/they known a lot of rarely, often/
informează ce s-a have (‘ve) lived people (so far/up to frequently
petrecut pană în (irregular vb) now)
sau înainte de or with no
momentul present; He/she/it has time
- exprimă o acţiune (‘s) lived They’ve had this specification
sau o stare care (regular vb) car for a year (they
continuă încă; still have it). since
- exprimă Interogativ (beginning of
evenimente care Interrogative Diana has learned action) for
până acum au facut Have you lived? a lot of French so (duration of
(şi încă mai fac) Has he lived? far (she is still action)
parte din viaţa learning it).
noastră; Negativ
- acţiuni trecute cu Negative Have you ever
consecinţe/ efecte I have not lived visited Romania?
în present; He has not lived They’ve never
- exprimă ideea de seen Braşov.
acţiune încheiată,
mai ales atunci
când este însoţit de
o construcţie
adverbială
cantitativă
- relates past
actions and states
to the present. It I’ve (always) loved
looks back from the to sit in the garden
present into the in the long summer
past, and expresses evenings.
what has happened
before now. George has taken
- expresses an computer classes
action or state (he can operate it).
which began in the

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 past and continues She has (already)
to the present. corrected three
- expresses events papers.
that are up to now
part of our life. They’ve changed
- expresses past two trains to come
actions with a to Cluj.
result in the
present.
- expresses
completion of an
action when it is
followed by a
quantitative
marker.
Present - exprimă acţiuni S + have/has + We’ve been
Perfect care au început şi been + verb+ - waiting for four
Continuous încă continuă (pe o ing days to get the
durată result!
nespecificată) Afirmativ since
- actions that Affirmative It’s been raining (beginning)
started in the past I/you/they have for days! /for (duration)
and are still going been walking
on (indefinitely) He/she/it has A: You look tired
been walking B: I am tired
Interogativ because I’ve been
Interrogative working hard.
Have you been
walking?
Has he been
walking?
Negativ
Negative
I’ve (have)not
been walking
He’s (has) not
been walking
În unele cazuri, diferenţa dintre cele două forme este I have worked here all my life/I’ve
insesizabilă. Pentru verbe care exprimă ideea de durată been working here all my life.
mare (work, wait, travel, learn, play), se preferă forma
continuă; cu verbe ca buy, die, take, shut, etc, şi care nu They’ve (already) been walking for
exprimă această idee, folosim mai degrabă Present a long time.
Perfect Simple.
- verbele de stare nu se folosesc la Present Perfect She’s passed the exam. I’ve been
Continuous. working/ trying so hard to finish in
Sometimes the difference between the two Present time.
Perfect forms is very slight
Present Perfect Continuous + verbs that express the idea
of long time; She’s understood you perfectly
Present Perfect Simple + state verbs well.

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I. 2. 4. Exprimarea Timpului Viitor Expressing Future Time

TO BE
Future simple
I/we will/shall be
You/he/she/it/they will be
Future perfect
I/we will/shall have been
You/he/she/it/they will have been
‘Going to’future
I am going to be
He/she/it is going to be
We/you/they are going to be

Forma de Caracteristici Construcţie Exemple Adverbe

viitor Features and Formation Examples Adevrbials
Future form meaning rules
a. ‘will’ - consecinţă - If you wait too tomorrow,
Future consequence long, you’ll (will) next week,
- previziune get bored. (some time)
prediction - It will be fine later, on
- certitudine S+ shall/will + tomorrow. Friday, at
certainty short infinitive - This letter will be four o’clock,
- promisiune (+ adverbial for me. etc
promise of future time) - I’ll always stand
- avertisment by you.
warning - There won’t be too
- hotărâre much time left, so
determination we’d better hurry.
- I shall never
smoke.
b. Future - exprimă acţiuni Who knows what I in ten years’
Continuous viitoare văzute în will be doing time;
desfăşurare. S + will + be tomorrow this time? this time next
- expresses future + verb + -ing In a week’s time month; at 2
actions in + adverbial of they will be p.m.
progress future time enjoying every
moment of their
holiday.
c. Future - la fel ca şi Past She will have left by 4.30;
Perfect Perfect, exprimă before their arrival by the time
(Simple or anterioritatea unei at the hotel / by the she returns;
Continuous) acţiuni/stări time they get to the by noon, by
viitoare faţă de o S+ will + hotel (va fi plecat then, etc
altă acţiune have + Past deja pe cand ei vor
viitoare, sau faţă Participle + ajunge (ajung) la
de un moment adverbial of hotel.
viitor. future time
De reţtinut: I’m afraid my

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 În subordonata colleagues will have
temporală (la fel been writing the test
ca si în cea for half an hour
Condiţonală), already by the time I
timpul e fie get to school.
Present Tense, fie
Present Perfect,
niciodată Future!
- like Past
Perfect, it
expresses
1.a future
action/state
completed before
another future
action or moment
(Future Perfect
Simple), or
2. a future
action/state that
will already be in
progress for some
time by the time
another action
occurs, or before
a specified time
limit.
Note:
The tense in the
subordinate
clause is always
in the Present or
in the Present
Perfect and not
the Future!
d. Present - exprimă What are you doing - adverbe care
Continuous aranjamente sau later? Are you going indică viitorul
planuri personale. out with the group? apropiat
- prezenţa adverbias
adverbului e indicating the
obligatorie. near future
- expresses S + be + verb tomorrow,
personal + next
arrangements, -ing + (week)end,
plans – always adverbial of today, in the
accompanied by future time afternoon,
a near future time on Friday,
expression. nextMonday.

e. Present - exprimă acţiuni The train leaves at

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 Simple sau demersuri 8.45 a.m. at 10 p.m
oficiale. S + short The library closes at
- expresses infinitive 10 p.m.
official actions.

f. ‘Going to’ viitorul intenţiei Are you going to when the next
şi al predicţiei/ start or not? I’m train leaves
deducţiei logice. going to ask when
- the future of S + going to + the next train leaves.
intention and of short infinitive It’s not going to be
prediction/logical any better than it is soon
inference. now. Look! It’s
going to rain soon.
g. ‘be to’ Exprimă They are to arrive in in the
= urmează să - iminenţa unei the afternoon/in a afternoon/
acţiuni/stări. S + be to + moment. in a moment
- un aranjament short infinitive
formal The team of workers
- expresses the are/is to sign the
imminence of an documents
action/state. tomorrow by 12
o’clock.
h. ‘be about S + be about The speaker is about
to’/ ‘be on the to + short to end the
point of’’/be infinitive presentation.
on the verge S + be/verb The play is on the
of’ on the point of starting.
= e pe punctul point/verge of She seems on the
de a/ e cât pe + -ing verge of breaking
ce să/ stă să participle out.
i. ‘be due to’+ - se referă la un S+ be due The group of
infinitive program/ orar to/at + verb students is due to
‘be due at’ deja stabilit. arrive at 8.30.
- refers to a Their plane is due at
scheduled time 15.15.
j. ‘be bound - exprimă acţiuni
to’ care se impun ca S + be bound The group leader is
obligatorii. to + verb bound to know the
- expresses details regarding
actions one their tour
expects to happen programme.
for sure

I. 3. Forme verbale simple şi continue – Verbe de stare şi verbe de acţiune

Simple and Progressive verb forms – Stative, dynamic, process verbs
Majoritatea verbelor pot avea atât aspect continuu cât şi simplu, exprimând, în funcţie de
context, o acţiune static-informativă, sau o acţiune dinamică.
Most verbs can take on either of the aspects, expressing, according to the context, a stative-
informative action, retrospectively, a dynamic-progressive one.
John lives in this house. (it is his permanent residence)

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 John is living in this house. (it is his temporary residence)
The stative form of the verb ‘lie’, means ‘be situated gepographicaly’ and its dynamic form
means ‘having a recumbent, horizontal position’
Forma statică a verbului lie înseamnă’ a fi situat geografic’, iar cea dinamică înseamnă ‘a sta
culcat’, ‘a se întinde’, ‘a zace’.
This country lies north of Spain.
He left the papers lying on the table.
Verbe care descriu evoluţia graduală a unui process Process verbs show gradation of a
process
grow, change, deteriorate, mature, narrow, widen, slow down., etc.
- verb de acţiune: dacă exprimă un proces.
- verb de stare: exprimă o stare
If it expresses a process, then the verb is an action verb. If it expresses a state, the verb is a
stative verb.
Verbe statice Stative verbs
be, hate, like, love, need, belong, believe, cost, get, impress, know, reach, recognize, taste,
think/consider, understand. Verbele statice formează patru grupe, si anume:
Generally, stative verbs fall into the following four groups:

Tipul verbului Exemple Înţeles de bază = Înţeles schimbat =

Type of verb Examples stare proces/acţiune
Basic meaning = state Changed meaning =
process/action
1. Verbe care know, I think it will be a I am thinking of leaving.
exprimă o recognize, successful seminar. I am (seriously)
opinie sau un think/consider, (opinion) considering leaving.
proces mental imagine, I consider it would be He was forgetting/(again)
Verbs which impress, proper to wait. was remembering to walk.
express ideas orintend, mean, I dislike rudeness. (the process of
opinions or mind, They didn’t forget degradation or of recovery
mental perceive, about the documents. of an ability)
processes please, forget,
prefer,
presuppose,
realize, recall,
recognize,
regard,
remember,
suppose, think,
understand.
2. Verbe de be, belong to, We don’t have such a They are not having lunch
relaţie concern, lot of time. right now.
(relaţionale) consist of, The land belongs to
sau care contain, cost, nobody.
exprimă posesia depend on, I only own a bicyle. Today Susan is being very
Relational deserve, equal, Susan is (as a rule!) a nosy.
verbs, or verbs fit, have, discreet person.
which express include, This dress doesn’t fit
possession involve, lack, you at all. (is not your They are fitting the

15
 matter, need, size) window frame for a new
owe, own, Our trip depends on window. (=adapting)
possess, the weather. Only you can help me; I
require, am depending on you.
resemble.
3. Verbe see, hear, feel, This sandwich tases I am tasting the food.
senzoriale smell, taste, sour. It also smells (action)
Verbs related to sound odd. (characteristics) Before I taste it, I always
senses and The blouse feels rough smell the food.
perception against my skin. I am feeling the cloth to
(effect of perception) see if it’s smooth or rough.
She sees well with her She is seeing the eye
new glasses. doctor. tomorrow. (has an
(perception) appointment)
This song sounds Jane is no longer seeing
familiar to me.(effect George. (she’s no longer
of perception) dating him)
This idea sounds She is seeing things
great! (imagining)
I hear you very well, They sonded a warning
don’t shout. (signalled)
(characteristic) They began hearing
I feel/ I am feeling voices (hallucinating).
better. (expression of a
state or of a condition)
4. Verbe care love, hate, The child astonished Sometimes, for the sake of
exprimă like, desire, everybody with the emphasis, we can say:
sentimente sau detest, dislike, precision in fortelling I’m simply loving being
trăiri believe, want, events. here! (I’m fully enjoying
Verbs wish, forgive, Believe it or not, I every single moment of
expressing guess, abhor, simply abhor speaking my stay here). Couldn’t
feelings and adore, about death. you see he was hating the
attitudes worship, I feel you are not conversation?
doubt, feel entirely right.
(presume),
wonder.

I.4. Expresii existenţiale Existential sentences

- au o structură gramaticală aparte şi exprimă existenţa reală sau imaginară a unui element
(fiinţă sau obiect). De asemenea, introduc o idee într-un discurs. An existential clause has a
distinctive grammatical structure and expresses the real or imagined existence of an item (a
person, place, or thing), asserting its existence or nonexistence. It introduces the item into a
discourse.
Subiectul propriu-zis (noţional) este diferit de subiectul gramatical (there), care se mai
numeşte şi pseudo-subiect.
a) there + be/exist/ seem/ appear
There is no place like home.
Who knows if there truly exists anyone named Wy.
Note!
There appears to be some uncorrected mistakes here. (the subject of ‘appears’ is ‘there’)

16
 (Se pare că aici sunt cáteva greşeli necorectate.)
There appear to be some omitted mistakes. (the subject of ‘appear’ is ‘mistakes’) (some
mistakes appear to have been ommitted)
(Căteva greşeli par a fi fost omise/Se pare că unele greşeli au fost omise).

The notional subject (place, anyone) diffrs from the grammatical subject (there)
The existential there (also called dummy subject) is a device which empties the subject
position of semantic content.
It serves as the subject in infinitive phrases and infinitive a participle phrases, e.g.
We don’t allow there to be any misunderstanding regarding the title of the article.
(Nu putem permite nici o confuzie în ceea ce priveşte titlul articolului)
There being no one to give us any relevant information, we left. (Nefiind nimeni
care să ne dea vreo informaţie relevantă, am plecat)
- with ‘to’ infinitives phrases:
There are still many good things to come.
Other components of existential sentences: (exist, come, go)
b) Sentences with pleonastic there but with some verbs other than be.
There came another guardian all dressed in red and black.
There goes the woman with the child!
Don’t worry, there exit many other situations better than this.
c) there is vs. it is
There is a new film by Steven Spielberg coming soon. (existential) (există un film
nou de S.S)
It is his latest film. (it = the film - subject pronoun) (e cel mai recent film al său)

I. 5. Acordul subiectului cu verbul Subject+Verb Agreement

1. pronume la singular legate prin or/nor + verb la singular.
singular (pro)nouns connected by or or nor + singular verb.
Neither the horse nor the rider was hurt.
The red dress or the black blouse is in my handbag.
2. subiect compus ale cărui elemente sunt legate prin or/nor + verb la singular sau plural, în
funcţie de numărul elementului care îl urmează (singular sau plural).
compound subject whose elements are connected by or or nor + singular or plural verb
according to which element is closest to the verb.
The book or the pencils were on the desk.
The pencils or the book was on ther desk.
3. subiect compul + verb la plural: dacă elementele sale constitutive (substantive sau
pronume) sunt legate prin and.
compound subject + plural verb: if its consituent elements ((pro)nouns are connected by and
The envelopes, stamps and the pens were all scattered on desk
4. S + phrase + Verb
This tests, let alone the exams with the Dean, terrifies everybody.
Look! One of the footprints is visible.
Days which are foggy and cold seem awful to me.
5. Subiectule este exprimat printr-un pronume nehotărât
Indefinite pronouns as subjects + singular verbs: another, anybody, anyone, anything, each,
either, everybody, everyone, everything, little, much, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one,
other, somebody, someone, something
+ plural verbs : both, few, many, others, several
+ singular or plural verbs: all, any, more, most, none, some

17
 Either situation leads to the same result.
Each of my friends thinks the same thing about bank loans.
Everybody hates being in debt.
6. unele substantive terminate în -s
some nouns ending in -s + singular verbs
news, phonetics, linguistics, shingles, mumps, measles, civics, mathematics, etc.
No news is good news.
- obiecte bipolare + verb la plural
a unit made of two parts + plural verbs
pincers, breeches, pliers, compasses, glasses, scissors, tweezers, trousers, shears, etc
These are not my glasses!
7. substantive colective
collective nouns
- când sunt văzute ca grup unitar, sunt singulare şi fac acord cu un verb la singular.
when seen as a group are considered singular and take a singular verb
family, government, clergy, board, group, team, committee, class, etc.
The cergy in our district has come to consacrate the new church.
Which board decides how to proceed?
The Johnes family is on holiday.
- când sunt vizate elementele grupului, acordul se face cu un verb la plural.
when the members of the group are pointed out, the nouns are considered plural and take a
plural verb.

I. 6. Formele verbale nepersonale (infinitivul, gerunziul, participiul)

Non-finite verb forms (infinitive, gerund and participle)
Infinitive
Simple to + verb to talk, to dance, to write

Continuous to + be + verb + -ing to be talking, to be dancing, to

be writing
Perfect to + have + been + Past Participle to have been talking, to have
writing/ to have been dancing
Passive Infinitive
Simple Passive Infinitives
to be +Past Participle (to be done)
to be + verb + -ing (to be doing)
Perfect Passive Infinitives
to have been + Past Participle (to have been done)
to have been + verb + -ing (to have been doing)

Participle
Present participle
(They are) finishing (their exam).
Past Participle
(They have/had) finished (their exam).
Formle participiale intră în alcătuirea anumitori timpuri verbale şi a unor forme adjectivale.
Ele sunt folosite şi pentru a scurta o frază.
Present participle, past (or perfect) participle are part of certain tenses and adjective forms.
Additional uses: to shorten sentences.

18
Gerund = the -ing form of a verb
going, talking, writing
Forma Caracteristici generale
verbală General features
nepredicativă
Form of non-
finite verb
INFINITIVE Utilizări Uses
- intră în combinaţie cu
structuri ca:
- we use infinitives in
combination with
structures such as:
(I’m) honoured/ delighted/
pleased/ surprised + to
meet you
- pentru a exprima scopul:
- to express purpose
- exprimă o dorinţă
neîmplinită
- expresses an unfulfilled
wish
-exprimă un eveniment
trecut nerealizat.
- expresses an unreal past
event.
19
Construcţie Exemple
Form Examples
Types of infinitive She’s delighted to see
Simple you
to + verb They promised not to
- used with verbs be too late.
such as: Mary hoped to pass
advise, agree, ask, her exam.
expect, intend, offer,
plan, pretend, hope,
promise, refuse, try,
want, would like +
‘to’ infinitive
Read the instruction
to be able to use this
device correctly.
She is here (because
she wishes) to learn a
new language.
They are believed to
be working in Rome.
Progressive Their work seems to
to + be + verb + have been advancing
-ing rather slowly.
to + have + been + The children
verb + could/may/must be
-ing sleeping by now.
modal + be + verb +
-ing Sarah would like to
have gone to
Bucureşti, too =
Sarah would have
Perfect liked to go to
- to + have + Past Bucureşti, too. (she
Participle did noy go)
- modal + have +
Past Participle The plane seems to
have landed
- it is used with successfully.
verbs such as: He pretended not to
appear, happen, have heard.
pretend, seem
You should have

- îndeplineşte funcţie de
subiect sau complement al
unei propoziţii;
- urmează unele expresii
(infinitivul fără to);
- urmează unele verbe în
propozitţii interogative
(construcţii infinitivale);
- urmează unele adjective;
- urmează anumite
substantive de origine
verbală;
- functions as subject or
object of a clause
- follows certain
expressions (without to);
- follows certain verbs
with interrogatives
(infinitive constructions);
- after certain adjectives
and their comparisons ;
- after nouns deriving
from verbs;
20
arrived by now.
If I had ordered the
books, you would
have had them.
You should have told
me you were coming.
There are many more
problems still to be
Passive solved.
to + be + Past The thief is rumoured
Participle to have been caught.
to + have + been +
Past Participle
She told me to be here
before 9 o’clock.
(passive: I was told to
Verb + (Pro)noun + be here….)
‘to’Infinitive The policeman waved
remind, invite, the driver to pull left.
permit, allow, warn, (no passive form!)
ask, would like, Compare:
expect, invite, force, They expect to pass
require, encourage, the test (expectation
advise, tell about themselves)
+ someone + to do and
They expect me/the
candidate to pass the
test.
(expectation about
someone else)
To read (subject) is to
know.
I don’t know what to
do (object).
It takes longer to take
this route.
We made a promise to
return safe.
My colleagues decided
to let me speak with
the manager.
Omisia lui to
Omission of to My roommate always
- când este urmat de tries to make everyone

GERUND - este o formă verbală în
-ing care îndeplineşte
funcţie morfologică de
substantiv şi sintactică de
subiect, complement
direct, nume predicativ si
parte dintr-o locuţiune
prepoziţională;
- însoţeşte anumite
adjective, verbe,
substantive, verbe cu
prepoziţie;
- it is a verb form in -ing
which functions as a noun,
having the syntactic role
of: subject, direct object,
subject complement, and
object of preposition.
- after certain adjectives
- after certain verbs
- after certain nouns
- verbs with prepositions
21
anumite verbe do his way.
- when it follows
certain verbs
feel, hear, help, let,
make, see, and
watch.
Split infinitive
We wanted to quickly
leave the room for fear
the gas device might
go off.
verb +- ing - subject
They enjoy staying
here (= they enjoy
their stay here)
Studying (= the study
of) biology is fun.
- direct object
She said she loved my
cooking.
- subject complement
David’s new way of
getting money became
gambling.
- object of
preposition
His uncle blames her
of stealing.
They enjoy good
reading.
I (don’t) like working
(= the work) in large
groups.
I know the feling of
losing someone dear.
He’s afraid of making
a mistake
He’s fond of
swimming far from the
shore.
We enjoy painting in
watercolour.
He is
- ‘to’ (= preposition, not
infinitive particle) +
Gerund
- not precedă un gerunziu
- not precedes a gerund
Verbe urmate de un
gerunziu
Verbs followed by a
gernund
avoid, consider (think
about), delay, discuss
(talk about), enjoy,
keep(on), mention,
postpone (put off),
suggest, stop (stop
working)
look forward to + doing
something
Locuţiuni gerunziale
Gerundial phrases
- grupuri de cuvinte ce
conţin un gerunziu, un
substantiv sau un
pronume.
group of words consisting
of a gerund and a noun or
a pronoun.
22
committed/dedicated
to working hard.
Not doing anything
would be a big
mistake.
The man avoided
answering.
We are seriously
considering moving.
Compare:
Writing (subject)
essays is useful in
language study
They are writing
(present participle)
essays on various
topics.
We look forward
to/are looking/to
meeting our new
colleagues.
This is writing (- adj.)
paper.
Mary talked about
leaving for Canada
soon.
He is in charge of
organizing the trip.
Are you interested in
joining us?
She is used to working
late.
I do not object to
(their) postponing the
meeting.
I am already
accustomed to not
sleeping very much.
Beating about the

PARTICIPLE - se foloseşte pentru a
forma timpuri continue;
- are valoare de adjectiv;
- se foloseşte împreună cu
verbe senzoriale;
- it is used to form
progressive tenses (Present
Progressive);
- as an adjective;
- with verbs of the senses
if we do not want to
emphasise that the action
was completed.
see, watch, notice, feel,
smell, hear, find, listen to
- se termină în -en, -d, -t,
sau -n
- end in -ed, -en, -d, -t, or
-n, as in the words asked,
eaten, saved, dealt, and
seen
- este forma a treia a
verbelor ce intră în
alcătuirea timpurilor
perfecte, a diatezei pasive,
a formelor adjectivale şi
adverbiale.
- it is the third form of
verbs used either to build
up perfect tenses
(Present/Past/Future
23
bush is some
politicians’ strategy.
(subject)
I fear that they will
object to my leaving
today. (direct object)
One of our hobbies
used to be travelling to
exotic places. (subject
complement)
He was praised for
saving many people’s
life.(object of the
preposition for).
Type of Participle
Participiul Prezent I am listening!
Present Participle
Ortografiere Are you waiting for
Spelling: somebody?
-ie final se
transformă în -y Did you notice her
- consoana finală leaving the office?
după o vocală scurtă
şi accentuată se
dublează
- final -ie becomes
-y
dye – dying ; lie –
lying
- final consonant
after short, stressed
vowel is doubled
refer – referring;
permit – permitting The running athlete is
my brother (the athlete
who is running).
Participiul trecut
Past Participle Determined, the
customer walked
Ortografiere asked to speak with
Spelling: the manager.
- consonant + -y =
-i: I have/had read this
marry - married book.
- final consonant
after a short, The book, which is
stressed vowel: very well-written, was
permit→permitted edited in Chicago.
Perfect Simple/Perfect
Modals, etc), passive,
adjective and adverbial
forms.
- relaţionează (uneşte)
propoziţiile care au acelaşi
subiect, atunci când
acţiunea exprimată de
construcţia cu participiul
perfect s-a încheiat înainte
de începerea altei acţiuni.
- exprimă o acţiune care
se află în desfăşurare de
câtva timp, iar o alta
începe.
- face parte din
construcţiile active şi
pasive.
- joins clauses that have
the same subject when the
action expressed by the
perfect participle was
completed before the next
action begins.
- one action has been in
progress for some time,
and another action starts.
- it is used for active and
passive constructions.
Punctuaţia
Punctuation
În fraza relativă în cazul
în care subordonata este
înlocuită de o formă
gerunzială
In relative sentences – the
non-finite (gerund)
relative clause)
- se desparte de restul
propoziţiei prin virgulă
dacă:
- se află în poziţie iniţială
în propoziţie;
- se intercalează în
propoziţie ca informaţie
neesenţială;
- se află la finalul
propoziţiei şi este despărţit
de cuvântul pe care îl
24
They came invited by
their cousins.
He lay down reading.
Participiu perfect Having read the
Perfect Participle bibliography, they
wrote an article. (=
active voice: having They read the
+ past participle bibliography and
passive voice: wrote an article.)
having been + past
participle Having been looking
for a flat for a good
while, he wanted to
give up.(= He had
been looking for a flat
for a good while and
he wanted to give up.)
Having arrived at the
hotel, they checked in.
Having been
redecorated, the house
looked neat.
(On/Upon)Ending the
session, the reader left
the hall.
Working hard, they
succeeded in all their
endeavours.
The little boat, sailing
along the shore, was
tossed here and there
by the waves.
No boats built of wood
should be allowed in
the competition
The dresses made of
silk are for the show.
 modifică.
- a participial phrase is
set off with commas when
it:
a) comes at the beginning
of a sentence
b) interrupts a sentence as
a nonessential element
c) comes at the end of a
sentence and is separated
from the word it modifies.
Comparing Gerunds and Participles
She stopped looking at their fighting for
survival. (gerund) (they were fighting)
She stopped looking at them, fighting for
survival (participle) (she was fighting)
Julia’s manouvering was despicable
(gerund) (her action was despicable.)
Julia, manouvering, was despicable.
(participle) (she was despicable acting like
that)
I was annoyed by their reading. (the(ir)
reading annoyed me me) (g)
I was annoyed by them, reading. (I was
annoyed by them while I was reading) (p)
- verbe de percepţie + participiu/infinitiv
scurt
- sense verbs + participle /bare infinitive
feel, hear, notice, observe, see, smell, watch.
We can see them swimming in the sea.
(continuous action)
We can see them swim in the sea.
(continuous action)
Mother noticed little John drawing on the
walls. (continuous action)
Mother noticed little John draw on the
walls. (occasional action)
- sensuri diferite
- different meanings
He stopped to listen. (in order to listen)
He stopped listening. (no longer listened)
25
Your colleague looked
at me, confused and
shy. (he was, not I)
Many people often
stop before the
shopwindow reading
their newspapers or
smoking.
Comparing Gerunds and Infinitives
- ambele au funcţie de substantiv
- both function as nouns
- verbe care cer un infinitiv
- verbs that take only infinitives
agree, attempt, decide, expect, hesitate, hope,
intend, learn, need, neglect, plan, promise,
propose, pretend, swear, want.
She said she needed/agreed/
planned/intended, etc to stay (not staying) a
little longer.
Why do you hesitate to sign (not signing)
these papers?
-verbe care cer un gerunziu
- verbs that take only gerunds
abandon, stop, finish, put off, admit,
appreciate, avoid, be/get accustomed to, be
fond of, enjoy, be/get used to, be/get through,
be/get tired of, can’t help, consider, delay,
deny, detest, dislike, give up, quit, risk, keep,
mind, miss, oppose, practice, postpone, recall,
recommend, regret, renounce, suggest,
tolerate.
I admitted leaving the door unlocked.
Try to get used to getting up earlier.
He delays giving a definite answer.
-verbe care se potrivesc cu ambele forme
- verbs that take gerunds or infinitives
begin, continue, hate, like, love, prefer,
remember, start, try.
The children like to play with our neighbours’
cat.
They like playing with it.
Please, don’t continue to write that report
 because it’s already outdated.
Continue working like this and you’ll get
promoted.
It’s lucky they remembered to come today.
(they came)
Two meanings:
It’s lucky they remembered coming today.
(they remembered/recalled the fact that they
came)

Like doing ≠ would like to do

Like/love to/prefer to do/doing
- exprimă plăcerea/opțiunea preferențială a vorbitorului de a face ceva.
- expresses the fact that the speaker is attracted towards and finds pleasure in an action or
state.
They like to spend their weekends in the mountains. (le place să/ preferă să…)
You prefer spending yours at home.
Would like/love to
- exprimă dorinţa vorbitorului de a face ceva.
- expresses the speaker’s wish/desire to do something.
They would like to spend their weekends in the mountains. (le-ar place/ar dori să…)

Watch:
All tenses https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=84jVz0D-KkY
Don’t make mistakes in English https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7q6YekNTwHA

Unit 2

Active – Passive

Objectives:
 understand and apply correctly the voice forms
 understand the subject-object relationship
 understand the role of the agent and of the instrument

Key words:
 tense, voice phrase, passive, active

Contents:
 tenses that accept passivization
 tenses that cannot be made passive
 object and instrument
 verbs with 2 objects
 special passive cases
 modal constructions
 omission of agent

26
Bibliography:
 Loghin, D, Felea, C., Sonea I, Pop, L, (2010). Compendiu de gramatică engleză (English
Grammar. Compendium), Echinox.
 Palmer, F., Robert. (1988) The English verb, Longman.
 Vince Michael (with Emerson, Paul). (2003) Intermediate Language Practice, Macmillan.
 Vince, Michael (with Sutherland, Peter). (2003). Advanced Language Practice, Macmillan
Publishers Limited.
 Murphy, Raymond (with Altman, Roann) (1989) Grammar in use. Reference and practice
for intermediate students of English, Cambridge University Press.

Construcţii cu diateza pasivă Passive Constructions

a. Timpuri care pot fi pasivizate Tenses that accpt passiviztion

Present Tense Simple: be (present) + Past Participle
The streets in our city are washed every morning and every night.
Present Continuous: be + being + Past Participle
Look! The streets are just being washed!
Present Perfect Simple: have + been+ Past Participle
Diana has been invited to the party.
Past Perfect Simple: had + been + Past Participle
I had been trained to attend patients long before I was accepted in that hospital.
‘will’ Future : will + Be + Past Participle
The parcel will be delivered tomorrow.
‘going to’Future: The painting is going to locked into a safe until further investigations.
Perfect Future: You will have received your scheduled programme by noon.
Simple Modal: Jenny must be informed, too.
Perfect Modal: Jenny must have been informed, too.
Passive + short/bare Infinitive: The bank is rumoured to close soon.
Passive + Progressive Infinitive: The bank is believed to be closing this week
Passive + Perfect Infinitive: The bank is rumoured to have been closed already.

b. Agent and instrument

with (instrument) vs. by (agent)
S + Passive Voice + by…(agent) + with… (instrument) (complement de agent; instrumental)
The mistake was made by Helen. (agent)
The window has been broken with a rod. (instrument)

c. Timpuri care nu pot fi pasivizate Tenses which do not take on a passive form
arise, consist of, depend on, exist, fall, happen, lack (even if it takes a direct object) occur,
result from/in, rise.
În cazul în care verbul este urmat de un complement direct, el poate fi pasivizat. Dacă nu
există acest complement direct post-pus verbului, pasivizarea nu are loc.
If the verb can be followed by a direct, it can be made passive. However, if there is no direct
object to become the subject, the verb cannot be transformed to the passive.
Leaving England occurred to me many times.
* I was occurred to leaving England
d. Verbe cu două complemente Verbs with 2 objects

27
Dacă într-o propoziţie există două complemente, ordinea lor este persoană, obiect. În cazul
verbelor say, present, explain, describe, report, obiectul precedă persoana. Dacă obiectul este
exprimat printr-un pronume, acesta va fi situat după verb. Acest tip de verbe generează două
tipuri de passive, care au două complemente (direct şi indirect).
If there are two objects in a sentence, the normal word order is: person (p), thing (t). With
verbs such as say, present, explain, describe, report, the person comes after the thing. If the
thing is a pronoun, it stands behind the verb.
You should write your parents (p) a postcard (t) before you leave Paris.
(t) + ‘to’→ (p)
I explain this rule (o) to you (p).
Mary will present the new programming technique to the staff.
I must buy (verb) it (o) for my sister (p).
These verbs generate two kinds of passive sentences, the subject of each sentence with
indirect object and direct object respectively.
The organisers have offered the participants (indirect object) a set of useful
brochures (direct object).
a) The participants have been offered a set of useful brochures by the organisers.
b) A set of useful brochures have been offered (to) the participants by the organisers.

ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE

1. Present Simple
They always tell me to be careful. I am constantly told to be more careful.
2. Present Continuous The plan is being discussed.
They are discussing the plan.
3. Past Simple The museum wasn’t opened last year.
They didn’t open the museum last year.
4. Past Continuous The project was being amended by the
The Committee was amending the project. Committee.
5. will-Future
They will soon check my documents. My documents will soon be checked.
6. Future Perfect
They will have closed the office by the time we get By the time we get there the office will
there. have been closed.
7. Present Perfect Simple The new ordinance has been passed.
They have passed the new ordinance.
8. Modal Simple It can be easily done by any of us.
Any of us can easily do it. other modals
They nust be/have to be informed.
(obligation)

9. Modal Perfect I could have been told about the schedule

They could have told me about the schedule change.
change. I should have been warned.
They must have been informed
(supposition)

e. Cazuri speciale al Diatezei Pasive Special passive cases

Have something done (to you by somebody else than you)
She will have her classes rescheduled next week.
(Se vor efectua schimbări în orarul ei săptămana viitoare.)

28
 My boss has had his office redecorated. (Biroul şefului meu a fost redecorat)
Get something done
Spre deosebire de have something done, get something done presupune ideea că acţiunea
trebuie să aibă loc.
As compared to have something done, get something done is used where it is implied that an
action must be done.
Get your things done today!
Impersonal Passive (used in news)
It is said/rumoured/thought/considered + that + ….. (se zice/se zvoneşte/se crede/se consideră
că…)
Impersonal Passive
It is said that sometimes trains can arrive with great delays.
It is said/rumoured/thought/considered that Mary is/was the best candidate for the
job.
It was said that Mary was the best candidate for the post.
Passive + infinitive
S + is/was said/rumoured/thought/considered + to be/ to have been….(Se zice(…)/s-a zis
(…)că…)
Trains are said to (be likely to) arrive sometimes with great delays.
Mary is said to be the best candidate for the job.(Se zice că Mary este…)
Mary is said to have been the best candidate for the job. (Se zice că Mary a fost/ar fi
fost…)
Mary was said to have been the best candidate for the job.(S-a zis că Mary a fost/ar
fi fost…)
f. Omisiunea agentului Omission of agent
- Agent neimportant Unimportant agent
John will be given all the instructions for the project.
- Agent necunoscut Unknown agent
She was attacked nor far from her house.
- Agent general Generalised agent
The merchandise is sent by road.
- Agent impersonal Impersonal agent
The new car protptype was put to test yesterday.
- Agent subînţeles/implicit Obvious agent

Application
In the following text, several verb constructions have been highlighted. They are in both the
active and the passive voice.

1. The onset
Passive and active predicates:

Civilization is considered to have started (Present Passive: is considered + Perfect

Infinitive: to have started) in Mesopotamia, between the two rivers Euphrates and Tigris (in
modern day Iraq, Syria, Kuwait and Iran). It was the eastern part of the Fertile Crescent
(western part extending to the Nile valley in Egypt). The first “country” that started (Past
Tense Simple) civilization was Sumer, which lay (Past Tense of lie) in the southern part of
Mesopotamia, near the coast of the Persian Gulf.

29
All the earliest civilizations started in great river valleys, like Sumer (Mesopotamia), Egypt
(Nile), China (Yangtze) and India (Ganges). This was because the land near the rivers was
easy to irrigate and became fertile for crops. People settled down and abandoned the hunter-
gatherer culture when they started to harvest crops. This is called the agricultural revolution
and it was the beginning point of civilization, although it took a long time, the agricultural
revolution in the Neolithic Stone Age 10 000 BC was long before the invention of writing
(and thus the beginning of history) at 3000 BC. It takes (Present Tense Simple: general
statement) time to develop a civilization though.

When people settled down, they formed villages and villages became towns and later cities.
When humans were still hunter-gatherers, they didn’t have (Past Tense Simple negative) time
to do much anything else than hunt and gather. When people started to sow/sowing (Infinitive
or Gerund after ‘start’) useful plan seeds, they suddenly had much more time to do anything
else than just watch (short infinitive, without ‘to’) the crops to grow. This had lead (Past
Perect Tense Simple) to many great innovations, such as the wheel, and writing, which were
both invented (Past Tense Passive) by the Sumerians.

Great innovations invented (Past Participle of the eliptical passive predication: the
relative ‘that/which’ and the auxiliary ‘were’ have been omitted) in Mesopotamia include:
agriculture, irrigation, cities, the wheel, carts and chariots, the plow, sailing ships,
measuring of time, astronomy, astrology, maps, mathematics, cuneiform writing. (source
of the text and related references: https://www.quora.com/Where-did-the-first-civilization-
start)

Watch!
Passive: when, why and how to use it, https://www.engvid.com/the-passive-when-why-and-
how-to-use-it/
Active and pasive infinitives, https://www.engvid.com/active-and-passive-infinitives/
Passive causative, https://www.engvid.com/english-grammar-passive-causative/

Unit 3

Questions

Objectives:
 understand the correct construction of interrogative sentences
 build up correct types of questions

Key words:
 question form, direct and indirect questions, answer questions, tag/disjunctive questions

Contents:
 word order in questions
 yes/no questions
 subject-object questions

30
 answer questions
 tag questions
 role of stress in questions

Bibliography:
 Loghin, D, Felea, C., Sonea I, Pop, L, (2010). Compendiu de gramatică engleză (English
Grammar. Compendium), Echinox.
 Palmer, F., Robert. (1988) The English verb, Longman.
 Vince Michael (with Emerson, Paul). (2003) Intermediate Language Practice, Macmillan.
 Vince, Michael (with Sutherland, Peter). (2003). Advanced Language Practice, Macmillan
Publishers Limited.
 Uchiyama, Kent. (2006). English Verb Tenses: An informal reference for ESL students, the
good folks who teach them, and the idly curious.
 Murphy, Raymond (with Altman, Roann) (1989) Grammar in use. Reference and practice
for intermediate students of English, Cambridge University Press.

Types of questions

1. Întrebări cu cuvinte care conţin grupul Where is the station? (Close to the city
wh center.)
Wh questions Who gave you this direction? (The dean’s
what; who; whose; which; where; when; secretary.)
why; how; how + adjectiv/adverb ( how How can I get to the Library? (You’ll see the
much/ how far/ how fast) sign right away.)
Why were/are you late? (I missed the bus.)
When do I pay for the trip? (Even now if you
wish.)
Which does she prefer? (She is still
undecided.)
What were you doing at the time? (I was
looking for the hostel.)
Whose car are/were you washing? (My own.)
How long have you studied/ been studying?
(Not too long.)

31
2. Întrebări care cer răspunsuri de tipul Are you sitting comfortably?
da/nu Yes, I am/ No, I am not (I’m not).
Yes/no questions Did you see the presentation?
Pronumele interogative who şi what pot Yes, I did/ No, I didn’t (see the presentation)
îndeplini în frază atât rol de subiect (subject) Do you find the lecture interesting?
cât şi rol de complement (object). Yes, I do/ No, I don’t (find it interesting).
În cazul în care întrebarea vizează subiectul, Were you children sleeping when I rang?
nu se produce inversia subiectului cu Yes, they were/No, they weren’t (listening).
predicatul şi nici nu e nevoie de auxiliarul Have you been to the new theatre
do. performance?
În cazul în care întrebarea vizează Yes, I have/No, I haven’t.
complementul, e nevoie de inversie şi de
auxiliar. Who asks the candidate some questions?
Who and what can function either as subject The committee asks the candidate some
or as object of the sentence. questions? (the committee = subject)
In subject questions, there is no inversion Who does the committee ask some
and no do auxiliary, whereas in complement questions?
question both the inversion and the The committee asks the candidate some
auxiliaries are required. question.
(the candidate = (direct) object)
Alte tipuri de construcţii interogative
Other types of interrogative constructions
3. Întrebări care vizează subiectul Întrebări care vizează complementul
Subject Questions Object Questions
Who makes the schedule? Who did she ask?
The boss does. She asked no one.
What did he buy?
He bought a book.
To/with whom did you speak?
I spoke to/with the secretary.
4. Întrebări descriptive: Cum e/ Cum What is your home town like?
sunt? It’s a nice, quiet, provincial town.
Descriptive questions: What….like? What are your room-mates like?
What is it/he like? = Describe it/him to me, They’re rather noisy, I’m afraid.
please. How is your friend now, after that nasty flu?
How is he? = What is the state of his health? She’s much better now, thank you.
5. Întrebări disjunctive Tag (Disjunctive) Mary is not your sister, is she?
questions This can’t be the question, can it?
- propoziţia interogativă –scurtă – apare doar She misunderstood it all, didn’t she?
la sfârşitul unui enunţ (afirmativ sau One/We would never do anything like that,
negativ), de care este despărţită prin virgulă; would they/we?
- dacă enunţul este afirmativ, întrebarea You should try again, should you not?
disjunctivă este negativă, şi invers dacă I am your friend, am I not?aren’t I?
enunţul este negativ, întrebarea disjunctivă They won’t be very late, will they?
este afirmativă (polaritate formală inversă)
- verifică dacă ceea ce credem este adevărat, A: We have to be there before 8, don’t we?
sau verifică ceva de care nu suntem siguri; B: Yes, we do./No, we don’t.
- uneori sunt folosite cu tentă sarcastică sau
pentru a întări o afirmaţie; We have to be there by 8, don’t we?↓ (of

32
 - forma predicatului propoziţiei din course, we do)
disjunctivă este inversul formei predicatului
din propoziţia pe care o însoţeşte;
- doar când folosim o intonaţie ascendentă,
avem o întrebare reală;
- când folosim o intonaţie descendentă,
întrebarea este mai mult retorică. __________
- the short question is placed at the end of a
statement (affirmative or negative) from
which is separated by comma;
-- when the statement is affirmative, the tag
question will be negative and vice versa;
- are used to verify or check information that
we think is true or to check information that
we aren’t sure is true;
- we just use them for effect, when we are
trying to be sarcastic, or to make a strong
point;
-if the tag is a real question it has a rising
intonation.
6. Răspunsuri interogative Reply Questions A: They haven’t got money anymore.
- exprimă interes sau surpriză şi se pronunţă B: They don’t?
întotdeauna cu intonaţie ascendentă;
- întrebarea va avea întotdeauna acceaşi A: That isn’t the right way back.
formă ca şi enunţul iniţial (spre deosebire de B: Isn’t it?
întrebările disjunctive). (polaritate formală
identică) A: Didn’t you notice the lamp burning?
- are used to show interest or surprise; B: Was it?
- they always have a strong rising
intonation;
- the question will always have the same
form with the initial statement.

Benjamin Bloom proposes the following types of questions based on six cognitive levels:

Knowledge (identification and recall of information): “Who, what, when, where, how …?;
“Describe …”
Comprehension (organization and selection of facts and ideas): “Retell …”; “Summarize …”
Application (use of facts, rules and principles): “How is … an example of …?”; “How is …
related to …?”; “Why is … significant?
Analysis (separation of a whole into component parts): “What are the parts or features of
…?”; “Classify … according to …”; “Outline/diagram …”; “How does … compare/contrast
with …?”; “What evidence can you list for …?”
Synthesis (combination of ideas to form a new whole): “What would you predict/infer from
…?”; “What ideas can you add to …?”; “How would you create/design a new …?”; “What
might happen if you combined …?”; “What solutions would you suggest for …?”
Evaluation (development of opinions, judgments, or decisions): “Do you agree …?”; “What
do you think about …?”; “What is the most important …?”; “Place the following in order of
priority …”; “How would you decide about …?”; “What criteria would you use to assess …?”

33
(source: https://uwaterloo.ca/centre-for-teaching-excellence/teaching-resources/teaching-
tips/alternatives-lecturing/questions/asking-questions-six-types)

Watch!
English question types, general, special, alternative, tag-questions
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZPJh0nXwQak

Unit 4

Modal Constructions

Objectives:
 understand and applying correctly the forms of the English modal constructions
 understand the difference between the modal forms (ability, obligation, advice,
interdiction, etc).
Key words:
 modal verbs, semi-auxiliary verbs, ability, oblicgation/lack of obligation, necesssity,
compulsion

Contents:
 ‘simple’modal constructions: present/futurereference
 perfect modals: past reference

Bibliography:
 Hall, Diane, Foley, Mark. (1998). Modal Verbs, ditorial, Stanley.
 Loghin, D, Felea, C., Sonea I, Pop, L, (2010). Compendiu de gramatică engleză (English
Grammar. Compendium), Echinox.
 Vince Michael (with Emerson, Paul). (2003) Intermediate Language Practice, Macmillan.
 Vince, Michael (with Sutherland, Peter). (2003). Advanced Language Practice, Macmillan
Publishers Limited.
 Murphy, Raymond (with Altman, Roann) (1989) Grammar in use. Reference and practice
for intermediate students of English, Cambridge University Press.

34
 Construcţii cu verbele modale Modal Constructions

Notă:
Termenul de “modality” se referă la inflexiunile verbale care exprimă modul ţn care acţiunea
sau starea este percepută de către vorbitor.
Note:
The term “modality”refers to those verb inflections that express how the action or state is
perceived by the speaker (dictionary definition: www. the free dictionary online).

Verbele modale: can; could; may; might, must; have to; will; would; shall; should; ought to;
dare (to); need (to).
Verbele Modale sunt semi-auxiliare, deci se comportă altfel decât verbele obişnuite, adică, ţşi
formează interogativul şi negativul singure, fără a se ajuta de verbele auxiliare clasice be şi
do, nu primesc -s la persoana III sg.prezent şi nu au forme nepersonale (infinitiv, gerunziu).
(*I can to to).
Excepţie fac have to, need to, be bound to, be going to, la care se regăsesc toate aceste
trăsături şi care se numesc semi-modale. Aceste verbe au în cele mai multe cazuri dublu
înţeles.
De asemenea, majoritatea au o expresie sinonimică care să le înlocuiască în construcţiile în
care acestea sunt improprii.

Modal verbs are semi-auxiliary verbs, therefore they have other characteristics than notional
verbs, that is, they don’t take be or do to form the interrogative and the negative, nor do they
get an -s in the III person sg. Also, they do not have non-finite forms (gerund or infinitive).
Exceptions are have to, need to, be bound to, be going to, dare to, which are called semi-
modals. They generally carry two meanings and have a synonymous expression to replace
them in various situations where they are not fit.
I may go at last! (I am allowed to)
I may go today. (I will probably go).
They can swim (present) – They will be able to swim (future).
Toate construcţiile modale au două forme de bază:
All modal constructions can be found under two major forms:
A. Simple Modal constructions – referring to present or future situations.
B. Perfect Modal constructions – referring to past events
A. construcţiile modale simple, care se referă la situaţii prezente sau viitoare
Modal constructions thast refer to present or future actions
S + modal + short infinitive
Paul may be leaving on Monday (It is possible that Paul is leaving on Monday);
This book may be what I really need. (This book is likely to be what I really
need.)
B. construcţiile modale perfecte, care se referă la evenimente trecute

35
Modal constructions thast refer to past actions
S + modal + have + Past Participle (IIIrd form)
He should have arrived by now. (We expected him to arrive by now.)
The course must have started. (I am sure the course has already started.)

1. Can – Could
Verbul Forma Sens Exemple
modal alternativă Meaning Examples
Modal verb Substitute form
CAN 1. be able to - exprimă capacitatea fizică They can /are able to ski
sau mentală prezentă de a very well.
face ceva I could never /was never
- expresses ability to do able to learn lie.
something in the present

2. be likely/ - posibilitatea sau The temperature can

possible to presupunerea ca ceva să fie
(happen) sau să aibă loc.
- possibility/ probability/
conjecture or a
characteristic
3. can’t = it’s - imposibilitate este
impossible; it’s exprimată doar cu ajutorul
unlikey/ not formei negative.
likely - impossibility, only with
the negative form.
4. be permitted/ - permisiunea/
be allowed to încuviinţarea în prezent a
unei acţiuni.
- permission to do
something. in the present
5. would you…? - rugăminte, solicitare
- request
6. how about…? - propunere
- suggestion
1. was/were able - o însuşire/caracteristică
to trecută
- past ability
2. was/were - permisiunea/
allowed to încuviinţarea unei acţiuni
. în trecut
- past permission
COULD 3. it’s just not - imposibilitatea
possible/ it’s hard - impossibility
to accept/believe
(sometimes) drop to – 35
°C in these parts. (=it is
very likely/possible to get
that low) Can it really
happen to me (Is it really
happening to me?)
It can’t be true (it’s
impossible to be true)!
He can’t have said such a
thing!(It’s impossible/not
likely that he said such a
thing.)
Can Susan come with us,
too?
Yes, Susan can come with
us.
Can you help me, please?
Can we better stay at home
tonight?
I remember that ten years
ago they could speak
Spanish much better (…
were able to speak…).
The students could finally
leave.
This is line 4, so this
couldn’t be the train to
Braşov.

36
 4. why didn’t - reproş You could hurry up a bit!
you? - reproach She could have come in
time!
5. it is probable - presupunere This could be the right
that it happens/to - supposition, conjecture way.
happen; it is
quite likely
that…
6. - rugăminte, solicitare Could my sister stay, too,
politicoasă please?
- polite request
7. - adresare politicoasă Could you enter your
- polite requirement to do personal information here,
something please?

8. - ofertă de ajutor I could type the article for

- polite offer you.
9. - propunere Couldn’t/Could we better
- polite suggestion stay at home tonight?
10. - posibilitate It could sometimes rain
- possibility heavily in these parts.

2. May – Might
Verbul Forma Sens Exemple
modal alternativă Meaning Examples
Modal verb Substitute form
MAY be - exprimă You may not enter the building
allowed/permitted permisiunea/aprobarea de a face during conference hours.
ceva; forma negativă exprimă May I add something?
interdicţia de a face ceva Past form:
- expresses permission/consent They will not be/were not
for an action; the negative form allowed/ permitted to enter
expresses interdiction to an without a permit.
action

maybe/ probably - probabilitatea unei acţiuni - e He may be at home.

mai puternic decât might.
- probability of an action –
stronger than might
do you want me - propunere/ ofertă May I help you?
to? - polite offer

- probabilitatea (mai mică) unei Her neighbours might tell you

it is/was probable, acţiuni – e mai puţin puternic where she’s moved. (I am not
possible that/to decât may sure whether they know or
- likeliness of an action –less whether they are willing to tell
strong than may you.)
MIGHT Attending the class only might
have been enough to
understand the course.

37
 - reproş
- reproach
- acţiune ramasă ca ultimă, nu
tocmai placută,alternativă
- it also shows that the action is
seen as the last alternative left,
which the speaker resents
doing.
You might at least stay until the
speech ends.
We’ve lost the document! We
might as well start it all over
again!

3. Must – Have to
Verbul modal Forma alternativă Sens Exemple
Modal verb Substitute form Meaning Example
MUST be compulsory/ - exprimă obligativitatea Well, I really must
obligatory/mandatory (convingere personală, go now. (I know
nu constrangere) de a it’s the right thing
face ceva; to do)
- obligation ( personal The passengers
conviction rather than must first pass
imposition) through the
sanitary filter.
it’s sure/certain - certitudine This must be the
- certainty way to the hostel (I
am sure it is)
The train must
have already left
the station by now.
it’s very likely - posibilitatea You must be
- possibility terribly happy!
She must have left
by now (yet I’m
not 100% sure).
it would be nice/ - sfat, recomandare You must attend
it is recommendable - advice, next years’
recommendation conference, too.
MUST NOT/ be interdicted/ - ca şi may, dar mai You mustn’t speak
MUSTN’T be puternic decât acesta, to anyone like that!
forbidden/prohibited exprimă o interdicţie,
sau un reproş. The passengers
- similar tomay, it must not open their
expresses safety belts unless
interdiction/prohibition told to.
to an action (in a
stronger way than may)
or reproach.
- obligativitate impusă I have to open the
- external obligation, meeting today.
it’s compulsory/ imposition They had to run to
HAVE TO obligatory/mandatory catch that bus.
The tutor will have
to give you the

38
 right advice.

4. Shall – Should – Ought to

Verbul modal Forma alternativă Sens Exemple
Modal verb Substitute form Meaning Examples
SHALL be to - obligativitate All books shall be
puternică cu effect de returned in due time.
lege The citizens shall
- very strong (have to) pay their
obligation/ levies before the close
compulsion - stronger of the year (if they
than must; it is want to avoid being
sometimes followed by fined).
have to

Would you like me - ofertă de Shall I carry call the

to? ajutor/serviciu elevator?
- offer of help

be determined to - hotărârea de a face I shall (definitely)

ceva dublată de give up smoking.
certitudinea efectuării
acţiunii.
- an action which the
speaker feels strong
for and is certain to
happen.
SHOULD it is advisable/ - sfat, recomandare, You should be careful
recommendable; uneori un reproş blând with your money (!)
it is met that… sau un sfat No one should judge
- advice, others.
recommendation,advic You should have
e, mild criticism completed your
studies before
applying for the job.
You should check the
electricity before you
go abroad.
I’m in two minds - indecizie Should I stay or
- hesitation should I leave?

- coincidenţa – It is really odd that

How exprimată cu ajutorul George should be here
funny/strange/odd! unor expresii ca: it is now!
strange/funny/odd that
- coincidence, when
doubled in meaning
by it is
strange/funny/odd that
…

39
 OUGHT TO - recomandare morală Laws ought to
= s-ar cădea, ar trebui be obeyed by every
să, ar fi bine să. citizen!
- moral/etical We ought to be caring
recommenadtion with the needy.

5. Need – Dare
Verbele need şi dare sunt folosite mai ales in propoziţii negative şi interrogative.
The verbs need and dare are mainly used in negative sentences and in questions.
NEED there is a/the need - necesitate în You need to ask the
for/to prezent/ viitor. physician for
it would be welcome - necessity in the another prescription
to present/future. because I’ve
mislaid it.
Need she really
speak like that?
TO NEED - nu este un verb My friend keep
modal, deci se saying he needs to
comportă la fel ca cut on his sweets as
orice verb noţional his blood sugar is
__________ (de ex. primeşte -s la too high.
persoana III sg,
afirmativ ) şi Do you need
exprimă ideea anything else, sir?
necesităţii unei stări
sau unei acţiuni.
- it is not a modal
verb, it behaves like
any notional verb
(gets -s in III person
sg, etc.) and
expresses the
necessity of a state
or action.
NEEDN’T/ it’s not necessary/ - lipsa necesităţii You needn’t come to
DON’T/DOESN’T there is no need (prezent/viitor) work today. It’s
NEED TO for/to/ - lack of necessity in holiday.
don’t/doesn’t have the present/future. He doesn’t need to
to/ don’t/doesn’t check the text
need to anymore (someone
else already has)
NEEDN’T HAVE there was no need/ - lipsa necesităţii I told them they
DONE/ DIDN’T requirement to (trecut) needn’t have called
NEED TO – acţiune efectuată the ambulance as
deşi nu se cerea their mother was
efectuată already feeling
- lack of necessity in better.
the past – action
performed albeit not
necessary.

40
 DIDN’T HAVE TO there was no - acţiune nenecesară Thank God we
need/requirement to şi neefectuată didn’t need to call
- action not the ambulance.
necessary and not Mother was already
performed either feeling better.
DARE/DARE TO - modal verb: - main verb + to Nobody dares to
have the courage to infinitive; defy our group
do something - (semi) modal verb leader’s authority.
+ bare infinitive
- regular verb: Do you still dare to
to challenge Also correct: argue with him?
I don’t dare ask. Maria hasn’t dared
to approach her
boss yet.

I see you daren’t

read your essay.
Dare we return
there?
I dare not enter the
classroom now.

6. Will – Would
Verbul modal Forma Sens Exemple
Modal verb alternativă Meaning Examples
Substitute form
- promisiune I will write as soon as I
I promise to… - promise arrive. (I promise)
If you keep/ - hotărâre fermă If you will refuse to attend
insist on…. - stubborn the course, you’ll fail the
determination exam.
I’m sure it is… - deducţie logică This message will be for me.
- logical (I have been expecting it, so I
deduction, know)
prediction, I feel little John will get
assumption better.
Will you be so - dorinţă, Will you please park the car?
kind as solicitarea Will you leave me alone?
WILL to…/Could ajutorului, ordin
you….? - wish, request,
demand, order
I am available - decizie spontană A: I need someone to get the
and willing … - spontaneous book for me.
decision B: I will.

41
 He does - deprinderi, I think John isn’t himself
nothing else uneori nowadays. He’ll lie in bed for
dezaprobate sau hours without hearing when I
chiar criticate call him.
- habits,
sometimes
criticised
may/ might/ - presupunere Phoning the station may
could/can - supposition – spare you the effort to go and
similar to ask yourself.
could/may/might/
can
May I ask you - dorinţă, cerere/ Would you do me a favour
to…?/ It solicitare – mai and drop this note at the
is/would it be politicos decât dean’s secretary, please?
WOULD possible fot you will
to…? - wish, request –
more polite than
will
used to - deprinderi în My colleagues would often
trecut visit me when I was in
- habits in the hospital.
past

Application
Reading
As human society moves on, we may say that its individuals are likely to (= may be expected
to) become more and contemplative as to the extent of the impact of the past on the present
and future. One might (weak possibility) think that what is taking place now, or what could
(stronger possibility) take place in the future, is solely the effect of our past actions. That and
nothing else. Then we start fretting about the should haves and, mostly, of the should’t haves
(advice, recommendation). What we should have done and what we should not have. But
there is nothing we can (ability) possibly do anymore because by–gones must (strong advice,
almost an obligation), as a rule, remain by-gones. There is a good lesson we ought to (a
sensible attitude/strong recommendation) learn here: we could (possibility, alternative) learn
what mistakes we mustn’t (interdiction) repeat. For example, if we, at a certain point, failed a
moral test because of the joint pressure of a multitude of contex-related factors, now, based on
our present ability to evaluate things, we will hope to (promise to) remedy the damage made
by past wrongs. We truly daren’t think of the consequences of future mistakes. But then again,
would mankind not have really acted the way they did? Where would we be today had we had
a different past? We ought to note that because of what our ancestors did, we are what we are

42
today. We have to (external obligation) put of with it whether we like it or not. After all, the
past is the past and we can only control things happening now.

Practise
Fill in the blanks with the correct modal construction.
can could should have to might must ought to be able would

1. The newly found relic …………… (only/be) included among the older displays after a proper
evsaluation.
2. The Chan ……… (know) when the Chinese army would attack since he was able to
predict their strategical moves so accurately.
3. In this way, the Chinese generals …… (be) to make better decisions before they
engaged in the battle.
4. This means that perhaps they ………….. (have) better counsellors.
5. We keep hoping that an agreement …………… (be) reached between conflicting
parties with more flexibility and the ability to foreshadow disastrous consequences.
6. One …… (always/think) before acting.
7. How odd that we …………. (deal) with the same issue. Could it be mere coincidence?
8. The emperor was adamant. He ………….. (change) his mind however insistently he
was advised to.

Watch!
No more mistakes with modals! 3 easy rules (https://www.engvid.com/modals-3-easy-rules/)
English Modal Verbs can, could, may, might, https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=SaBH_huiJSM
No more mistakes with modals, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Dq7lEw7CKM
Modal Verbs – English Grammar & Conversaltion Lesson (all modals)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZC710CZYv6k

Unit 5

Subordinate Clauses

Objectives:
 understand and apply correctly the rule of subordination
 understand and apply correctly the rule of the sequence of tenses

43
 understand the role of the subordinating term
Key words:
 clause, main clause, subordinate clause, condition, purpose, result, reason, contrast

Contents:
 conditional sentences
 expressing purpose
 expressing result and reason
 expressing contrast
 noun clauses (subjective, predicative, direct object, prepositional, appositive
 Adjective (or Attributive) Clauses
 Adverbial Clauses of Time, of Place, of Purpose, of Reason, of Result, of Manner
(Comparison), of Cause and Effect, Conditional, of Concession (Contrast), Relative,
Participial

Bibliography:
 Loghin, D, Felea, C., Sonea I, Pop, L, (2010). Compendiu de gramatică engleză (English
Grammar. Compendium), Echinox.
 Murphy, Raymond (with Altman, Roann) (1989) Grammar in use. Reference and practice
for intermediate students of English, Cambridge University Press.
 Vince Michael (with Emerson, Paul). (2003) Intermediate Language Practice, Macmillan.
 Vince, Michael (with Sutherland, Peter). (2003). Advanced Language Practice, Macmillan
Publishers Limited.

Tipuri de propozitii subordonate Types of Subordinate Clauses

A. Fraza Condiţională Conditional Constructions

Acest tip de frază adverbială se structurează în jurul unei condiţii (conţinută în subordonata
condiţională) şi a rezultatului sau efectului acesteia (conţinut în propoziţia principală).
This kind of adverbial clause is structured around a condition (contained in the conditional
subordinate clause) and its result or effect (contained in the main clause)
Atenţie Note
if (dacă) ≠ even if (chiar dacă)

44
If she studies hard, she will pass the exam. (this is the requirement for his success)
Even if she studies hard, she won’t pass the exam. (she will fail to pass anyway).

În funcţie de felul condiţiei, se cunosc trei tipuri de propoziţii condiţionale.

According to the kind of condition implied, there ar three types of conditional sentences.

Tipul I – al condiţiei reale (generală sau viitoare)

- exprimă o situaţie anticipată posibilă/foarte realizabilă. (Acest tip de condiţională este
identic ca structură cu subordonată temporală, introdusă de un adverb de timp: when, as soon
as, the moment, etc.)
If anything happens, I will stand by you.
If/When/As soon as/ The moment Mark comes, I will talk to him.
- mai exprimă o situaţie de tipul cauză-efect (în acest caz, avem Present Tense în propoziţia
principală şi tot Present Tense în propoziţia condiţională):
If you work, you have money, if you don’t work, you starve.
- în propoziţia principală avem, de regulă, Future Tense (uneori Present Tense sau un Modal),
iar în propoziţia condiţională avem Present Simple sau Continuous sau Present Perfect Tense.
- mai există şi aşa-numita condiţie ‘cauza-efect’ sau condiţie ‘zero’, atunci când în ambele
propoziţii ale frazei avem timpul prezent.

Type I Conditional – Probable Condition

- expresses a ‘factual’ or’ predictive’ condition based on situations that are always trueand
very likely to happen if a condition is met.
- this use is similar to, and can usually be repleaced by, a Time Clause using a time adverbial.
- we have Future/Present/Modal in the Main Clause and Present Simple/Present
Continuous/Present Perfect in the Conditional Clause.
- the ‘zero’ conditional is formed with both clauses in the present tense.
If everybody arrives in time, we can leave.
Nobody will understand anything if you don’t explain the problem again.
I am leaving if you are leaving.
I will/can clean up if you have painted the kitchen.
If we boil the egg for 5 minutes, we get hard-boiled egg.

Tipul II – al condiţiei ipotetice, improbabile sau nereale

- exprimă situaţii ipotetice, imaginare sau chiar nereale ( pentru situaţiile nereale se foloseşte
forma were la toate persoanele).
În propoziţia principală avem Present Conditional (would + verb), iar în propoziţia
condiţională, Past Tense (sau Past Continuous).
Type II Conditional – Imporbable Condition
- expresses a hypothetical, improbable or unreal condition.This conditional provides an
imaginary result for a given situation (in case of unreral situations, we use were for all
persons).
If he had a student card, he would travel cheaper.
I wouldn’t jump to conclusions if I were him.
I would build a castel for you if I were the lamp spirit.
Tipul III – al condiţiei imposibile
- se referă doar la situaţii trecute, nerealizate. Poate fi privită, în unele cazuri, şi ca un
regret tardiv, exprimat foarte bine de constatarea consecinţei acestei neîmpliniri. Aceasta
nouă frază este introdusă de ‘but…’ iar predicatele din ambele propoziţii ale acesteia sunt
la Past Tense.

45
Type III – Unfulfilled, impossible condition
- refers only to past, unfulfilled situations, often referred to as the ‘late regrets’ because it
concerns only past situations with no perspectives of their being fulfilled.
The Dean would have reconsidered their proposal, if they had talked it over
with him.
(but/since they did not talk it over with the Dean, he did not reconsider the proposal.)
If Al Gore had been elected president, all would have been different/ would
now be different.

Alte conjuncţii în afară de if care introduc Subordonata Condiţională

Other subordinating conjunctions
Whether or not
- indiferent de condiţiile propuse, rezultatul va fi acelaşi.
- whatever the condition, the result is the same.
Whether they have money or not/whether or not they have money, they are
determined to leave.
Unless – are aceeaşi valoare cu ‘if not’.
- se foloseşte doar în Condiţionalele de Tipul I
- expresses the idea of ’if not’ and is only used in the first conditional.
Unless she takes the pills, she won’t get any better. = If she doesn’t take the
pills, she won’t get any better.
In case; In the event
- se folosesc atunci când nu ne aşteptăm ca un eveniment sa aibă loc. Ambele expresii se
folosesc în special pentru exprimarea evenimentelor viitoare.
- are used to express future events that we don’t expect to happen.
In case it rains, take the bus.
I'll be studying upstairs in the event he calls.
Only if
- înseamnă ‘doar în cazul în care, şi numai atunci’.
- dacă ‘only if’ se află la începutul propoziţiei, atunci trebuie să inversăm propozţia principală.
- it means ‘ then and only then’/’only in that case’.
- when ‘only if’ begins the sentence you need to invert the main clause.
I will look over your essay only if you promise not to disturb me while I’m
reading it.
Only if the participants attend the entire section of the workshop will
certificates be released.
If only (!) (o falsă Condiţională) exprimă, de fapt, o dorinţă ipotetică, o intenţie prea puţin
realizabilă.
Propoziţia Principală se deduce din contextual semantic al ideii de dorinţă.
If only is a false Conditional, in fact, expressing a wish, a hypothetical desire or a hardly
accomplishable dream. The main clause is understood from the semantic context of the wish.
If only they were given the right directions ! (they would be able to reach the
hotel for the check in)
When = if
When (=if) unasked (if nobody asks me), I keep silent.
But for = if it wasn’t for/ if it hadn’t been for
If it wasn’t/hadn’t been for your help, we would now be bankrupt. = But for
your help, we would now be lost.
If it wasn’t for the car we would be late. = But for the car, we would be late.

46
 If it hadn’t been for the sandwiches we would have starved. = But for the
sandwiches, we would have starved.
Suppose/ Imagine
Suppose no one showed up! (What if no one showed up?)
Imagine she would have won the pools. (What would have happened if she
had won the pools?)

Condiţionala de Tipul I (Condiţia Reală – cu referire la viitor sau la prezent) Type I

Conditional Clause
TYPE I Propoziţia Conjuncţia Propoziţia
Principală Conjunction Condiţională
Main Clause Conditional Clause
Îndeplinirea acţiunii FUTURE PRESENT
are un grad mare de You will get a room you check in in time.
certitudine -condiţie I’m going to miss the you don’t leave now.
posibilă. beginning
Probable, highly ‘GOING TO’
fulfillable condition You’ll be late FUTURE
-promise/prediction you’re not going to
if hurry.
PRESENT
- warning You won’t finish PRESENT
CONTINUOUS
The plant grows you are not working
- cause-effect faster.
MODAL it is watered regularly.
You can/may leave

You can’t/won’t take you finish.

the exam PRESENT
PERFECT
you haven’t written
the essay. (stress on
action completion)

Condiţionala de Tipul II (Condiţia ipotetică, improbabilă sau nereală)

Type II Conditional Clause
TYPE II Propoziţia Principală Conjuncţia Propoziţia
Main Clause Conjunction Condiţională
Conditional Clause
şansele ca PRESENT PRESENT
acţiunea să se CONDITIONAL you checked in in time.
realizeze sunt You would get a room
mai mici decât I were you/I were 18
în cazul I would try again again
condiţionalei de if (unreal, because I can
tipul I – never be you/ I’m no
condiţie longer 18)
probabilă
Improbable

47
 condition, less PAST PAST
likely to be The plant grew it was watered
fulfilled regularly.
- hypothetical
condition
-unreal/absurd
condition
- past cause-
effect

Condiţionala de Tipul III (Condiţia imposibilă/nerealizată) Type III Conditional Clause

TYPE III Propoziţia Conjuncţia Propoziţia
Principală Conjunction Condiţională
Main Clause Conditional Clause
acţiunea nu a PAST CONDITIONAL
fost efectuată - PAST PERFECT
condiţie you had checked in in
imposibilă You would have got a time.
Impossibe room (but you did not check in
condition, not if in time, so/therefore/in
fulfilled conclusion/consequently,
sometimes you did not get a room)
called a ‘late
regret’ or a
‘wasted
opportunity’
(even if it is not
expressed, we
feel there is an
implied ‘but’)

Condiţionale mixte Mixed conditionals

II + III Mary would be a winner now if she had worked harder. (it is a IIIrd conditional
according to meaning, as it refers to the consequences of a past action uponthe present/future)
Inversiunea în propoziţia condiţională Inversion in Conditional Clauses
Se foloseşte cu scopul de a accentua condiţia. It is used for emphatic purposes.
Were she to come, I would talk to her. = If she were to come, I would talk to her.
Had we decided to leave sooner, we would have met Tom at the airport. = If we had
decided to leave sooner, we would have met Tom at the airport.)

Alte moduri de a exprima o condiţie Other ways to express condition

a. Supposing
I might give Mina the book, supposing she drops by (which is quite unlikely)
b. If it weren’t/wasn’t for/ If it hadn’t been for = but for
Type II If it wasn’t for Michael, I would be lost! (dacă n-ar fi Michael, as fi pierdut(ă))
But for Michael, I would be lost!
Type III If it hadn’t been for Michael, I would be lost (NOW)./I would have been lost.
(THEN) (dacă n-ar fi fost Michael, as fi pierdută (acum)/as fi fost pierdută (atunci)
But for Michael, I would be lost (NOW) /I would have been lost. (THEN)
c. If so

48
 Ken may refuse to substitute for me. If so, (= in this situation) I’ll have to find
someone else.
d. Should (= it is rather unlikely to happen)
If Ken should refuse to substitute for me, which I doubt it will happen, I’ll have to
find someone else.
(with inversion) Should Ken refuse to…, I’ll have to resort to someone else.
e. Happen to – expressing chance
Tell Ann I won’t be able to be there in time, if you (should) happen to see her.
f. When – expressing condition (also with temporal meaning)
When she has finished reading, she might want to write something.

B. Alte tipuri de propoziţii subordonate Other Types of Subordinate Clauses

1. Noun Clauses: Subjective, Predicative, Direct Object, Prepositional, Appositive
2. Adjective (or Attributive) Clauses
3. Adverbial Clauses of Time, of Place, of Purpose, of Reason, of Result, of Manner
(Comparison), of Cause and Effect, Conditional of Concession (Contrast), Relative,
Participial

Tipul Caracteristici Exemple

propoziţiei Features
Type of clause
- elementele subordonatoare;
- funcţie de subiect;
- funcţie de nume predicativ;
- funcţie de subiect;
- funcţie de complement
direct;
- funcţie de complement
prepoziţional;
Noun Clause - propoziţia subiectivă
incorporată în propoziţia
adverbială;
- propoziţia subiectivă
incorporată în propoziţia
adjectivală;
- funcţie de apoziţie;
- dependent signals introduce
noun clauses: who, whom,
whose, which, that, if,
whether, what, when, where,
how, why
combinations with ever:
whoever, whatever,
whenever,wherever.
- fulfills the function of a
subject;
- fulfills the function of a
subject complement;
Examples
What Mary told us sounded
unbelievable (S).
The terrible part of the story is
that the car was completelty
destroyed. (SC)
She never tells us where she
goes.(DO)
She said she wanted to be of
help for whoever needs it .
(object of preposition)
Even if you don’t deny what
you’ve said, it still doesn’t
make us appreciate you more.
Whoever accepts what we
offer is lucky.
I know (that) she is right.
I remember where I put the
book.

49
 - fulfills the function of a
direct object;

- it fulfills the function of the

object of a preposition;

- noun clause inside an

adverb clause;
noun clause inside an
adjective clause;

- appositve function
- the conjunction that before
a noun clause may be omitted
in some sentences
- sunt introduse de conjuncţii Presently the night wind died
subordonatoare; unele sunt out.
eliptice; The strom started almost
- modifică verbe, adjective, instantly.
Adverbial adverbe, infinitive, gerunzii, Where I live, everybody is
Clauses pariticipii, sau chiar fraza în used to this kind of weather.
care apar;
- ocupă diferite poziţii în Now there are a lot of job
frază. oportunities locally, too (=
- are introduced by where we live)
subordinating conjunctions.; Drive carefully (in order to
some adverb clauses may be avoid accidents)
elliptical. I won’t tell you anything
after, before, until, while, unless you promise to be
because, since, as, so that, in discreet.
order that, if, unless, whether,
though, although, even
though, where.
- may modify a verb, an
adjective, an adverb, an
infinitive, a gerund, a
participle, or even the rest of
the sentence in which it
appears.
- can take various positions
in a sentence.
Adverbial Characteristics Examples
Clauses of Time
- fac legatura dintre acţiunea John (had) made some phone
din subordonată cu cea din calls before he answered his e-
propoziţia principală; mails.
- sunt introduse de adverbe şi John answered his e-mails
locuţiuni adverbiale de timp talked to his secretary after he
care arată când are loc (had) made some phone calls.

50
 acţiunea;
- relate other actions to the
activity in the main clause.
- are introduced by adverbs
of time which indicate the
time when something
happens.
such as before, after, while,
as soon as, by, when, as.
Adverbial
Clauses of Place - indică locul unde are loc
acţiunea.
– indicate the place where
something happens.
51
John opened his mail box
when he made some phone
calls.
John opened his mail box
while he made some phone
calls.
John had (already) made some
phone calls by the time he
started reading his e-mails.
John will have (already) made
some phone calls by the time
he checks his mail box.
I arrived where I was
appointed for the job
Nobody should work where
they are not rightfully
appreciated.
Wherever they choose to sit is
all right.
Go wherever you want, but
choose the place wisely.
You will find them waiting
exactly where they are now.
I accept tofollow you
wherever you decideto go.
Adverbial - precizează scopul acţiunii
Clauses of din propoziţia independentă;
Purpose - state the purpose of the
action in the independent
clause;
- dintre toate conjuncţiile şi
locuţiunile conjuncţionale
subordonatoare, cea mai des
utilizată este infinivul lung
(to infinitive); mai formale
sunt in order to/that, so as to,
so, so that (exprimă
intenţionalitate în efectuarea
acţiunii);
- conjuncţiile or the purpose
of, with a view to, with the
intention of, with the
object/aim of; cer o
formă verbală în -ing;
- the to-infinitive is the most
common type of construction,
but in formal writing, in order
to and so as to, so that or in
order that are preferred;
- the difference between so
and so that is that so that
implies that the cause was
deliberately done by someone
in order to get a specific
result;
- other ways of expressing
purpose are:
- lest and for fear + S +
should/would + short
infinitive
- for the purpose of, with a
view to, with the intention of,
with the object/aim of;
- with these phrases the verb
must be in the -ing form.
Adverbial - indică cauza pentru care are
Clauses of loc acţiunea;
Reason - sunt introduse de
conjuncţiile because, as,
since, when sau de locutiunile
prepoziţionale because of, şi
on account of.
- they say why something
happens;
- are introduced by the
52
I tried to buy the car to be able
to come into the city more
easily.
The report was written in
order to give a brief
presentation of the research
results.
The lecturer came up with
additional explanations so that
the students would be able
to/could get the
point more easily.
We offer new courses on
cultural matters with a view to
upgrading the general public’s
knowledge in the domain.
They know they must hurry a
bit lest they (should) arrive
late at the course.
I will not walk to work today
for fear I would be late.
As I needed more information
on the subject, I decided to
enroll for an extra semester.
They didn’t buy the house
because it was too
deteriorated.
My room mate was unable to
work on his project on
account of a malfunction in
the computer. (because the
 conjunctions because, as or computer malfunctioned.)
since, when or the
prepositional phrases because
of and on account of.

Because They received a high mark on

- se poate construi cu diferite their exam because they had
timpuri gramaticale, în studied hard.
funcţie de context. I’m studying hard because I
- can be used with a variety want to pass my
of tenses based on the time exam/because I know too
relationship between the two little.
clauses.
As As the test is difficult, you had
- are acelaşi înţeles cu better get some sleep.
because, dar are o valenţă
formală mai mare. As long as nobody will be in
- means the same as because this house for a while, why
but is used in more formal, don’t you move in yourself?
Adverbial written English.
Clauses of As long as
Cause and - are acelaşi înţeles cu Since his application was
Effect because, dar are o valenţă rejected, he decided to apply
informală, proprie englezei somehwere else.
vorbite. It’s clear we shall have get up
- means the same as because, earlier since work starts at 8.
but it is more informal,
spoken English.
Since
- are acelaşi înţeles cu
because, dar are o valenţă
informală, specific englezei We will be staying for an extra
vorbite. Since are şi week due to the fact that we
implicaţie semantică haven not yet finished.
temporală, însă because
indică doar cauza sau motivul Inasmuch as the students had
acţiunii. succesfully completed their
- means the same as because; exams, their parents rewarded
- it tends to be used in more their efforts by giving them a
informal spoken English; trip to Paris.
however, the conjunction
since also refers to a period
of time, while because implies
only a cause or reason.
Due to the fact that
- means the same as because
but is generally used in very
formal, written English.

Inasamuch as

53
 - means the same as because
and is used in very formal,
written English.
Adverbial - it is used with these words
Clauses of or expressions:
Contrast despite + noun/possessive
(Concession) adjective + gerund,
in spite of + noun/possessive
adjective+ gerund
(al)though, even if/though,
however, whoever (and the
rest of the words combined
with
–ever), yet, while, whereas, at
the same time, all the same,
or to inverted structures:
adj. + as + S + may/might
be/was
- indică modul în care se
efectuează acţiunea.;
- toţi conectorii au acelaşi
înţeles;
- comparaţia poare fi atât
reală cât şi ipotetică;
- as poate fi conector
adverbial de timp, mod şi
cauză.
Adverbial - it tells us how to do
54
Although/even if/though we
are loaded with work, you can
take a few days’ leave.
You can leave for a few days
Although/even if/though we
are loaded with work.
Despite the fact that we loaded
with work, you can take a few
days’ leave.
Despite our being loaded with
so much work, you can take a
few days’ leave.
In spite of our being loaded
with work, you can take a few
days’ leave. /In spite of the
fact that we are loaded with
work, you can take a few
days’ leave.
However loaded with work we
may be/are, you can leave all
the same.
Loaded with work as we
are/as we may be, you can
(still) leave.
We are loaded with work
indeed, yet/but you can leave
anyway.
We are loaded with work, all
the same, you can leave.
We are loaded with work, yet
you can leave.
We are loaded with work; at
the same time you can leave
for a few days.
We are loaded with work;
nonetheless you can take a
few days’ leave.
The directions should be
complied with as the
organizers indicated you to.
Read the text aloud as if you
were an actor on stage.
Apply for that college as
though it was/were the
ultimate solution.
She looks at me as if it’s a
joke. (it’s possible that it’s a
Clauses of something;
Manner - its connectors (all have the
(Comparison) same meaning): as, as if, and
as though;
- the comparison can be
either realistic ( normal
tenses are used) or unrealistic
(were and past tense are
used).
Note that as can be an adverb
clause connector of time,
manner and reason.
Adverb Clauses - arată rezultatul unei acţiuni
of Result sau situaţii;
- sunt introduse de
conjuncţiile so, so that, so…
that, or such … that precum
şi de alte cuvinte cu aceeaşi
valoare semantică: therefore,
thus, in consequence,
consequently, for this/that
reason, sau as a result sau
with the result that.
- indicates the result of an
action or situation;
- are introduced by
conjunctions such as so, so
that, so…that, or such … that
and some other words that
have the same semantic
coverage, such as: therefore,
thus, in consequence,
consequently, for this/that
reason
- other ways of indicating the
result of an action or
situation are as a result or
with the result that.
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joke.)
The child trembles as though
he saw something terrible.
Maybe he really saw
something terrible.
He cries as though he were
stabbed.
Nobody stabbed him.
He dances as if you were
Nureev.
He’s not Nureev.
As you refused to help me, I
asked someone else.. (reason)
We will keep you informed as
the decision is made. (time)
Behave as you were told to.
(manner)
The lecture was boring and
irrelevant, so some of the
students began to fall asleep.
Peter was having problems
with mathematics, so he went
to see his tutor to ask for
advice.
There were so many books on
the subject that Cindy didn’t
know where to begin.
There was such a lot of
material to cover that Ivan
found it difficult to keep up
with his studies.
The lecture was boring and
irrelevant, and as a result
some of the students began to
fall asleep.
The lecture was boring and
irrelevant, with the result that
some of the students began to
fall asleep. As a result can also
be used at the beginning of a
new sentence.
The lecture was boring and
irrelevant. As a result, some of
the students began to fall
asleep.
The government increased the
duty on wine. As a result,
there was a fall in demand.

- causal relations can be
expressed by -ing-clauses of
result.
Participial - sunt folosite după
Clauses construcţii substantivale
(Phrases) ( propoziţii relative
abreviate);
- în asociere cu anumite
conjuncţii şi prepoziţii, ele au
rol de propoziţii subordonate
propriu-zise, cu variate
conotaţii semantice, în special
temporale;
- pot înlocui o propoziţie
subordonată de scop;
- se folosesc în texte scrise,
pentru a include cât mai
multe informaţii în acceaşi
frază;
- dacă se foloseşte o
construcţie participială pentru
a combina sau a scurta
subordonate, amblele
subordonate trebuie să aibă
acelaşi subiect.
- follow noun phrases (like
abbreviated relative clauses);
- following conjunctions and
prepositions they function as
finite subordinate clauses
(with various meanings, often
of time);
- replace a subordinate
clause of reason;
- are used in writing, in order
to include as much
information as possible in the
same sentence;
- if we use a participle
construction to combine or
shorten clauses, both clauses
should have the same subject.
Participial Clauses with
different Subjects
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The government increased the
duty on wine, resulting in a
fall in demand.
The man waiting (= who is
waiting) in front of the shop is
Jack.
While/On walking home, I
noticed smoke coming out of a
neighbouring house.
Upon opening the letter, a
$100 banknote fell out.
Irritated by the reply, I left.
The car is parked near the
hotel entrance. It’s Susan’s car.
The car parked near the hotel
entrance is Susan’s car.
The girls is reading on a bench
near the lake. She was my
student.
The girl reading on a bench
near the lake was my student.
I smelled them (namely, my
next door neighbours) cooking
roast.
Mary was writing an e-mail,
when her boss entered the
office.(correct)
Writing an e-mail, her boss
entered the office.(wrong)
Checked carefully, this
somposition could enter the
competition.
If you check this composition
 - dacă propoziţia principală
conţine unul dintre
următoarele verbe: see,
notice, watch, smell, feel,
find, hear, listen to. În cazul
în care nu au același subiect,
sensul propoziției se
modifică.
- if the main clause contains
one of the following verbs:
see, notice, watch, smell, feel,
find, hear, listen to.
- apart from the exceptions
mentioned above, participle
clause and main clause
should have the same subject,
otherwise the sentences might
sound rather strange.
participial clauses and
adverbial clauses
- exprimă condiţia, motivul,
cauza, rezultatul.
- express condition, reason,
cause, result;
- se foloseşte pentru a face
referire atât la acţiuni trecute
cât şi prezente.
- it can be used both for past
and present reference.
- after, before, instead of, on,
when, while, without
+ you must not use you mobile
Participle (clause)
Relative Clauses
Adjective Clauses - Caracteristici
The Relative Clause Features
- sunt propoziţii subordonate
introduse de pronume relative,
adverbe de timp şi de loc;
- dacă nu îndeplinesc funcţie de
subiect, aceste pronume pot fi
omise;
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carefully, it can enter the
competition. (Condition)
Having read the novel, I
can/could write my essay on
the suggested topic. (Reason)
Because I read the novel I
can/could write the essay on
the suggested topic.
Leaving the office, I went to
the supermarket. After I left
the office, I went to the
supermarket.
Leaving the office I’ll go to
the supermarket. After I leave
the office, I’ll go to the
supermarket
Come over after finishing your
work.
After having visited her
relatives, Mary returned home.
Before leaving for Rome, I
had to meet my coordinator.
Why aren’t you working
instead of hanging around all
day long?
On opening the front door,
their friends surprised them
with a cheerful “Happy
Birthday”.
Don’t forget that when driving
phone.
I could talk to your father
myself, without wanting to
offend you, of course.
Exemple
Examples
Students who can develop
independent learning skills often
achieve good academic results.
There will be a new rule that
addresses immigrants who enter
 - propoziţiile relative conferă the country after 2008.
fluenţă discursivă, permiţând
fuziunea mai multor propoziţii A university is a place where
într-o singură frază, dar şi people pursue advanced
pentru a aduce informaţii knowledge in specific academic
suplimentare; disciplines.
- who, that, which introduc atât
pronumele subiect cât şi Anyone can tell the difference
pronumele complement; between a public place or one in
pronoumele relative urmate de which access is granted only by a
un verb sunt pronume special permit or membership
subiectivale. Prezenţa lor este card.
obligatorie. Dacă nu sunt
urmate de un verb ci de un It was on the night when they
substantive sau un pronume, ele arrived.
sunt pronume complement. This is the shelf where I left the
Acestea pot fi omise în papers.
propoziţiile relative restrictive Tell them why (the reason
(defining) , numite propoziţii de why/for which) we have to meet.
contact.
- adjective clauses are
dependent clauses introduced She asks for the file which
by relative pronouns: who, contains the addresses reference
whose, whom, which, why (= information of the candidate.
for which reason) that
- if it is not used as a subject, Ted was on the bus (which) I had
the relative pronoun in an missed.
adjective clause may sometimes
be omitted.
- a text gains in fluency and
avoids word redundancy if we
combine sentences with a
relative clause. The insertion of
additional information can also
be done in this way.
- who, which, that introduce
both the Subject and the Object
Pronoun; the relative pronouns
followed by a verb are subject
pronouns. They are must always
used. If they are not followed by
a verb (but by a noun or
pronoun), they are object
pronouns. Object pronouns can
be omitted in defining relative
clauses (called Contact
Clauses).
Restrictive/Defining/ - oferă detalii despre subiect; The questions (which ) we usually
Identifying Relative - nu se pun niciodată între avoid asking refer to personal
Clauses virgule; matters.

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 - cel mai adesea se întâlnesc în
definiţii;
- propoziţiile de contact - o
propoziţie relativă fără pronume
relativ;
- dacă se foloseşte un pronume
specific în locul unuia
nespecific, propoziţia relativă
devine una nerestrictivă, şi se
impune prezenţa virgulelor
separatoare;
- pentru a câştiga în concizie, se
reduce propoziţia restrictivă;
- participiile pot contrage
propoziţiile relative;
- când subiectul este unul cu
referinţă unică, restrictivele se
pot transforma în nerestrictive.
- give details about the subject;
- it is never put between
commas;
- they are most often met in
definitions;
- Contact Clauses - a relative
clause without the relative
pronoun;
- if instead of a nonspecific
noun is used a specific one
instead, the relative clause
becomes nonessential and thus
requires commas to separate it
from the rest of the sentence.
- to make the style more
concise, we reduce the defining
relative.
- Participles can contract
relative clauses:
- the Infinitive is used in
Relative Clauses
- they can change into a non-
restrictive relative clause when
the subject is with unique
reference.
Non- - aduc informaţii adiţionale;
Restrictive/Non- - sunt puse între virgule;
Defining/ Non- - that nu este admis în acest tip
Identifying Relative de relative;
59
A personal question is a question
that we always avoid asking.
The policeman (who/whom) we
asked our way didn’t know
English.
Transportation (that is) arranged
for conference members will be
paid for by the host country.
The local members (who/whom)
the president asked to supervise
the proceedings of the conference
are paid extra.
The lecturer who teaches
Portuguese is absent today = The
lecturer teaching Portuguese is
absent today.
To be sure about the righ
departure hour, the receptionist
phoned the railway station, which
was very helpful for us all.
The city where I graduated is a
well-known university centre in
Romania.
Sibiu, where I graduated, is a
well-known university centre in
Romania.
Traffic wardens, who/whom we
usually ask for direction, are
indispensable in crowded places.
My highschool friend Paul, who
 Clauses - who şi whose se folosesc cu lives in France, was promoted in
referire la persone; April. (‘who lives in France’ is
- which şi whose se folosesc not essential, which means that I
pentru obiecte; only have one highschool friend,
- folosirea pronumelor whose name is Paul,and she does
complement este obligatorie. not need to be defined by the
- give additional information on relative clause)
something, but do not define it;
- are put between commas;
- that is not used in a non-
defining relative clauses;
- who and whose are used for
persons;
- which and whose are used for
things.
- object pronouns must be used
here.
- unlike defining clauses, these
clauses cannot be reduced.

Conjuncţii subordonatoare care introduc Propoziţii Adverbiale

Subordinating Conjunctions Introducing Adverbial Clauses
Temporală Cauzală Contrastivă Condiţională
Time Cause and Opposition Conditional
Effect
after, before, when, while, because, since, although, even if, only if, unless,
as, by the time (that), as as, as long as, so though, though, whether (or not), even if,
soon as, since, until, long as, due to whereas, while, providing (that), in case
whenever, the first time the fact that in spite of, (that), provided (that), in
(that), the next time (that), despite the event (that)
the last time (that), every
time (that)

Practise

A holiday in Scotland
1. We spent our holiday in Scotland last year. Scotland is in the north of Great Britain.
Last year we …………………
2. People live in Scotland. They are called Scots.
The people …………………………
3. We first went to Edinburgh. Edinburgh is the capital of Scotland.
We first ……………………

60
4. Arthur Conan Doyle was born in Edinburgh. He wrote the Sherlock Holmes stories.
Arthur Conan Doyle………………………….
5. Then we visited a lake. It is in the Highlands.
The lake……………………..
6. Loch Ness is 37 km long. People know it for its friendly monster.
Loch Ness ……………….
7. There we met an old man. He told us that he had seen Nessie.
An old man ……………..
8. We then travelled to a mountain. The mountain is near the town of Fort William.
We then ……………..
9. The mountain is the highest mountain in Great Britain. It is called Ben Nevis.
The mountain ……………………
10. I sent you a postcard. It was written on the summit of Ben Nevis.
The postcard ..................................

(https://agendaweb.org/grammar/relative-clauses-english-exercises.html)

Watch!
https://study.com/academy/lesson/subordinate-clause-examples-definition-quiz.html
How to improve your writing: Subordinate Clauses
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UlbesyBk8Yg

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