CHAPTER 1

Introduction
Human activities generate three broad sources of air pollution:
stationary or point, mobile, and indoor. In developing countries such as
India especially in the rural area, indoor air pollution from using open
fires for cooking and heating may be a serious problem. Industries,
power plants etc. are the cause of stationary air pollution. But in urban
areas both developing and developed countries, it is predominantly
vehicular pollution that contributes to overall air quality problem.

The pollution from vehicles are due to discharges like CO, unburned HC,
Pb compounds, NOx, and suspended particulate matter (SPM) mainly
from the tail pipes. The Hindustan times, a leading Indian daily has
conducted a survey and forthcoming results suggests a rise of 8-10 % in
motorized vehicles in the major metropolitan cities of the country which
would cause a large amount of air pollution in India.

India have targeted vehicles and associated sectors (such as fuel) to

curb the menace. Notable successful initiatives are: conversion of public
transport from diesel to CNG in Delhi, shifting from leaded to unleaded
Petrol in India. Still the pollution problem in urban cities may continue
due to increasing vehicular population, which is outpacing any such
measure and road network development.

1.1 Effects on human

The worst thing about vehicular pollution is that it cannot be avoided as

the emissions are emitted at the near-ground level where we breathe.
Pollution from vehicles gets reflected in increased health problems and
is revealed through symptoms like cough, headache, and nausea,

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irritation of eyes, various bronchial problems and visibility. Common
health effects due to the different pollutants are shown in table 1.

Table 1.1 Different Pollutants effects on human health

POLLUTANT EFFECT ON HUMAN HEALTH

Carbon monoxide CO Affects the cardio vascular system,

exacerbating cardiovascular
disease

symptoms, particularly angina;

may also

particularly affect fetuses, sick,

anemic and

young children, affects nervous

system

impairing physical coordination,

vision and

judgments, creating nausea and

headaches,

reducing productivity and

increasing

Personal discomfort.

Nitrogen Oxides NOx Increased susceptibility to

infections,

pulmonary diseases, impairment of

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 lung

function and eye, nose and throat

irritations.

Suspended particulate Matter(SPM) Fine particulate matter may be

and toxic in itself or may carry toxic
(including carcinogenic) trace
Respirable Particulate Matter
substance, and can alter the
(RPM)
immune system. Fine particulates
penetrate deep into the respiratory
system irritating lung tissue and
causing long-term disorders.

Lead Pb Impairs liver and kidney, causes

brain

damage in children resulting in

lower I.Q., hyperactivity and
reduced ability to Concentrate.

Source: Pollution control board, Delhi

1.2 Variables influencing emission rates

The variables can be classified into different categories as distance

related, weather related, vehicle related, roadway related, traffic related
and driver related factors. Weather related factors account for
temperature and wind effects. Vehicle related factor include condition of
engine, engine size, whether vehicle is equipped with catalyst
converter, roadway related factors account roadway grade and surface
roughness, while traffic related factors include vehicle to vehicle
interaction.

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1.3 Emission factors

An emission factor is a representative value that tries to relate the

quantity of a pollutant released to the atmosphere with an activity
associated with the release of that pollutant. These factors are generally
expressed as the weight of pollutant divided by a unit weight, volume,
distance, or duration of the activity emitting the pollutant (e. g. g/Km).
Such factors facilitate estimation of emissions from various sources of
air pollution. Emission factors may be appropriate to use in a number of
situations such as making source-specific emission estimates for a
particular area.

1.2 Emissions from Petrol Vehicles

Two wheelers in India using petrol are mainly of three types: 4-stroke,2-
stroke and without gear. The exhaust emissions from petrol-run vehicles
consist of CO, HC, NOx, SO2, and partial oxides of aldehydes, besides
particulate matters including lead salts. The incomplete combustion of
petrol due to an imbalance in the air-fuel ratio leads to emissions of CO
and HC especially from 2-stroke engines. The NOx, however, are formed
due to high combustion temperature and availability of oxygen and
nitrogen in the combustion chamber, whereas aldehydes result from the
partial oxidation of HC. Table 2 shows the various sources of emissions
in different cases.

Table 1.2 Emission from petrol vehicle

Source Emissi Amount Remarks

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 on %

4 2 stroke
stroke

1 Crank base blow 20 0 Carbureted air-fuel mixture &

by combustion fuel under
pressure escape combustion
chamber past engine piston
and ring and enter crank base
to be discharged into
atmosphere through vents

2 Evaporative 20 3 Fuel vapors lost to the

atmosphere from tanks and
Emissions
carburetor

3 Exhaust 60 97 Exhaust gases emitted with

Emissions pollutants through the tailpipe

Source: CPCB (1999)

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 CHAPTER
2

Problem Definition and Project Objectives

Key problem to be addressed by this work are following:

(1) What are the actual emission of pollutants from 2-wheeler (petrol)
and light 4 wheeler (petrol) vehicles with respect to instantaneous
speed?

(2) What factors (weather, road grade, traffic conditions etc.) contribute
the most to high emission or fuel use?

(3) What operational strategies can be demonstrated and verified with

respect to reduction in high emission.

(4) How we can apply the derived relation to estimate future pollutant
levels.

The objective of this project is to derive a relationship between the

Vehicular emission and the instantaneous speed from the field data;
Identify factors responsible for variability in emissions under weather,
traffic conditions, and road conditions.

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 CHAPTER 3

Literature Review
A number of studies has been done in this field i.e. speed vs emission of
vehicle. Most of the works were done in the developed Countries in the
past and that has resulted in development of many softwares which
ease the prediction work. Example of such tool is COPERT IV program.
For country like India which has 2nd largest population in the world, such
method and softwares have to be developed for forecast of future
problems and solutions.

3.1 Available literature in India:

ARAI (The Automotive Research Association of India) draft report(2007)

on “Emission factor development for Indian vehicle” includes the
identification of factors responsible for vehicular emission, reduction
measures and improving fuel quality and achieving desired ambient air
quality. Effects of different transport fuel parameters are summarized in
the draft report, 2007. Study mentions about the pollutants discharged
from transport sector evaluated for the years 2000, 2005, 2010.

Total emission from any pollutant (Etotal) was related as a sum of hot
(Ehot) and cold emissions (Ecold).

Etotal= Ehot + Ecold (1)

Total Emission from any pollutant (Etotal) under different driving

conditions related with respect to urban (Eurban) , rural (Erural) and
highway (Ehighway) driving emissions.

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Etotal=(Eurban) + (Erural) + (Ehighway) (2)

Calculation of the total emission is made by combining each vehicle

category with appropriate emission factors.

3.2 Available International literature:

C. Trozzi, Vaccaro, S. Crocetti (1996) has taken into account the

Emission with speed frequency distribution which is related to traffic
conditions.

Eijl = hjl vjl [ 1+ Bjl(Qijl – 1)] [ k=1.13 ∑ djkl Fhotijkl ] [refer page vii for
abbreviations] (3)

Kyoungho Ahn, Hesham Rakha (2002) considered instantaneous speed

and acceleration levels and developed a model which estimated the
vehicle fuel consumption and Emissions. That model can be integrated
into traffic network simulators to make better policies, traffic signal
coordination.

Lan Yue, has done studies on emission of vehicle with respect to the
road grade in mountainous region. He concluded that environment
temperature plays major role in emission.

Z. Ning, C.S.Cheung (2004) have done experimental studies regarding

emission of vehicles in idle condition . Pollutant Concentration is high
under idle condition due to poor combustion condition inside the engine
cylinder.

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 CHAPTER 4

Methodology
Basic combustion chemistry equation:

Fuel (hydrogen, carbon, sulphur) + Air(Nitrogen, Oxygen) = carbon

dioxide + water vapour + oxygen + carbon monoxide+ hydrocarbon+
oxides of nitrogen + sulphur dioxide (4)

4.1 Pollutants considered

1. Carbon Monoxide (CO)

2. Hydrocarbon (HC)

3. Carbon dioxide (CO2)

4. Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)

4.2 Data Collection

The experimental work in the Project requires the simultaneous

measurement of speed of the vehicle and emission of pollutants from
the vehicle at the same time. For the purpose we are using (1) Auto-gas
analyzer (A.G.A) (2) L.E.D tachometer.

Auto-gas analyzer is very helpful in getting emission of pollutants. The

five gasses measured are HC, CO, CO2, O2, NOx. It measures emission
only for vehicles running on Petrol and C.N.G. (compressed natural gas).

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Traditionally people use chassis dynamometer for getting speed of
vehicle in standing condition. We would be using an alternate approach
to measure speed of vehicle in standing position by measuring the rpm
of the rear wheel (because speedometer is connected to front wheel in 2
wheeler vehicle). Measurement is done by use of non-contact digital
LED tachometer, which measures the rpm of wheel.Setup is shown in
Figure 1.

Figure 1: Experimental setup for measurement of pollutants and Speed

simultaneously.

A.G.A probe was inserted in the tail pipe of the vehicle. We kept a paper
sticker on the rear wheel and tachometer was pointed to that sticker
and started vehicle in standing condition. After giving some throttle,

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vehicle attained a certain speed. Throttle was kept constant at that
time. RPM was measured from the tachometer and emission was noted
down at the same time. For the next reading we increased speed by
giving again more throttle and measurement was done. Limitation to
this method was that we cannot go beyond 45-50 Km/hr. because it was
dangerous to go at such high speed without any aid.

For the 4 wheeler, we will be using battery to power A.G.A and

measuring the instantaneous speed of vehicle in running condition.

Table 4.1: Vehicles tested during 1st phase:

Vehicle name Engine Wheel Radius (in No of Gears

Displacement (cc) m)

TVS Apache 147.5 cc 0.216 m 5

Bajaj Pulsar 149 cc 0.216 m 4

Hero Honda 124.7 cc 0.216 m 4

splendor

Here Honda 102 cc 0.15 m No gear

Pleasure

4.3 Calculations

If we know the wheel diameter or radius(R), by knowing rpm we can

measure the linear speed by the following equation:

Circumference of wheel= 2πR (Km)

So speed = RPM x 2πR x 60 / 1 hr (Km/hr)

(5)

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This is an indirect way of getting speed. After getting the speed vs
emission was plotted and polynomial curve fitting was applied for
curves for different vehicle. Relation was developed between speed and
emission using mathematical application like MS excel.

4.4 Work Done during phase 1

During phase I, Five different vehicles were tested at an atmospheric

temperature (22 degree Celsius). Different plots for pollutants namely
CO(%), CO2(%), NOx(ppm), HC(ppm) have been are done and relation is
derived for all vehicles. Main relation for all vehicle for different
pollutants is obtained by taking average of all the coefficients for a fixed
degree of variable. It is discussed in the result and analysis section.

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CHAPTER 5

Analysis and Results

5.1 Analysis

For two wheelers, the pollutants graphs were fitted in polynomial curve
and the coefficients were calculated from the MS excel tool.

We have assumed that the each vehicle tested has equal numbers in
the vehicle population for the Indian region. So the coefficient obtained
from the curve for each vehicle is taken as average value of the entire
coefficients.

The analysis for different pollutant is shown in the Appendix at the end
of this report.

5.2 Results

The relations were obtained for CO, CO2, NOx, HC for the two wheeler
for the 1st phase of the project as following:

Carbon monoxide

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Overall Relation between CO(%) by volume vs Speed of the vehicle(2
wheeler) is following:

CO(%) by volume = 9.9E-5 x3 – 6.9E-3 x2+ 0.018 x + 0.5701 (6)

Where x is speed in Km/hr.

Carbon dioxide

Overall Relation between CO2 (%) by volume vs Speed of the vehicle(2

wheeler) is following:

CO2(%) by volume = -8E-5 x3 + 7E-4 x2+ 0.0182 x + 4.3639 (7)

Where x is speed in Km/hr.

Hydrocarbon

Overall Relation between HC(ppm) vs Speed of the vehicle (2 wheeler)

is following:

HC(ppm) = 1.86E-4 x3 – 8.28E-3 x2+ 1.78E-3 x + 45.93 (8)

Where x is speed in Km/hr.

NOx

Overall Relation between NOx (ppm) vs Speed of the vehicle (2 wheeler)

is following:

NOx(ppm) = -5.5E-4 x3 + 3.46E-3 x2+ 0.2578 x + 6.65 (9)

Where x is speed in Km/hr.

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 CHAPTER 6

Conclusion and Future Work

6.1 Conclusion

The above study reviews the relationship between the vehicle speed
and the respective pollutants emission. The results of this work will
enable environmental planners to forecast future emission if the speed
details are available by implementation in the software for India. The
results will enable detailed insight of factors influencing emission and
development of recommendations for improved operation to reduce
emissions. Deeper knowledge of driving characteristics and speed is
essential to means of the estimates for those pollutants(CO) whose
dependence of emission form speed is strongly non linear. Factors such
as Gear change behavior by the driver shows a sudden release of large
amount of pollutant when a gear is change. CO (%) is reduced if gear
not changed while CO2 (%) is increased at the same time showing
complete combustion of some fuel. Powered 2 wheeler emit more HC. It
is to be stressed that all the results in the work are subject to the
uncertainties, As vehicle are intentionally chosen to represent the
variety of fleet with regard to engine size, manufacturer, the results
appear to be fairly representative of the fleet.

6.2 Work to be done in phase 2

Climate temperature and Traffic characteristic plays a major role in

estimation of emission from a given region. Cold emission value is high
as compared to hot emission.

In next phase, it is planned to have more testing on vehicle at different

climate temperatures and Emission estimation for 4 wheeler vehicles is

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also to be done. With more data we will be able to relate the traffic
characteristics and speed of the vehicle.

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 References

1. Subramanian, N., (2006), The estimation of emission factors for

Indian Vehicles using COPERT III methodology, Indian Institute of
Technology, Guwahati.

2. Trozzi, C., Vaccaro, R., and Crocetti, S., (1996), Speed frequency
distribution in air pollutants emissions estimate form road traffic ,
The science of total environment 189/190 (1996) 181-185.

3. Ahn, K., Rakha, Hesham., and Trani, A.,(2002), Estimating vehicle

fuel consumption and emission based on instantaneous speed and
acceleration levels, Journal of transportation engineering / March /
April 2002.

4. Marija, A., and Weilenmann, M.,(2006), Comparisons of real world

emissions from two wheelers and passenger cars , Environmental
science and technology / vol 40,No1, 2006.

5. ARAI( The Automotive Research Association of India), (2007),Draft

report- Air Quality monitoring project-Indian clean air programme.

6. Kathuria, V.,(2006), Vehicular pollution control- Concept note,

Madras School of Economics.

7. Ning, Z., Cheung, S.,(2004), Experimental and numerical study of

the dispersion of motor Vehicle pollutants under idle condition,
Atmospheric Environment 39 (2005) 7880–7893.

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 APPENDIX
CO vs Speed (Km/hr) plot

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CO2 (%) vs Speed (Km/hr) Plot

HC & NOx (ppm) vs Speed (Km/hr)

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 Data tables ( rpm, speed, CO, CO2, NOx ,HC )
Table a.1 (TVS Apache)
speed(km/ CO (% by CO2(% by NOx(pp
RPM hr) volume(1L)) volume(1L) HC(ppm) m)
0 0 0.431 4.05 30 7
33 2.68686 0.597 4.2 33 7
50 4.071 0.504 4.3 34 9
70 5.6994 0.512 4.3 31 10
100 8.142 0.543 4.28 31 10
120 9.7704 0.968 4.27 33 10
130 10.5846 1.24 4.25 44 11
140 11.3988 1.16 4.35 43 10
150 12.213 0.869 4.42 28 10
181 14.73702 0.53 4.29 24 10
225 18.3195 0.442 4.75 52 7
250 20.355 0.606 4.65 40 7
270 21.9834 0.303 4.42 43 5
300 24.426 0.373 4.54 50 7
340 27.6828 0.593 4.64 48 4
350 28.497 0.616 4.7 43 4
370 30.1254 0.544 4.76 39 4
400 32.568 0.376 4.85 33 6
420 34.1964 0.52 4.76 42 7
450 36.639 0.2 5.9 28 21
500 40.71 0.162 5.4 35 21
530 43.1526 0.674 5.07 43 13
540 43.9668 0.798 5.13 43 11
550 44.781 0.817 5.2 40 8
600 48.852 0.721 5.42 36 7

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Table a.2 (TVS Apache)

speed(km/h CO (% by CO2(% by HC(ppm NOx(pp

RPM r) volume(1L)) volume(1L) ) m)
0 0 0.437 4.68 27 7
80 6.5136 0.278 4.98 24 10
157 12.78294 0.249 5.19 23 15
180 14.6556 0.166 5.35 23 18
220 17.9124 0.164 5.59 24 36
280 22.7976 0.061 6.52 21 58
330 26.8686 0.089 6.98 22 58
411 33.46362 0.175 6.78 27 34
500 40.71 0.454 6.44 36 24
620 50.4804 0.742 5.9 37 22

Table a.3 (Hero honda Splendor)

speed(km/h CO (% by CO2(% by HC(ppm NOx(pp

RPM r) volume(1L)) volume(1L) ) m)
0 0 0.621 4.24 42 7
32 2.60544 0.659 4.22 46 7
105 8.5491 0.602 4.26 52 4
133 10.82886 0.593 4.34 45 3
155 12.6201 0.821 4.13 42 2
210 17.0982 0.446 4.32 44 2
262 21.33204 0.32 4.61 52 3
285 23.2047 0.568 4.44 60 5
318 25.89156 0.289 4.82 53 7
356 28.98552 0.215 4.29 50 11
415 33.7893 0.816 4.09 60 6
449 36.55758 0.432 4.22 46 9
485 39.4887 0.38 4.6 44 9
570 46.4094 0.21 4.69 55 7

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Table a.4 (Bajaj Pulsar)

speed(km/ CO (% by CO2(% by NOx(pp

RPM hr) volume(1L)) volume(1L) HC(ppm) m)
0 0 0.487 4.31 60 8
50 4.071 1.42 5.31 53 8
113 9.20046 0.981 4.06 55 7
181 14.73702 0.867 4.19 53 4
230 18.7266 0.974 5.05 49 3
300 24.426 0.86 5.39 49 3
400 32.568 0.993 4.37 50 3
490 39.8958 0.747 4.85 53 5
552 44.94384 0.825 5.1 55 8
600 48.852 0.899 5.2 55 11

Table a.5 (Hero Honda pleasure)

speed(km/ CO (% by CO2(% by HC(ppm NOx(pp

RPM hr) volume(1L)) volume(1L) ) m)
0 0 0.38 4.21 70 7
55 3.102 0.76 4.6 72 7
180 10.152 0.58 4.6 72 9
250 14.1 0.467 4.67 65 9
311 17.5404 0.42 4.84 59 10
420 23.688 0.395 4.95 49 11
493 27.8052 0.41 4.97 46 7
560 31.584 0.36 5.1 55 5
620 34.968 0.22 5.15 55 5
721 40.6644 0.196 4.98 52 11
783 44.1612 0.183 5.06 62 8
824 46.4736 0.198 4.8 58 9

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