Bias in Bland-Altman but not Regression Validity Analyses Spreadsheet to accompany article of sa

This spreadsheet generates random normally distributed values for simulating a calibration and validity study, each of 400
In the calibration study, a manufacturer calibrates an instrument that provides a practical measure (e.g., bioimpedance) ag
In the validity study, a researcher checks the readings of the instrument against the criterion measure with another set of s
Experiment by changing values in blue (but read through the steps below first). Important outcome statistics are shown in
Completely new sets of random values are generated every time you open and close a cell or save the spreadsheet.
On the next sheet is a simulation showing how a Bland-Altman plot indicates artifactual bias between two measures differi

Calibration Study
Step 1 Generate true values of a variable for a sample of subjects from a population having a true mean (M) and standa
Each subject's true value = M + SD*(a normally distributed random number with mean=0 and standard deviation=
Step 2 Generate observed values of a criterion measure Y and of a practical measure X from each subject's true value.
Each subject's observed value = slope*(true value) + intercept + error*(a normally distributed random number wi
Step 3 Derive the calibration equation to convert Practical X into Practical Y by regressing Criterion Y against Practical X

Validity Study
Step 4
Step 5

Step 6a

Step 6b
Step 7

Step 8

Calibration Study Validity Study

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
Derived
Criterion Y Criterion Y
True Criterion Practical vs Practical X calibration vs Practical Y
values Y X 100.0 equation 100.0
mean slope slope 90.0 slope 90.0 f(x) = 1.02x - 0
80.0 f(x) = 0.03x + 8.03 80.0
50 1 30 0.026
Ycrit

70.0 70.0
Ycrit

Std Dev intercept intercept intercept

60.0 60.0
13 0 100 8.03 50.0
50.0
error error 40.0 SEE 40.0
3 200 30.0 6.4 30.0
20.0 r 20.0
10.0 0.87 10.0
0.0 0.0
0 1000 Yprac 3000
2000 4000 0.0 20.0 40.0
Ypra

Individual values in calibration study Individual values in v

Step 1 Step 2 Step 6b Step 4
True Criterion Practical New
Subject values Y X True Y subject
vs Practical Y
Jo 55.8 55.2 1628 100.0 Kim
Alison 75.9 76.6 2451 90.0 f(x) = 1.03x - 1.46 Sam
Val 25.5 22.4 950 80.0 Lyn
Ytrue

etc. 35.4 29.3 896 70.0 etc.

60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0
 True Y
vs Practical Y
100.0
90.0 f(x) = 1.03x - 1.46
80.0

Ytrue
70.0
60.0
51.7 54.4 1786
50.0
50.6 48.0 1201 40.0
49.9 52.8 1428 30.0
54.9 51.2 1823 20.0
59.5 55.4 1725 10.0
47.3 50.4 1368 0.0
0.0 20.0 40.0 Yprac60.0 80.0 100.0
50.7 49.6 1482
55.8 53.8 1893
70.3 72.9 1980
46.4 44.2 1373
59.0 60.2 2110
54.6 52.8 1771
34.2 39.9 669
67.8 63.1 2296
51.7 50.6 1357
59.9 62.6 1765
61.4 55.8 2150
83.7 80.0 2405
69.3 62.9 2348
5.9 4.2 193
43.5 47.5 1253
51.5 46.6 1587
80.2 82.7 2212
52.6 50.5 2022
42.7 45.0 1321
34.9 32.0 1115
43.4 44.5 1384
67.5 67.6 2022
82.3 87.6 2482
49.8 46.0 1661
76.4 72.8 2067
48.4 45.1 1319
50.8 48.2 1845
55.2 55.0 1699
52.0 55.8 1878
52.4 50.3 2056
54.9 56.5 1594
48.3 49.8 1754
53.9 56.4 1828
62.9 68.3 2289
58.8 56.9 1714
42.6 45.8 1738
48.5 48.1 1195
34.8 38.0 1297
40.4 42.5 1263
34.4 35.8 1300
49.4 48.4 1447
62.3 60.8 2148
51.1 49.0 1745
36.5 35.9 1247
21.5 26.9 928
58.4 57.5 1930
48.9 51.1 1448
48.2 49.2 1543
42.2 44.3 1123
62.2 63.1 1934
63.3 60.5 2011
73.8 74.3 2306
43.1 44.2 1457
39.4 37.1 1191
63.5 62.0 2155
45.5 42.1 1479
46.5 47.5 1324
49.5 48.7 1502
45.0 45.6 1392
53.2 55.5 1892
51.9 51.4 1962
62.8 62.2 1678
61.9 62.3 1539
41.0 44.1 1385
70.2 66.7 2252
55.7 54.0 1828
51.4 48.6 1603
27.7 28.2 818
57.9 60.4 1610
64.6 68.3 2407
53.6 53.9 1513
46.2 46.4 1290
61.5 54.7 1681
32.1 34.9 896
58.3 57.0 1874
37.8 37.0 1394
46.3 44.5 1889
38.4 37.5 898
56.1 59.0 1486
41.9 45.2 1585
60.5 58.9 2221
58.7 55.4 1746
51.2 55.1 1600
43.8 44.6 1130
31.9 33.3 1325
61.6 59.7 1850
76.9 73.5 2295
55.8 56.6 1730
53.8 57.2 1699
49.1 47.2 1692
31.8 33.0 751
46.2 44.1 1397
63.2 58.5 1730
60.2 60.6 2056
52.8 51.3 2027
53.1 50.2 1700
53.4 50.6 1842
52.3 56.3 1429
46.8 51.4 1215
41.5 39.5 1329
62.5 59.5 1696
25.8 23.9 980
48.1 46.9 1411
36.1 33.9 993
68.0 61.3 1869
62.5 53.6 2054
50.7 49.5 1931
35.1 34.1 1357
86.3 85.6 3074
67.1 70.3 2290
46.4 42.9 1477
39.9 40.6 1651
50.2 46.9 1328
56.2 59.4 1884
66.7 66.1 1842
49.0 50.1 1650
46.7 48.7 1364
70.7 71.5 2164
45.5 43.4 1221
41.5 38.7 1513
48.0 49.3 1474
37.5 41.5 1089
66.7 65.0 1991
58.5 54.3 1911
80.9 85.0 2442
54.6 50.9 1472
48.5 49.9 1370
41.3 42.6 1340
45.1 42.2 1478
57.9 55.6 1569
48.3 47.4 1427
65.1 66.1 2005
47.6 41.3 1786
62.0 59.6 2038
30.4 29.3 1454
46.3 47.4 1867
35.4 38.2 1025
63.4 64.1 1940
64.9 64.8 2094
47.2 50.7 1680
44.3 46.7 1443
54.5 53.6 1747
40.0 37.2 1638
31.5 30.9 1454
40.7 40.7 1347
49.4 55.6 1440
29.2 24.1 1116
48.9 46.5 2170
57.7 61.9 1419
46.7 45.9 1519
41.9 40.8 1639
39.7 32.5 1251
56.7 57.7 1939
43.0 39.2 1431
33.1 31.2 758
55.1 59.9 1789
44.5 44.5 1392
39.1 42.3 949
53.2 58.3 1982
43.2 46.6 1430
43.7 45.6 1638
33.4 35.8 1126
33.6 32.7 772
42.2 41.0 1547
42.0 45.6 1105
40.2 39.2 1163
57.5 57.8 1931
71.9 66.6 2155
59.8 58.3 1801
43.4 48.4 1421
36.0 38.7 914
31.8 31.2 902
45.5 45.4 1149
54.9 50.5 1585
23.1 26.4 642
44.7 51.3 1380
33.5 35.7 1107
38.4 35.5 1325
37.7 36.6 1084
39.0 37.8 1394
62.4 63.2 2179
28.7 31.4 1119
54.1 54.5 1657
65.0 66.0 2090
43.3 45.2 1306
30.7 27.5 421
55.3 56.4 1921
48.3 51.0 1865
52.2 54.0 1823
41.7 40.8 1323
45.4 42.2 1828
56.4 58.7 1959
36.4 38.7 1187
34.1 36.2 1107
48.7 50.5 1514
33.0 34.0 1407
60.8 60.9 1849
78.2 77.6 2898
77.9 79.2 2648
60.5 65.5 2415
61.4 64.0 1595
51.6 53.8 1468
26.6 24.5 500
54.2 55.7 1613
51.3 55.1 1902
63.3 61.0 1668
58.0 59.9 2019
55.4 56.0 1757
62.7 62.9 2121
43.9 49.0 1740
68.9 69.8 2262
56.7 61.0 2115
45.9 45.3 1712
19.4 18.9 773
27.4 28.1 856
40.0 38.9 1264
71.6 72.6 2500
43.2 40.9 1709
74.0 74.8 2263
36.3 37.4 891
64.8 62.8 2015
48.2 51.2 1918
56.2 57.2 1969
38.1 37.6 1390
59.6 65.1 1778
55.4 58.7 1589
56.8 57.4 1818
53.3 58.4 1699
40.8 42.6 1504
93.3 89.3 3093
75.8 76.5 2330
76.7 78.1 2563
30.6 26.8 1209
66.1 65.7 1838
41.5 45.0 1356
86.7 86.1 2679
40.4 41.8 1509
37.4 39.2 1008
43.0 37.6 1433
41.9 39.7 1338
29.1 26.9 1095
45.9 41.7 1511
47.6 46.4 1564
72.5 74.4 2116
57.1 58.7 1626
50.8 46.6 1829
42.2 42.9 1222
59.6 61.1 1717
32.7 34.3 1108
45.9 45.0 1696
56.9 58.0 1636
43.1 36.8 1281
65.9 66.2 2412
32.6 30.7 814
29.6 32.9 705
45.3 51.4 1466
53.9 55.8 1878
49.0 46.2 1684
56.2 53.4 1972
53.8 55.6 1811
58.6 59.4 1895
31.5 37.7 1058
55.8 59.6 1846
45.2 44.7 1605
49.1 52.9 2007
57.2 60.6 1913
40.7 38.8 1125
49.4 47.8 1584
55.5 55.2 1888
82.6 88.9 2380
41.0 38.7 1199
48.2 37.7 1693
48.4 52.5 1151
34.7 38.7 924
68.6 69.4 2513
39.9 35.7 846
66.4 67.8 2174
54.8 59.1 1660
62.4 60.4 2089
54.2 60.2 1753
70.6 65.9 2090
47.1 47.4 1309
44.9 46.0 1502
43.1 50.3 1390
53.7 52.8 1413
44.8 47.0 1526
40.9 39.2 1206
44.3 43.7 1547
22.5 21.0 755
49.6 50.0 1795
29.4 31.5 949
41.9 41.1 1356
58.1 54.2 2064
39.8 45.5 1417
55.2 56.3 1642
44.3 45.6 1622
34.4 34.7 1215
36.3 38.1 1130
66.2 66.8 2118
41.3 40.7 1443
58.3 60.2 1683
40.9 36.5 1559
35.4 31.5 946
52.3 51.1 1590
66.7 61.6 2144
59.1 61.5 1792
61.3 62.5 2020
42.9 33.7 1450
56.3 54.2 1937
28.3 28.0 894
55.0 55.4 1857
48.6 51.5 1655
54.4 57.1 1727
36.1 38.5 1401
77.0 73.4 2518
50.0 46.7 1528
63.4 63.9 1855
39.9 41.4 1273
54.5 54.6 1776
45.7 39.2 1397
59.4 58.8 1616
26.6 23.0 888
50.8 51.1 1813
76.2 67.7 1961
63.5 66.1 2176
55.9 53.6 1752
33.5 33.4 850
57.3 54.8 1934
33.4 33.5 1139
36.7 36.2 1252
57.3 60.9 2112
68.5 66.2 2378
48.1 46.0 1486
38.3 37.0 1344
46.1 43.2 1386
45.9 39.8 1514
67.9 63.1 2398
62.4 60.4 2281
44.7 43.8 1788
50.1 49.3 1476
39.1 40.1 1084
48.3 51.4 1311
46.2 45.6 1360
27.9 25.6 1235
61.9 66.2 2218
33.8 37.6 993
60.7 64.1 2136
30.1 29.5 1203
29.6 22.1 900
58.8 58.2 1698
48.0 47.4 1793
59.4 55.2 1951
37.9 42.0 1583
40.0 37.0 1143
38.2 42.5 1124
52.6 54.3 1714
31.2 32.8 1500
78.1 78.0 2470
 43.6 44.6 1499
38.0 33.1 1174
32.6 35.8 1015
67.0 68.9 1891
54.0 56.7 1570
33.1 29.3 1361
58.3 56.4 2056
40.0 40.9 1623
55.2 56.1 1835
39.3 38.8 1519
54.1 54.6 1873
59.6 65.8 2174
42.1 41.8 1495
47.1 44.5 1378
64.4 61.9 2190
60.9 59.8 1665
68.5 71.9 2429
69.5 70.9 2307
41.3 42.7 1245
58.3 62.1 1880
53.6 49.4 1485
44.1 40.9 1326
54.2 55.9 1488
42.8 47.6 1762
39.8 40.6 1163
49.3 51.4 1552
52.6 56.6 2065
55.3 53.7 1491
38.5 39.1 1206
49.7 51.0 1750
30.2 31.9 1191
41.6 43.2 1224

True New
Subject values Criterion YPractical X subject
mean 50.1 50.1 1614.4
SD 13.0 13.2 442.4
N 400
SEE 6.4
 to accompany article of same name in Sportscience 8, 2004.
alidity study, each of 400 subjects.
e (e.g., bioimpedance) against a criterion measure (e.g., lean mass in kg via DEXA).
sure with another set of subjects.
me statistics are shown in red. Hover the cursor to read comments in some cells.
ve the spreadsheet.
ween two measures differing only in the amount of random error

rue mean (M) and standard deviation (SD).

0 and standard deviation=1).
ach subject's true value.
buted random number with mean=0 and standard deviation=1).
erion Y against Practical X.

Validity Study
Generate a set of true values for the new subjects in the validity study.
Calculate the subjects' Criterion Y and Practical X values, as per Step 2.
Calculate Practical Y values from the X by using the calibration equation of Step 3.
Perform the validity analysis: the regression ("recalibration") of the Criterion Y against the Practical Y.
The Practical Y is unbiased, because the expected values of the slope and intercept are 1 and 0.
The expected values of the SEE and r are also the same as those of the original calibration equation.
Regression to check for bias in Practical Y in relation to True Y. (This check is not possible with real data.)
With real data, you would plot residuals vs predicteds from the recalibration regression to check for
non-uniformity of error (including non-linearity in the prediction). There is no non-uniformity in these data.
Perform the Bland-Altman difference vs means analysis of the Criterion and Practical Y.
The plot and regression of differences vs means reveals artefactual proportional bias.

Validity Study
Step 6a Step 7
Resid uals for Ycrit

Reg- Reg-
Criterion Y
vs Practical Y ression ression
Residuals
100.0 equation vs Predicteds equation
90.0 f(x) = 1.02x - 0.78 slope 25.0 slope
80.0 1.02 20.0 0.00
70.0 15.0
Ycrit

intercept intercept
60.0 10.0
50.0
-0.8 0.0
5.0
40.0 SEE 0.0
Comment
30.0 6.4 -5.0 0.0 20.0f(x) = - 0.00x
40.0 60.0 +80.0
0.00100.0
20.0 r -10.0
10.0 0.88
NO -15.0
0.0 -20.0
BIAS
0.0 20.0 40.0
Yprac60.0 80.0 100.0 -25.0 Predicted Ycrit

Individual values in validity study Regression: predicteds & residuals

Step 4 Step 5 Step 7
True Hidden Predicted
values Criterion Y X Practical Y Practical Y Residuals
54.6 54.4 1928 58.3 58.6 -4.2
84.0 83.5 3001 86.3 87.1 -3.6
84.3 81.6 2249 66.7 67.2 14.4
27.0 26.0 801 28.9 28.7 -2.7
46.5 47.4 1189 39.0 39.0 8.4
66.2 62.6 1988 59.9 60.2 2.4
69.0 73.2 2253 66.8 67.3 5.9
57.4 56.4 1798 54.9 55.2 1.2
62.9 59.6 1859 56.5 56.8 2.8
44.6 49.2 1590 49.5 49.6 -0.4
35.0 35.5 1189 39.0 39.0 -3.5
65.9 65.2 1679 51.8 52.0 13.2
60.8 62.3 2105 62.9 63.3 -1.1
67.5 67.7 2250 66.7 67.2 0.6
51.5 49.7 1743 53.5 53.7 -4.0
24.3 24.7 663 25.3 25.0 -0.3
50.8 45.4 1379 44.0 44.0 1.3
17.5 18.5 731 27.1 26.8 -8.4
54.5 54.3 1755 53.8 54.0 0.2
33.6 37.2 1581 49.3 49.4 -12.2
63.4 62.4 2131 63.6 64.0 -1.6
39.7 34.4 1309 42.2 42.2 -7.8
43.7 42.5 1155 38.2 38.1 4.4
58.4 61.1 1962 59.2 59.5 1.5
68.1 68.2 1996 60.1 60.4 7.7
57.6 56.5 1706 52.5 52.7 3.8
50.9 51.0 1478 46.6 46.7 4.4
51.1 51.9 1695 52.2 52.4 -0.6
53.1 46.9 1706 52.5 52.7 -5.8
54.0 56.6 1329 42.7 42.7 13.9
47.8 46.2 1890 57.3 57.6 -11.4
79.2 78.4 2487 72.9 73.5 5.0
72.5 67.5 1918 58.1 58.4 9.2
58.7 61.6 1601 49.8 49.9 11.7
72.6 78.1 2685 78.1 78.7 -0.6
54.5 55.1 1673 51.7 51.9 3.2
57.1 57.2 2159 64.3 64.8 -7.6
59.5 59.2 1732 53.2 53.4 5.8
70.6 69.1 2454 72.0 72.6 -3.5
37.0 34.0 1020 34.6 34.5 -0.5
36.6 31.8 1189 39.0 39.0 -7.2
44.9 44.7 1239 40.3 40.3 4.3
33.9 35.5 1133 37.6 37.5 -2.0
34.0 37.1 938 32.5 32.3 4.8
63.5 59.6 1667 51.5 51.7 8.0
33.9 32.8 664 25.3 25.0 7.8
62.6 57.3 1764 54.0 54.3 3.1
48.2 49.7 1706 52.5 52.7 -3.1
50.1 50.4 1650 51.1 51.2 -0.8
65.9 63.1 2018 60.7 61.0 2.0
32.2 32.5 923 32.1 31.9 0.6
50.9 49.5 1686 52.0 52.2 -2.7
51.5 51.2 1603 49.8 50.0 1.3
44.9 43.3 1615 50.1 50.3 -7.0
54.6 54.7 1456 46.0 46.1 8.7
42.1 39.7 1227 40.0 40.0 -0.3
48.0 46.1 1590 49.5 49.6 -3.5
32.4 34.5 966 33.2 33.1 1.4
55.9 54.6 1861 56.6 56.8 -2.2
41.0 41.0 1203 39.4 39.4 1.6
44.0 39.5 1433 45.4 45.5 -6.0
65.3 70.6 1786 54.6 54.8 15.7
46.4 44.4 1917 58.0 58.3 -14.0
44.2 45.3 1756 53.8 54.1 -8.8
55.0 58.1 1559 48.7 48.8 9.3
30.9 26.5 952 32.8 32.7 -6.2
30.0 27.8 1165 38.4 38.4 -10.6
42.5 46.7 1303 42.0 42.0 4.7
61.6 65.3 2059 61.7 62.1 3.2
43.7 46.0 1333 42.8 42.8 3.2
52.7 56.0 1845 56.1 56.4 -0.4
44.8 46.5 1282 41.5 41.5 5.0
36.5 38.5 1207 39.5 39.5 -1.0
46.9 47.5 1354 43.3 43.4 4.2
56.0 56.0 1801 55.0 55.3 0.7
50.5 50.5 1683 51.9 52.1 -1.6
40.3 44.7 1154 38.1 38.1 6.6
43.7 46.1 1731 53.2 53.4 -7.3
48.2 45.3 1444 45.7 45.8 -0.5
35.4 34.3 846 30.1 29.9 4.5
47.8 41.6 1413 44.9 45.0 -3.4
47.5 46.8 1610 50.0 50.2 -3.4
32.3 31.0 1425 45.2 45.3 -14.3
67.1 68.6 2304 68.1 68.6 0.0
48.1 44.9 1442 45.7 45.7 -0.8
40.0 40.6 1110 37.0 36.9 3.7
38.6 33.4 1000 34.1 34.0 -0.6
49.1 47.5 1376 43.9 44.0 3.6
75.7 73.2 2344 69.2 69.7 3.5
46.3 47.1 1347 43.2 43.2 3.9
49.2 49.4 1349 43.2 43.2 6.2
44.7 46.4 1359 43.5 43.5 2.9
51.6 50.4 2082 62.3 62.7 -12.3
37.9 41.8 1412 44.8 44.9 -3.1
62.9 66.8 1950 58.9 59.2 7.5
63.9 62.2 1749 53.7 53.9 8.3
43.5 43.7 1189 39.0 39.0 4.7
22.1 24.0 1019 34.6 34.5 -10.4
43.1 47.0 1425 45.2 45.3 1.7
48.6 47.5 1547 48.4 48.5 -1.0
22.7 23.4 766 28.0 27.8 -4.3
23.3 24.5 902 31.6 31.4 -6.9
51.2 50.2 1457 46.0 46.1 4.1
53.7 50.8 1629 50.5 50.7 0.1
47.9 50.5 1511 47.4 47.6 2.9
34.6 33.8 1185 38.9 38.9 -5.1
55.5 54.8 2015 60.6 60.9 -6.1
37.4 41.6 1002 34.2 34.0 7.6
58.3 57.9 1605 49.9 50.1 7.9
42.8 43.1 1570 49.0 49.1 -6.0
62.6 63.9 1903 57.7 58.0 5.9
46.6 45.3 1340 43.0 43.0 2.3
37.0 35.4 1234 40.2 40.2 -4.8
37.1 37.3 1471 46.4 46.5 -9.2
30.0 28.3 838 29.9 29.7 -1.4
57.6 58.9 1877 57.0 57.3 1.7
46.4 46.7 1395 44.4 44.5 2.3
62.8 63.8 1822 55.5 55.8 8.0
50.7 47.5 1517 47.6 47.7 -0.2
58.8 56.8 1665 51.5 51.7 5.1
47.3 44.4 1589 49.5 49.6 -5.2
25.5 27.4 864 30.6 30.4 -3.0
65.2 65.1 1806 55.1 55.4 9.7
35.8 32.6 1237 40.3 40.3 -7.6
40.7 40.0 1352 43.3 43.3 -3.3
64.3 61.1 1931 58.4 58.7 2.3
57.6 56.6 1982 59.7 60.1 -3.5
57.0 55.4 2012 60.5 60.9 -5.4
31.9 35.3 1383 44.1 44.1 -8.8
50.8 46.9 1715 52.8 53.0 -6.0
35.9 36.8 1227 40.0 40.0 -3.2
68.0 61.3 2151 64.1 64.6 -3.3
63.3 68.5 1993 60.0 60.4 8.2
39.2 42.4 1311 42.2 42.2 0.2
36.4 38.0 1365 43.6 43.7 -5.7
48.6 49.4 1631 50.6 50.7 -1.3
58.6 59.2 2023 60.8 61.1 -1.9
35.4 36.3 1198 39.3 39.2 -2.9
41.7 40.6 1652 51.1 51.3 -10.7
55.3 54.6 1548 48.4 48.5 6.1
49.9 56.9 1673 51.7 51.8 5.0
56.7 60.3 1637 50.7 50.9 9.4
52.6 52.8 1717 52.8 53.0 -0.3
37.0 39.9 1024 34.7 34.6 5.3
49.2 47.0 1585 49.4 49.5 -2.5
69.1 72.1 2140 63.8 64.3 7.9
68.9 69.6 2339 69.0 69.5 0.0
48.9 50.4 1692 52.2 52.4 -2.0
69.0 68.2 2369 69.8 70.3 -2.2
60.9 59.6 1693 52.2 52.4 7.2
51.5 50.0 1828 55.7 56.0 -6.0
53.4 49.0 1446 45.7 45.8 3.2
43.7 47.6 1230 40.1 40.1 7.5
47.3 52.6 1625 50.4 50.6 2.0
37.1 35.9 1140 37.8 37.7 -1.8
68.4 69.6 2216 65.8 66.3 3.3
19.1 16.4 797 28.8 28.6 -12.2
53.4 55.5 1428 45.3 45.4 10.2
74.7 76.8 2584 75.4 76.0 0.8
38.1 38.2 1880 57.1 57.3 -19.2
26.5 25.2 920 32.0 31.8 -6.7
39.4 45.4 1466 46.3 46.4 -0.9
39.7 39.4 760 27.9 27.6 11.8
54.2 52.2 1453 45.9 46.0 6.2
58.4 60.0 2064 61.9 62.2 -2.3
42.3 48.0 1320 42.5 42.5 5.5
45.4 50.4 1415 44.9 45.0 5.4
26.3 26.1 896 31.4 31.2 -5.1
51.1 56.0 1668 51.5 51.7 4.3
53.9 58.2 2042 61.3 61.7 -3.4
53.7 57.9 1796 54.9 55.1 2.8
51.1 51.2 1811 55.3 55.5 -4.3
45.1 41.8 1459 46.1 46.2 -4.3
42.8 42.0 1725 53.0 53.2 -11.2
53.8 53.8 2144 63.9 64.4 -10.5
42.6 36.9 1719 52.9 53.1 -16.1
28.9 23.5 1066 35.8 35.7 -12.2
56.8 59.3 1839 56.0 56.3 3.0
48.2 47.4 1413 44.9 44.9 2.5
36.1 34.0 1227 40.0 40.0 -6.0
67.7 72.3 1617 50.2 50.4 21.9
62.3 67.0 2146 64.0 64.4 2.6
54.6 52.0 2135 63.7 64.1 -12.1
41.8 42.2 1239 40.3 40.3 1.9
61.7 62.1 2305 68.1 68.6 -6.6
87.7 86.0 3206 91.7 92.6 -6.6
54.2 51.1 1629 50.5 50.7 0.4
47.3 47.7 1488 46.8 46.9 0.7
55.1 62.0 1787 54.6 54.9 7.1
48.4 55.0 1457 46.0 46.1 8.9
36.6 33.9 1244 40.5 40.5 -6.6
45.5 48.5 1424 45.2 45.2 3.2
61.6 63.0 1733 53.2 53.4 9.6
53.1 56.2 1734 53.3 53.5 2.7
61.6 65.2 2179 64.9 65.3 -0.1
45.2 40.6 1507 47.3 47.4 -6.9
45.7 46.9 1489 46.9 47.0 -0.1
36.8 39.3 1327 42.6 42.7 -3.3
45.4 44.6 1661 51.3 51.5 -6.9
32.4 34.7 1127 37.4 37.4 -2.7
56.1 59.8 1768 54.1 54.4 5.4
47.5 49.2 1646 51.0 51.1 -1.9
48.1 48.7 1429 45.3 45.4 3.3
52.3 47.7 1709 52.6 52.8 -5.1
57.8 57.5 1775 54.3 54.6 3.0
38.3 41.0 1188 39.0 39.0 2.0
53.1 53.6 1556 48.6 48.7 4.9
75.5 72.8 2234 66.3 66.8 6.1
62.7 62.4 2033 61.1 61.4 0.9
49.6 54.8 1550 48.5 48.6 6.2
51.7 53.0 1482 46.7 46.8 6.2
67.3 70.1 2337 69.0 69.5 0.6
44.6 43.3 1816 55.4 55.7 -12.3
36.2 41.6 1135 37.6 37.6 4.0
50.5 49.5 1766 54.1 54.3 -4.8
60.7 64.7 1997 60.1 60.5 4.2
31.0 31.7 1352 43.3 43.3 -11.6
63.3 57.1 2103 62.9 63.3 -6.2
60.6 60.9 2032 61.0 61.4 -0.5
64.3 65.8 2146 64.0 64.4 1.4
38.1 35.7 1221 39.9 39.8 -4.1
60.3 52.0 1624 50.4 50.6 1.4
69.5 69.0 2018 60.7 61.0 7.9
49.7 49.0 1362 43.6 43.6 5.4
63.9 63.3 2198 65.4 65.8 -2.5
38.0 36.1 1027 34.8 34.7 1.4
34.3 34.0 956 33.0 32.8 1.2
71.5 74.6 2191 65.2 65.6 9.0
37.1 37.6 1459 46.1 46.2 -8.5
46.5 47.5 1500 47.1 47.2 0.3
40.4 40.7 1627 50.5 50.6 -9.9
47.2 46.1 1626 50.4 50.6 -4.5
47.3 47.3 1864 56.7 56.9 -9.6
34.4 36.3 880 31.0 30.8 5.6
76.5 78.1 2374 69.9 70.5 7.7
34.8 34.3 825 29.6 29.3 4.9
29.7 26.5 1098 36.7 36.6 -10.1
38.8 41.4 985 33.7 33.6 7.8
36.9 39.4 1278 41.4 41.4 -2.0
41.7 42.5 1438 45.5 45.6 -3.1
53.0 46.2 1878 57.0 57.3 -11.0
40.9 41.6 1236 40.3 40.2 1.4
47.7 49.5 1692 52.2 52.4 -2.8
34.5 34.4 1137 37.7 37.6 -3.3
40.1 46.8 1392 44.3 44.4 2.4
30.6 28.9 926 32.2 32.0 -3.1
28.7 31.5 823 29.5 29.3 2.3
65.9 62.1 1911 57.9 58.2 4.0
30.7 33.8 900 31.5 31.3 2.5
37.3 35.6 1095 36.6 36.5 -0.9
43.8 45.9 1438 45.5 45.6 0.3
41.1 41.9 1488 46.8 46.9 -5.0
30.6 28.0 982 33.6 33.5 -5.5
59.9 58.5 1665 51.5 51.6 6.9
47.4 46.7 1318 42.4 42.4 4.2
58.7 61.2 1880 57.1 57.4 3.8
59.8 60.3 1772 54.2 54.5 5.8
71.6 68.6 2531 74.0 74.6 -6.0
58.0 57.4 1979 59.7 60.0 -2.5
45.5 38.5 1354 43.3 43.4 -4.9
66.3 66.3 2129 63.6 64.0 2.4
31.7 36.5 1106 36.9 36.8 -0.3
28.6 28.7 1131 37.5 37.5 -8.7
17.4 19.4 713 26.6 26.3 -6.9
64.2 63.4 1823 55.6 55.8 7.5
55.0 50.5 1809 55.2 55.5 -4.9
50.1 50.3 1760 53.9 54.2 -3.8
53.9 56.4 1985 59.8 60.1 -3.7
66.1 69.6 2039 61.2 61.6 8.1
70.4 71.7 2117 63.3 63.7 8.0
64.9 69.1 1984 59.8 60.1 9.0
56.9 50.5 1759 53.9 54.1 -3.7
55.9 59.5 1278 41.3 41.3 18.1
63.9 62.1 2053 61.6 62.0 0.2
56.6 60.8 1713 52.7 52.9 7.9
49.2 52.9 1768 54.1 54.4 -1.4
45.0 43.8 1386 44.2 44.2 -0.4
49.0 50.4 1746 53.6 53.8 -3.4
56.2 54.5 2046 61.4 61.8 -7.2
81.1 84.1 2477 72.6 73.2 10.9
55.3 51.3 2208 65.6 66.1 -14.8
35.0 40.7 1225 40.0 40.0 0.7
49.5 51.4 1877 57.0 57.3 -5.9
55.1 52.8 1899 57.6 57.9 -5.1
61.4 61.8 1676 51.7 51.9 9.8
57.3 59.6 1546 48.4 48.5 11.1
70.0 72.6 2033 61.1 61.4 11.1
55.9 53.0 1655 51.2 51.4 1.6
37.8 39.6 1373 43.8 43.9 -4.2
44.4 41.5 1373 43.8 43.9 -2.4
36.2 36.4 1518 47.6 47.7 -11.4
64.1 69.4 2093 62.6 63.0 6.4
67.7 65.6 2236 66.4 66.8 -1.3
37.7 38.4 1119 37.2 37.1 1.2
58.5 59.4 1968 59.4 59.7 -0.3
39.2 39.3 1304 42.0 42.0 -2.8
67.0 68.3 2074 62.1 62.5 5.8
25.2 27.0 699 26.3 26.0 1.0
72.1 70.9 2586 75.5 76.1 -5.2
61.8 63.2 1885 57.2 57.5 5.7
57.1 58.3 1628 50.5 50.7 7.7
55.9 53.9 1506 47.3 47.4 6.5
58.6 59.0 2084 62.4 62.8 -3.8
52.2 56.3 1877 57.0 57.3 -1.0
44.4 46.9 1346 43.1 43.2 3.8
30.6 30.8 1042 35.2 35.1 -4.2
33.9 34.8 1031 34.9 34.8 0.0
38.3 36.7 1270 41.2 41.1 -4.4
90.7 86.2 2796 80.9 81.7 4.5
31.2 33.1 850 30.2 30.0 3.1
36.6 40.6 946 32.7 32.5 8.1
54.9 53.5 1498 47.1 47.2 6.3
76.7 77.0 2483 72.8 73.4 3.6
61.9 63.9 1955 59.0 59.4 4.6
55.1 52.9 1809 55.2 55.5 -2.6
45.6 45.8 1469 46.3 46.4 -0.6
55.6 61.5 1972 59.5 59.8 1.7
41.4 40.2 1187 39.0 39.0 1.3
39.6 37.9 1366 43.7 43.7 -5.8
31.2 36.4 757 27.8 27.5 8.9
49.0 54.2 1554 48.6 48.7 5.6
52.0 49.2 1898 57.5 57.8 -8.6
32.2 32.1 1280 41.4 41.4 -9.3
29.4 30.4 835 29.8 29.6 0.8
30.3 27.6 674 25.6 25.3 2.3
58.1 60.5 1982 59.7 60.1 0.4
39.4 39.0 1380 44.0 44.1 -5.1
71.3 69.8 2353 69.4 69.9 -0.1
18.4 15.4 865 30.6 30.4 -15.0
59.6 57.1 1894 57.4 57.7 -0.7
42.1 43.3 1027 34.8 34.7 8.7
44.3 41.7 1654 51.2 51.4 -9.7
44.0 43.2 1190 39.1 39.0 4.2
54.0 54.3 1896 57.5 57.8 -3.5
33.4 42.4 764 28.0 27.7 14.7
48.6 49.0 1713 52.7 52.9 -4.0
61.2 61.4 1454 45.9 46.0 15.4
32.1 32.3 1225 40.0 40.0 -7.6
66.5 69.8 2115 63.2 63.6 6.2
48.2 47.7 1455 46.0 46.1 1.7
69.1 70.5 1863 56.6 56.9 13.6
43.5 43.9 1288 41.6 41.6 2.3
46.9 48.0 1278 41.4 41.4 6.6
42.5 44.9 1204 39.4 39.4 5.5
44.5 46.0 1790 54.7 55.0 -9.0
37.3 36.6 1192 39.1 39.1 -2.5
55.6 56.5 1792 54.8 55.0 1.5
50.6 52.0 1781 54.5 54.7 -2.8
80.2 78.5 2345 69.2 69.7 8.8
50.9 53.1 1794 54.8 55.1 -2.0
34.2 40.0 836 29.8 29.6 10.4
75.4 69.7 2373 69.9 70.5 -0.8
71.5 68.7 2296 67.9 68.4 0.3
58.6 58.9 1872 56.9 57.2 1.8
32.5 36.5 1460 46.1 46.2 -9.7
45.9 51.1 1742 53.5 53.7 -2.6
36.0 36.3 1426 45.2 45.3 -9.0
45.2 42.8 1552 48.5 48.6 -5.9
61.7 56.4 2104 62.9 63.3 -6.9
41.9 41.6 1244 40.5 40.5 1.1
61.2 63.5 1884 57.2 57.5 6.0
51.9 55.1 1537 48.1 48.2 6.9
64.6 64.9 2178 64.8 65.3 -0.4
35.8 38.2 1517 47.6 47.7 -9.5
44.9 40.8 1645 50.9 51.1 -10.3
54.1 56.3 1536 48.1 48.2 8.1
61.5 59.8 1867 56.7 57.0 2.8
41.9 39.6 1185 38.9 38.9 0.7
 40.1 40.7 1124 37.3 37.3 3.4
58.1 56.5 1567 48.9 49.0 7.4
49.3 44.3 1888 57.3 57.6 -13.3
50.4 54.9 1881 57.1 57.4 -2.4
44.3 46.5 1332 42.8 42.8 3.7
37.8 37.9 1209 39.6 39.5 -1.7
73.0 72.1 1987 59.8 60.2 11.9
63.8 63.2 2035 61.1 61.5 1.7
52.2 51.4 1607 49.9 50.1 1.3
54.0 52.9 1812 55.3 55.5 -2.7
29.4 30.7 935 32.4 32.2 -1.5
68.1 66.6 2547 74.5 75.1 -8.5
65.6 64.9 2064 61.9 62.2 2.6
44.6 45.2 1482 46.7 46.8 -1.6
47.4 43.6 1564 48.8 49.0 -5.4
42.9 41.4 1506 47.3 47.4 -6.0
46.5 49.3 1650 51.1 51.2 -1.9
46.5 51.8 1353 43.3 43.3 8.5
31.9 26.2 780 28.4 28.1 -1.9
36.9 38.1 1204 39.4 39.4 -1.3
36.3 37.7 1435 45.5 45.5 -7.8
57.8 59.1 1990 59.9 60.3 -1.2
59.5 59.9 1451 45.9 46.0 14.0
50.7 48.1 1866 56.7 57.0 -8.9
24.3 22.6 941 32.6 32.4 -9.8
30.2 27.9 1108 36.9 36.8 -8.9
22.6 18.4 860 30.5 30.2 -11.9
47.6 48.2 1230 40.1 40.1 8.1
25.0 21.9 480 20.6 20.2 1.8
57.3 60.7 2370 69.8 70.4 -9.7
45.3 44.1 1619 50.2 50.4 -6.3
38.3 42.8 1488 46.8 46.9 -4.2

True Hidden Predicted

values Criterion Y X Practical Y Practical Y Residuals
49.6 49.5 49.6 0.0
13.4 11.5 11.7 6.4

6.4
with real data.)

in these data.

Step 8
Reg-
Differences
vs Means ression
Ycrit - Yprac

25.0 equation
20.0 slope
15.0 0.16
10.0 intercept
5.0 -7.7
f(x) = 0.16x - 7.70
0.0
-5.0 0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0
-10.0
-15.0
BIAS
-20.0
-25.0 (Ycrit + Yprac)/2

Bland-Altman: means & differences

Step 8
(Criterion + Criterion -
Practical)/2 Practical
56.4 -3.9
84.9 -2.8
74.1 14.9
27.5 -2.9
43.2 8.4
61.2 2.7
70.0 6.4
55.6 1.4
58.1 3.1
49.4 -0.3
37.3 -3.5
58.5 13.4
62.6 -0.7
67.2 1.0
51.6 -3.8
25.0 -0.6
44.7 1.4
22.8 -8.6
54.0 0.5
43.2 -12.1
63.0 -1.2
38.3 -7.8
40.3 4.3
60.1 1.9
64.1 8.1
54.5 4.0
48.8 4.4
52.1 -0.4
49.7 -5.6
49.7 13.9
51.8 -11.1
75.7 5.5
62.8 9.5
55.7 11.9
78.1 0.1
53.4 3.4
60.8 -7.1
56.2 6.0
70.6 -3.0
34.3 -0.6
35.4 -7.2
42.5 4.3
36.6 -2.1
34.8 4.6
55.6 8.1
29.1 7.5
55.7 3.3
51.1 -2.9
50.7 -0.6
61.9 2.4
32.3 0.4
50.8 -2.5
50.5 1.4
46.7 -6.8
50.4 8.7
39.9 -0.3
47.8 -3.4
33.9 1.2
55.6 -2.0
40.2 1.6
42.5 -5.9
62.6 16.0
51.2 -13.7
49.6 -8.6
53.4 9.4
29.7 -6.4
33.1 -10.7
44.4 4.7
63.5 3.6
44.4 3.2
56.1 -0.2
44.0 5.0
39.0 -1.0
45.4 4.2
55.5 0.9
51.2 -1.4
41.4 6.5
49.7 -7.0
45.5 -0.4
32.2 4.2
43.2 -3.3
48.4 -3.2
38.1 -14.2
68.4 0.5
45.3 -0.8
38.8 3.6
33.7 -0.7
45.7 3.6
71.2 4.0
45.1 3.9
46.3 6.2
44.9 2.9
56.4 -11.9
43.3 -3.0
62.8 7.9
57.9 8.6
41.4 4.6
29.3 -10.6
46.1 1.8
47.9 -0.9
25.7 -4.6
28.0 -7.1
48.1 4.2
50.7 0.3
49.0 3.0
36.4 -5.2
57.7 -5.8
37.9 7.4
53.9 8.0
46.0 -5.9
60.8 6.2
44.1 2.4
37.8 -4.8
41.9 -9.1
29.1 -1.6
58.0 2.0
45.6 2.3
59.7 8.3
47.6 -0.1
54.1 5.3
47.0 -5.0
29.0 -3.2
60.1 9.9
36.4 -7.7
41.6 -3.3
59.7 2.6
58.2 -3.1
58.0 -5.1
39.7 -8.8
49.8 -5.8
38.4 -3.2
62.7 -2.9
64.3 8.5
42.3 0.2
40.8 -5.7
50.0 -1.2
60.0 -1.5
37.8 -3.0
45.9 -10.5
51.5 6.2
54.3 5.2
55.5 9.5
52.8 -0.1
37.3 5.2
48.2 -2.4
68.0 8.3
69.3 0.5
51.3 -1.8
69.0 -1.6
55.9 7.4
52.8 -5.7
47.4 3.3
43.8 7.5
51.5 2.1
36.9 -1.8
67.7 3.8
22.6 -12.4
50.4 10.2
76.1 1.4
47.6 -18.9
28.6 -6.9
45.9 -0.8
33.6 11.5
49.1 6.3
60.9 -1.9
45.2 5.6
47.7 5.4
28.8 -5.3
53.8 4.5
59.8 -3.1
56.4 3.0
53.2 -4.0
43.9 -4.2
47.5 -11.0
58.9 -10.1
44.9 -15.9
29.7 -12.3
57.6 3.2
46.2 2.6
37.0 -6.0
61.2 22.0
65.5 3.0
57.9 -11.7
41.3 1.8
65.1 -6.1
88.8 -5.7
50.8 0.6
47.3 0.8
58.3 7.4
50.5 8.9
37.2 -6.6
46.8 3.3
58.1 9.8
54.7 2.9
65.0 0.3
43.9 -6.8
46.9 0.0
41.0 -3.3
48.0 -6.7
36.1 -2.8
57.0 5.6
50.1 -1.8
47.0 3.4
50.1 -4.9
55.9 3.2
40.0 2.0
51.1 5.0
69.6 6.5
61.7 1.3
51.6 6.3
49.8 6.3
69.5 1.1
49.4 -12.1
39.6 3.9
51.8 -4.6
62.4 4.6
37.5 -11.5
60.0 -5.8
61.0 -0.1
64.9 1.8
37.8 -4.2
51.2 1.6
64.8 8.3
46.3 5.4
64.3 -2.0
35.4 1.3
33.5 1.0
69.9 9.4
41.9 -8.5
47.3 0.4
45.6 -9.8
48.3 -4.4
52.0 -9.3
33.7 5.4
74.0 8.2
31.9 4.7
31.6 -10.2
37.5 7.7
40.4 -2.0
44.0 -3.0
51.6 -10.8
40.9 1.4
50.8 -2.6
36.0 -3.3
45.6 2.4
30.6 -3.3
30.5 2.0
60.0 4.3
32.6 2.3
36.1 -1.0
45.7 0.3
44.4 -4.9
30.8 -5.7
55.0 7.1
44.5 4.3
59.1 4.1
57.3 6.0
71.3 -5.4
58.6 -2.2
40.9 -4.8
64.9 2.8
36.7 -0.4
33.1 -8.8
23.0 -7.2
59.5 7.8
52.9 -4.7
52.1 -3.6
58.1 -3.4
65.4 8.4
67.5 8.4
64.4 9.3
52.2 -3.4
50.4 18.1
61.9 0.6
56.7 8.1
53.5 -1.2
44.0 -0.4
52.0 -3.2
58.0 -6.9
78.4 11.4
58.4 -14.4
40.3 0.7
54.2 -5.6
55.2 -4.8
56.7 10.0
54.0 11.2
66.8 11.5
52.1 1.8
41.7 -4.2
42.7 -2.4
42.0 -11.2
66.0 6.8
66.0 -0.8
37.8 1.1
59.4 0.0
40.7 -2.8
65.2 6.2
26.6 0.7
73.2 -4.6
60.2 6.0
54.4 7.8
50.6 6.6
60.7 -3.4
56.6 -0.7
45.0 3.8
33.0 -4.4
34.8 -0.2
38.9 -4.4
83.6 5.2
31.6 2.9
36.7 7.9
50.3 6.4
74.9 4.2
61.5 4.9
54.1 -2.3
46.1 -0.5
60.5 2.0
39.6 1.2
40.8 -5.7
32.1 8.6
51.4 5.7
53.4 -8.3
36.8 -9.3
30.1 0.6
26.6 2.0
60.1 0.7
41.5 -5.1
69.6 0.4
23.0 -15.2
57.2 -0.4
39.1 8.5
46.4 -9.5
41.1 4.1
55.9 -3.2
35.2 14.4
50.8 -3.8
53.7 15.5
36.2 -7.7
66.5 6.6
46.8 1.7
63.6 13.9
42.8 2.3
44.7 6.6
42.2 5.5
50.3 -8.8
37.8 -2.5
55.6 1.7
53.2 -2.5
73.8 9.3
54.0 -1.8
34.9 10.2
69.8 -0.2
68.3 0.8
57.9 2.1
41.3 -9.6
52.3 -2.4
40.8 -8.9
45.6 -5.7
59.6 -6.5
41.0 1.1
60.3 6.3
51.6 7.0
64.8 0.0
42.9 -9.4
45.9 -10.2
52.2 8.2
58.3 3.0
39.3 0.7
 39.0 3.3
52.7 7.6
50.8 -13.0
56.0 -2.1
44.6 3.7
38.7 -1.7
66.0 12.3
62.2 2.1
50.7 1.5
54.1 -2.4
31.6 -1.7
70.5 -7.9
63.4 3.0
46.0 -1.5
46.2 -5.3
44.3 -5.9
50.2 -1.8
47.6 8.5
27.3 -2.2
38.8 -1.3
41.6 -7.7
59.5 -0.9
52.9 14.1
52.4 -8.6
27.6 -9.9
32.4 -9.0
24.4 -12.1
44.1 8.1
21.2 1.4
65.3 -9.2
47.2 -6.1
44.8 -4.1

(Criterion + Criterion -
Practical)/2 Practical
0.1
6.4
Artifactual Bias in Measures Differing Only in Random Error
Step 1 Generate true values of a variable for a sample of 400 subjects from a population having a true mean (M) a
Each subject's true value = M + SD*(a normally distributed random number with mean=0 and standard dev
Step 2 Generate observed values of two measures Y1 and Y2 from each subject's true value.
Each subject's observed value = slope*(true value) + intercept + error*(a normally distributed random num
Step 3 Bland-Altman plot for Measures Y1 and Y2.
Change the error for each measure and change the SD for the true values to get various amounts of bias.
Bias will be present whenever error for Y1 is dfferent from error for Y2, and either is not too small relative to

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Differences
True Measure Measure vs Means
values Y1 Y2 8.0
mean slope slope 6.0

Y1 - Y2
20 1 1 4.0
SD intercept intercept 2.0
5 0 0 0.0 f(x) = - 0.07x + 1.16
error error -2.0 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0
1 2 -4.0
-6.0 BIAS
-8.0
-10.0 (Y1+Y2)/2

Individual values
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
True Measure Measure
Subject values Y1 Y2 Y1-Y2 (Y1+Y2)/2
Jo 24.6 24.5 23.1 1.4 23.8
Alison 17.8 17.1 19.2 -2.1 18.1
Val 23.3 24.7 21.3 3.5 23.0
etc. 15.8 16.3 14.5 1.7 15.4
20.2 19.3 21.1 -1.8 20.2
17.3 18.0 18.0 0.0 18.0
21.7 21.1 21.0 0.2 21.0
25.0 25.2 23.7 1.4 24.5
26.9 26.7 26.3 0.4 26.5
28.6 28.2 30.0 -1.9 29.1
17.1 17.6 19.9 -2.4 18.8
19.1 19.6 18.7 1.0 19.1
14.7 15.6 15.2 0.4 15.4
15.8 15.1 17.5 -2.4 16.3
14.5 14.4 11.8 2.6 13.1
22.2 23.3 23.0 0.3 23.1
21.1 20.5 23.1 -2.6 21.8
14.2 12.9 14.1 -1.2 13.5
31.4 31.5 34.3 -2.9 32.9
25.8 27.3 24.9 2.4 26.1
18.0 16.6 16.8 -0.2 16.7
25.1 24.5 26.0 -1.5 25.2
15.0 14.9 16.8 -1.9 15.9
31.4 31.9 35.5 -3.6 33.7
21.4 21.5 20.4 1.1 20.9
25.5 26.3 25.9 0.5 26.1
15.9 16.3 15.3 1.0 15.8
15.2 14.5 18.2 -3.7 16.4
11.2 12.7 8.4 4.3 10.5
18.1 19.5 18.7 0.8 19.1
16.2 15.7 16.3 -0.6 16.0
20.1 18.3 24.0 -5.7 21.2
20.8 21.2 18.8 2.3 20.0
18.3 20.1 16.9 3.3 18.5
24.5 25.1 24.5 0.6 24.8
12.1 12.6 13.0 -0.5 12.8
22.4 22.6 24.8 -2.2 23.7
17.8 16.6 17.0 -0.4 16.8
15.6 15.0 11.2 3.8 13.1
17.6 18.0 16.9 1.1 17.4
21.7 22.2 18.5 3.7 20.4
26.9 26.4 27.2 -0.8 26.8
18.9 18.6 18.9 -0.4 18.8
19.2 17.9 18.7 -0.8 18.3
22.5 20.3 19.7 0.6 20.0
13.9 13.3 14.2 -0.9 13.8
20.8 19.8 25.1 -5.3 22.4
20.6 20.6 21.2 -0.6 20.9
17.5 19.4 18.0 1.4 18.7
25.2 25.3 27.4 -2.1 26.3
22.4 23.0 22.2 0.8 22.6
18.2 17.7 17.6 0.0 17.7
16.8 16.5 15.3 1.2 15.9
20.1 18.7 21.8 -3.1 20.3
24.5 23.9 25.4 -1.5 24.6
20.3 17.5 24.9 -7.4 21.2
20.2 21.9 18.8 3.1 20.4
20.9 21.5 25.4 -3.9 23.4
15.9 15.6 12.9 2.8 14.2
17.8 16.4 15.8 0.5 16.1
23.4 21.9 20.5 1.4 21.2
17.4 16.6 15.6 1.0 16.1
24.0 24.8 20.1 4.7 22.5
13.0 15.6 14.8 0.8 15.2
9.6 8.3 9.6 -1.2 8.9
17.3 17.3 17.0 0.2 17.2
22.7 25.0 25.3 -0.3 25.1
20.5 21.1 20.9 0.2 21.0
10.9 9.6 15.3 -5.8 12.4
14.1 14.9 15.7 -0.8 15.3
25.1 25.0 27.4 -2.4 26.2
24.7 25.5 26.5 -0.9 26.0
22.9 23.4 22.6 0.8 23.0
17.5 18.3 19.7 -1.3 19.0
15.2 16.8 15.3 1.6 16.1
23.1 22.2 22.7 -0.4 22.4
11.9 13.6 14.0 -0.4 13.8
20.8 21.6 22.5 -0.8 22.1
17.5 17.4 19.7 -2.3 18.5
26.6 26.3 27.4 -1.1 26.9
19.8 20.3 18.6 1.7 19.4
14.1 14.4 14.9 -0.5 14.6
21.5 21.2 20.2 1.0 20.7
22.0 22.5 18.7 3.8 20.6
21.3 22.4 23.7 -1.3 23.0
15.4 16.6 14.3 2.2 15.4
18.1 18.8 17.0 1.9 17.9
19.3 19.9 22.7 -2.9 21.3
18.9 17.7 18.7 -1.0 18.2
22.2 21.4 22.1 -0.7 21.7
15.8 15.6 16.0 -0.3 15.8
12.1 10.9 10.4 0.4 10.6
22.8 22.0 21.3 0.6 21.7
15.2 15.7 15.9 -0.2 15.8
18.4 17.9 21.7 -3.8 19.8
17.5 18.7 13.5 5.2 16.1
17.0 17.1 16.9 0.3 17.0
17.3 16.2 18.6 -2.4 17.4
15.3 16.9 14.5 2.5 15.7
15.7 16.5 16.0 0.5 16.3
25.9 26.4 27.1 -0.8 26.7
19.8 18.6 17.6 1.1 18.1
24.5 25.1 24.1 1.0 24.6
21.8 22.5 21.0 1.6 21.8
16.5 16.1 16.3 -0.2 16.2
19.5 20.2 21.7 -1.4 20.9
26.3 27.2 27.2 0.0 27.2
20.6 20.5 23.1 -2.6 21.8
24.8 24.5 25.2 -0.7 24.9
18.6 17.7 19.3 -1.6 18.5
22.3 22.4 23.4 -1.1 22.9
16.7 17.9 14.1 3.8 16.0
19.4 19.8 20.0 -0.2 19.9
14.9 14.2 14.9 -0.8 14.6
13.9 15.1 13.7 1.4 14.4
25.4 26.9 26.9 -0.1 26.9
15.2 15.8 13.6 2.3 14.7
14.7 15.8 15.8 0.1 15.8
18.4 17.8 19.7 -1.9 18.8
26.4 26.1 26.3 -0.2 26.2
22.7 22.1 22.6 -0.5 22.4
13.6 12.1 15.2 -3.1 13.6
21.9 22.2 21.6 0.6 21.9
14.0 14.3 11.7 2.6 13.0
34.3 35.9 35.9 0.0 35.9
25.2 25.3 25.6 -0.3 25.4
23.4 24.4 23.6 0.8 24.0
14.7 13.6 16.4 -2.8 15.0
17.3 17.1 14.5 2.6 15.8
18.3 18.2 20.7 -2.5 19.4
17.6 16.7 18.4 -1.6 17.5
18.2 17.7 13.6 4.1 15.7
29.1 30.1 26.1 4.0 28.1
17.9 18.4 20.8 -2.4 19.6
17.7 17.2 20.7 -3.5 18.9
10.6 10.6 11.8 -1.2 11.2
14.7 14.7 14.7 -0.1 14.7
23.4 22.5 22.3 0.2 22.4
22.6 22.9 23.3 -0.4 23.1
20.1 20.0 21.6 -1.5 20.8
18.4 18.6 20.1 -1.6 19.3
16.9 14.1 17.2 -3.1 15.6
22.8 20.7 27.3 -6.5 24.0
14.8 15.6 16.0 -0.4 15.8
13.8 15.6 15.1 0.4 15.4
19.3 20.8 22.4 -1.5 21.6
10.3 10.6 11.6 -1.0 11.1
18.7 18.5 17.3 1.1 17.9
13.9 15.6 15.1 0.4 15.3
25.4 26.0 24.3 1.7 25.1
20.8 19.0 19.3 -0.3 19.2
29.8 28.8 27.1 1.7 28.0
15.3 14.0 13.4 0.6 13.7
21.6 21.9 24.3 -2.4 23.1
20.7 19.6 18.7 0.9 19.1
18.3 16.6 19.5 -2.9 18.0
23.6 22.9 27.7 -4.8 25.3
22.7 22.8 26.5 -3.7 24.7
14.3 15.5 15.2 0.3 15.3
19.7 21.2 19.6 1.6 20.4
15.8 13.3 14.6 -1.4 14.0
21.8 22.2 22.2 0.0 22.2
25.8 25.0 23.1 1.9 24.1
20.4 21.1 19.3 1.8 20.2
19.6 20.2 21.2 -1.0 20.7
27.7 26.7 28.3 -1.6 27.5
20.3 20.2 18.9 1.3 19.6
18.3 19.2 22.8 -3.6 21.0
19.1 19.0 22.6 -3.7 20.8
23.2 21.9 23.5 -1.6 22.7
22.3 21.7 25.1 -3.4 23.4
23.7 23.1 23.4 -0.2 23.3
19.8 18.9 19.7 -0.8 19.3
13.9 13.8 15.4 -1.6 14.6
16.9 16.0 18.3 -2.3 17.1
9.2 10.5 7.3 3.2 8.9
20.5 21.3 18.4 3.0 19.8
18.2 17.8 14.4 3.4 16.1
13.6 13.6 11.4 2.2 12.5
25.0 24.5 27.3 -2.9 25.9
15.0 14.4 16.6 -2.1 15.5
17.0 16.2 19.4 -3.2 17.8
17.8 18.4 18.3 0.1 18.4
16.9 17.9 13.6 4.3 15.8
27.9 28.1 30.0 -1.9 29.0
18.5 18.9 22.7 -3.9 20.8
22.4 22.8 19.2 3.6 21.0
17.3 20.6 18.7 1.9 19.7
25.7 26.8 25.9 0.9 26.4
12.0 12.4 15.8 -3.4 14.1
11.1 9.9 9.6 0.3 9.7
17.7 17.2 15.5 1.7 16.3
21.5 21.7 19.7 2.0 20.7
25.3 25.0 22.4 2.6 23.7
21.5 21.9 23.7 -1.8 22.8
32.5 32.8 32.7 0.1 32.8
16.0 14.9 17.9 -3.0 16.4
17.8 19.0 17.8 1.3 18.4
18.1 18.0 16.0 2.0 17.0
19.9 19.4 18.3 1.2 18.8
17.0 17.8 20.1 -2.3 18.9
14.1 13.5 13.8 -0.3 13.7
23.8 23.8 25.2 -1.4 24.5
26.4 26.3 23.3 3.0 24.8
29.3 30.8 28.8 2.0 29.8
23.0 23.4 21.7 1.7 22.6
17.3 16.2 19.0 -2.8 17.6
20.9 21.6 20.6 1.1 21.1
15.3 18.4 14.4 4.0 16.4
19.6 20.2 22.0 -1.8 21.1
16.5 15.7 16.2 -0.4 15.9
27.6 30.2 30.1 0.1 30.2
28.1 28.7 28.5 0.2 28.6
21.5 21.8 21.6 0.1 21.7
16.9 14.9 16.3 -1.4 15.6
14.9 15.1 11.1 4.0 13.1
21.5 22.6 23.2 -0.6 22.9
16.3 16.1 16.8 -0.8 16.4
25.4 24.3 23.7 0.6 24.0
21.5 21.1 19.3 1.9 20.2
26.5 26.8 29.1 -2.4 28.0
14.2 14.1 15.2 -1.0 14.7
16.1 16.5 16.8 -0.3 16.6
23.6 23.4 20.6 2.8 22.0
20.4 19.9 19.6 0.2 19.8
24.4 24.5 27.3 -2.8 25.9
20.4 20.8 24.5 -3.8 22.7
23.6 24.0 25.9 -1.9 25.0
21.4 22.3 22.0 0.2 22.1
35.1 33.9 38.4 -4.6 36.1
26.6 26.2 24.4 1.8 25.3
16.9 18.9 20.0 -1.1 19.5
16.5 17.1 16.1 1.1 16.6
18.8 19.4 16.1 3.4 17.8
27.9 28.5 29.0 -0.5 28.8
14.6 13.9 14.3 -0.4 14.1
15.9 16.7 17.5 -0.9 17.1
22.5 21.1 20.4 0.7 20.8
27.1 27.5 29.5 -2.0 28.5
24.0 24.2 23.2 1.0 23.7
17.8 17.9 18.2 -0.3 18.1
19.1 18.7 19.5 -0.8 19.1
22.8 23.7 20.9 2.8 22.3
23.3 23.5 24.3 -0.7 23.9
14.3 13.6 17.3 -3.8 15.5
22.5 22.0 15.4 6.6 18.7
16.1 16.4 14.9 1.5 15.6
15.5 15.9 17.0 -1.1 16.5
21.1 22.4 16.0 6.4 19.2
22.2 21.0 25.9 -4.9 23.4
19.8 20.3 21.3 -1.0 20.8
17.3 17.9 19.7 -1.8 18.8
12.0 11.3 11.1 0.1 11.2
18.0 19.6 17.8 1.8 18.7
25.4 23.7 27.2 -3.5 25.5
8.3 8.2 10.0 -1.8 9.1
24.1 24.5 25.5 -1.0 25.0
17.0 16.9 19.8 -2.9 18.4
25.1 24.8 24.7 0.2 24.8
14.2 13.3 12.4 0.9 12.9
14.4 14.8 14.9 -0.1 14.8
23.9 22.7 25.2 -2.4 24.0
27.4 28.0 27.3 0.7 27.7
13.8 12.5 11.3 1.2 11.9
21.3 22.3 22.2 0.1 22.3
18.5 19.4 18.4 1.0 18.9
23.7 25.1 24.0 1.1 24.5
17.9 18.9 20.4 -1.4 19.7
18.8 18.6 17.2 1.4 17.9
15.9 16.3 15.8 0.5 16.1
26.5 28.1 24.4 3.7 26.3
22.5 22.3 23.2 -0.9 22.8
27.0 28.5 26.3 2.1 27.4
19.0 16.7 19.2 -2.5 17.9
18.5 18.2 14.8 3.4 16.5
17.4 17.6 18.7 -1.1 18.2
27.3 27.7 26.9 0.8 27.3
21.9 20.4 25.3 -4.9 22.9
15.6 16.9 15.9 1.0 16.4
15.9 16.6 13.8 2.9 15.2
24.7 25.6 27.5 -1.9 26.5
18.5 17.2 19.7 -2.5 18.5
24.0 23.5 25.0 -1.5 24.2
22.1 23.1 22.5 0.5 22.8
20.6 20.3 19.1 1.2 19.7
12.7 12.2 13.0 -0.8 12.6
17.0 16.8 18.1 -1.3 17.5
15.2 15.9 14.4 1.5 15.2
23.0 23.3 24.0 -0.6 23.7
17.9 18.1 18.2 -0.1 18.2
17.5 19.1 17.9 1.2 18.5
20.0 20.8 19.9 1.0 20.4
18.4 19.2 19.3 -0.1 19.2
15.9 14.0 20.2 -6.2 17.1
16.9 17.6 15.8 1.8 16.7
12.4 10.9 11.7 -0.8 11.3
26.2 26.6 29.5 -2.9 28.0
14.5 12.9 16.5 -3.6 14.7
22.2 22.4 22.1 0.3 22.2
18.7 19.5 18.9 0.5 19.2
19.7 22.6 23.3 -0.6 23.0
18.0 18.3 17.4 1.0 17.8
21.1 21.7 21.9 -0.2 21.8
17.1 18.1 12.8 5.3 15.5
25.7 24.4 25.7 -1.3 25.0
26.3 26.9 26.0 0.9 26.4
14.6 14.8 13.9 0.8 14.3
14.9 13.6 18.9 -5.2 16.2
21.2 21.0 19.4 1.6 20.2
27.3 26.5 26.3 0.2 26.4
27.8 26.8 27.1 -0.4 27.0
27.6 27.8 26.8 1.0 27.3
20.0 21.8 22.4 -0.6 22.1
14.2 14.4 18.8 -4.4 16.6
21.2 21.9 17.5 4.4 19.7
17.5 17.2 15.7 1.5 16.4
17.4 16.9 16.1 0.8 16.5
24.0 25.0 25.2 -0.2 25.1
21.6 22.3 18.9 3.4 20.6
21.5 22.8 21.6 1.2 22.2
21.7 22.7 25.8 -3.1 24.2
7.1 4.9 9.3 -4.4 7.1
14.1 14.3 16.4 -2.1 15.4
20.7 20.0 25.5 -5.5 22.8
22.0 21.6 22.7 -1.2 22.1
18.4 18.3 20.5 -2.2 19.4
19.9 19.2 21.3 -2.1 20.3
17.7 18.0 19.2 -1.2 18.6
17.3 17.2 18.5 -1.3 17.9
24.4 24.9 24.1 0.8 24.5
19.8 21.5 17.7 3.9 19.6
17.9 18.8 16.0 2.8 17.4
15.9 15.2 17.1 -1.9 16.1
23.6 24.0 20.3 3.7 22.2
14.1 16.3 12.1 4.2 14.2
18.1 19.0 17.1 1.9 18.0
24.7 24.9 26.0 -1.1 25.4
21.1 21.9 19.3 2.6 20.6
21.2 19.8 22.5 -2.7 21.2
26.2 25.0 26.0 -1.0 25.5
23.3 21.8 24.2 -2.4 23.0
6.4 6.3 0.0 6.3 3.2
18.7 17.4 18.3 -0.9 17.8
11.6 11.5 12.1 -0.6 11.8
24.1 23.7 24.1 -0.4 23.9
16.6 16.2 18.8 -2.5 17.5
24.0 23.6 22.5 1.0 23.0
11.0 10.6 13.8 -3.2 12.2
21.0 21.5 24.0 -2.5 22.7
21.0 20.4 18.1 2.3 19.3
22.9 24.7 23.9 0.8 24.3
23.3 23.6 25.5 -2.0 24.6
21.0 20.7 19.0 1.7 19.9
20.5 19.3 21.3 -2.0 20.3
15.5 14.8 13.8 1.0 14.3
12.4 12.5 13.4 -0.9 13.0
23.0 22.1 23.8 -1.7 23.0
22.0 22.0 20.2 1.8 21.1
26.7 26.4 25.6 0.8 26.0
13.9 14.5 12.5 2.0 13.5
15.3 13.2 17.0 -3.8 15.1
27.2 26.9 24.7 2.2 25.8
18.2 17.2 19.9 -2.7 18.5
11.1 10.6 12.5 -1.9 11.6
14.6 16.2 10.9 5.2 13.5
29.7 28.6 29.8 -1.2 29.2
27.7 27.5 25.1 2.4 26.3
21.4 21.9 24.6 -2.7 23.3
20.8 20.3 23.8 -3.6 22.0
22.5 21.5 23.1 -1.6 22.3
24.3 26.0 26.0 -0.1 26.0
23.1 22.6 25.6 -3.0 24.1
14.4 15.0 12.6 2.4 13.8
20.2 22.1 19.9 2.2 21.0
22.3 22.3 27.1 -4.9 24.7
18.6 19.9 18.4 1.5 19.2
17.0 17.7 19.7 -2.0 18.7
15.8 14.5 16.5 -2.0 15.5
15.5 15.5 15.2 0.2 15.3
23.7 24.5 24.0 0.5 24.2
20.4 19.9 20.0 -0.1 19.9
15.0 13.6 15.1 -1.5 14.4
22.6 22.6 25.3 -2.7 23.9
18.6 18.4 18.2 0.2 18.3
19.7 19.9 17.9 2.0 18.9
22.7 21.9 21.0 0.9 21.5
27.1 27.4 26.2 1.2 26.8
 22.5 21.6 20.5 1.1 21.0
33.2 33.4 31.7 1.7 32.5
18.1 18.2 16.2 1.9 17.2
21.4 21.2 22.1 -0.9 21.7
23.4 23.3 23.9 -0.6 23.6
19.0 19.8 16.4 3.4 18.1
17.4 15.8 21.9 -6.1 18.9
19.8 19.8 15.6 4.3 17.7
20.1 18.3 21.1 -2.8 19.7
17.5 16.7 18.1 -1.3 17.4
20.7 19.6 26.0 -6.4 22.8
17.4 17.9 15.1 2.8 16.5
15.8 16.4 16.3 0.1 16.4

True
Subject values Measure Y1
Measure Y2
mean 19.8 19.9 20.0
SD 4.6 4.8 5.1
N 400
SEE 2.2
n having a true mean (M) and standard deviation (SD).
mean=0 and standard deviation=1).

ly distributed random number with mean=0 and SD=1).

various amounts of bias.

r is not too small relative to SD of true values.