CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

1.1 Introduction

Expanded polystyrene (EPS) was invented by the Dow Chemical Company in 1948 and

gave it a trademark that we commonly have known as StyrofoamTM. Originally discovered by Commented [G1]: Inserted: have
Commented [G2]: Deleted:,
Eduard Simon in 1839 in Germany by accident, EPS foam is more than 95% air and only about

5% plastic.

Small solid plastic particles of polystyrene are made from the monomer styrene.

Polystyrene is normally a solid thermoplastic at room temperature that can be melted at a

higher temperature and re-solidified for desired applications. The expanded version of

polystyrene is about forty times the volume of the original polystyrene granule. Expanded

Polystyrene insulation is a lightweight, rigid, closed cell insulation. EPS is available in several

compressive strengths to withstand load and back-fill forces. This closed-cell structure

provides minimal water absorption and low vapor permanence.

Polystyrene foams have become popular because of its distinct and special properties. As

a result of these properties, the foamed polystyrene container has a great proportion of the

packaging, the food container and the beverage container markets, a total of billions of pounds

a year of polystyrene foam in all. (United States of America Patent No. 5,223,543, 1993) Commented [G3]: Inserted: ,

The management of these residues involves serious difficulties due to its low density. The

transport of these big volume residues and their low biodegradability make almost unfeasible

their landfill disposal. Up to now the incineration with heat recovery seems to be the best

technological solution. (Ma. Teresa García González)

Several problems such as landfill volume make the recycling of polystyrene foam non-

economic and as a result, it will not become a commercially viable concept until the shipment
 and extrusion of polystyrene foams can be reduced in cost. It will also be needed to improve Commented [G4]: Inserted: ,
Commented [G5]: Deleted:,
the methods of converting the foams back into pellets or products for further use of the recycled
Commented [G6]: Deleted:s
polystyrene. (United States of America Patent No. 5,223,543, 1993)

This research entitled “Syzygium malaccense “Makopa” Leaf Oil Extract as an Alternative

Solvent of Polystyrene Foam” is based on the use of natural solvents such as terpenes and

terpenoids that dissolve polystyrene. The researcher aims to seek an alternative source of these

natural solvents which can be found locally and is the least concern in order to widen the Commented [G10]: Deleted: for

variety of our resources. This new project will serve as an entry to possibilities of the

application on recycling of one of the most versatile polymers used among different industries Commented [G7]: Inserted: the
Commented [G8]: Inserted: s
and optimization of current studies regarding the use of natural solvents in the dissolution of

polystyrene foams. Commented [G9]: Inserted: the

1.2 Background of the Study

The recycling of natural resources and waste products is the most important process in the

concept of green chemistry. Recently, the utilization of biomass has been a significant topic,

whereas the recycling of petroleum resources must receive similar attention. Expanded

polystyrene (EPS) is widely used in packing and building materials and for electrical and

thermal insulation owing to the lightweight and low thermal and electrical conductivities. The

porosity of EPS is very high such as 98% of the apparent volume is porous. At present, over 2

million tons of EPS are produced in the world per year, and the rate of the material recycling

is relatively high among commodity plastics. (Hattori, 2015)

The volume of EPS is reduced by methods such as solvent volume reduction (dissolved

using solvent), heating volume reduction, and pulverizing volume reduction (pulverized). The

processed expanded PS is used in its reduced state as an ingredient for recycled products or it

is burnt to generate heat energy.

 A large amount of expanded PS is discharged after use at wholesale markets, supermarkets,

department stores, restaurants and shops, such as electrical appliances stores, as well as at

factories of machinery manufacturers. It is collected through the in-house collection of

companies or by resource recycling agents and becomes a recycled resource. (T. Maharana,

2007)

Dissolution with suitable solvents is one of the cheapest and more efficient processes for

polystyrene waste management. The essential oil in plants and its main components, terpenes,

and terpenoids, are a good solvent for PS. Commented [G11]: Inserted: ,
Commented [G12]: Inserted: a
A theoretical initial approach based on Hildebrand theory was done in order to establish

initially the best candidates. After that, the values of the experimental test are compared with

theory. Table 1 shows the solubility values obtained in the experimental test together with the

corresponding Hildebrand parameter of a polymer. (Garcia, Garcia, Duque, de Lucas, & Commented [G13]: Inserted: a

Rodriguez, 2009)

Table 1. Solubility of EPS at 25˚C and Hildebrand and Hansen solubility parameters.

According to the study of Garcia, et. al., the solvents that allow the solubility of higher

amounts of EPS are benzene, toluene, xylene, chloroform, and tetrahydrofuran. Nevertheless, Commented [G14]: Inserted: ,
these solvents are not in good relation with ‘‘green chemistry” and therefore, they should not

be used for the recycling process. In this work, in order to propose an environmentally friendly Commented [G15]: Inserted: ly

technology would be more appropriate to propose a natural solvent as the terpenic solvents

(like limonene and cymene) that also show a high capacity to dissolve the polystyrene. These Commented [G16]: Inserted: a

compounds are an enormous class of natural products spanning well over 30,000 members.

They have used throughout history for a broad variety of purposes including perfume,

medicine, and flavoring.

Another set of experiments testing a series of terpenic compounds like geraniol, limonene,

terpinene, cymene, phellandrene, menthol, cinnamaldehyde were performed at 25 "C. The

values obtained are shown in Table 2. As expected, the solvents with polar groups in their

structure do not dissolve the XPS (geraniol and menthol) or exhibit a lower solubility potential

(cinnamaldehyde). Limonene, terpinene, cymene and phellandrene exhibit similar solubility

values being good alternatives to carry out the recycling process. As the solubility capacity is

not very different, the best solvent will be chosen in each region depending on the commercial

availability and price of these natural solvents in that part of the world.

Table 2. Solubility, number average molecular weight, Polydiversity, and decomposition

temperature of EPS in natural solvents

Malay apple / Makopa, Syzygium malaccense Merr. et & Perry, (syn. Eugenia malaccensis

L., Jambos malaccensis DC.), is much admired for the beauty of the tree, its flowers, and its

colorful, glistening fruits, without parallel in the Myrtaceae family. Commented [G17]: Inserted: ,
 The plant is presumed to be a native of Malaysia but is now commonly cultivated from Commented [G18]: Deleted:,

Java to the Philippines and Vietnam, also in Bengal and South India and in many other parts

of the world.

It is a rather fast-growing tree, reaching 12–18 m in height, and has an erect trunk to 4.5

m. The juicy fruit is oblong, obovoid, or bell-shaped with thin, smooth, waxy skin colored

rose-red or crimson or sometimes white. The ripe fruit may be eaten raw or used for flavoring

purposes, but its decoction is a reputed febrifuge. The plant is used in Polynesian traditional

medicine for the treatment of infectious diseases and has been found to elicit antiviral,

antifungal and antibacterial activities. Commented [G19]: Deleted:,

Study of essential oil from fresh leaves yielded showed 61.1% monoterpenes characterized,

as seen in table 3, mainly by (+)-α-pinene (7.3%), (−)-β-pinene (8.0%), p-cymene (13.5%),

and α-terpineol (7.5%). Sesquiterpenes constituted 30.8% of the oil with (−)-β-caryophyllene

(9.0%) as the major component. (Karioti, Skaltsa, & Gbolade, 2007)

 Table 3. Composition of Syzygium malaccense leaf oil

This project, “Syzygium malaccense “Makopa” Leaf Oil Extract as an Alternative Solvent

of Polystyrene Foam” will show if Syzygium malaccense leaf oil extract dissolves the

polystyrene foam. There has not been a study made yet that the makopa leaf extract has

dissolved the polystyrene foam.

1.3 Objective of the Study

General Objective

The main objective of this study is to extract, isolate and characterize oil from Syzygium

malaccense, and to determine its capability to act as a solvent for polystyrene foam (PS).

Specific Objectives

To attain this goal, the study specifically aims to:

1. Extract oil using hydrodistillation

2. Characterize the chemical composition of oil using Fourier-transform infrared

spectroscopy (FTIR)

3. Determine the solubility of Polystyrene in the solvent extracted from Syzygium

malaccense using gravimetric analysis expressed as the mass of PS and the solvent volume

ratio expressed in mL.; and

4. Evaluate the dissolution rate of Polystyrene in the extracted leaf oil.

1.4 Significance of the Study

This study aims to create an impact on two factors, economic growth, and environmental

sustainability. Commented [G20]: Inserted: ,

Dissolution of polystyrene foams with the use of organic solvents can be done but the

acquisition and utilization of these solvents cause harmful effects based on its toxicity levels, Commented [G21]: Inserted: the

both to humans and the environment. Also, acquisition of these solvents is considered costly. Commented [G22]: Inserted: is
Commented [G23]: Deleted:s
Organic solvents are widely employed since they dissolve, suspend or extract other
Commented [G24]: Deleted:are
materials that are not soluble in water such as resins and plastics, without chemically changing

the material or the solvent. Chronic exposure in high concentrations to humans causes chronic
diseases, damages to the internal organs, and other several health hazards such as being

carcinogenic.

Naturally occurring solvent, such as d-limonene, is effective as a dissolution agent of EPS

foam thus, promising to be a safe replacement of synthetic and toxic non-polar compounds

used as solvents in disposing and recycling these non-biodegradable solid wastes.

Since landfilling is the major form of waste disposal in the Philippines, waste management

has been one of the major problems in a developing country like the Philippines. In 2000,

Republic Act 9003 or the Ecological Waste Management Act was enacted to provide a

framework for managing the growing problem of solid waste in the country. Commented [G25]: Deleted:,

According to a report of the Senate Economic Planning Office, the Philippines in 2016 was

generating at least 40,000 metric tons of waste a day. In Japan, waste segregation is a must,

but at the same time the government has encouraged different industries to process different

type of waste. Unlike here in the Philippines, even if some individuals or groups are religiously

segregating their waste, it still all ends up in the dumpsite. (Palafox, 2018)

Expanded polystyrene (EPS) is a voluminous lightweight material. As a result, storage and

disposal of EPS in landfills would require a large space for only a small mass. For example,

the smallest common food containers weigh 57 grams but have the volume equivalent to 820

cubic centimeters. (Mwashaa, Armstrong-Richardson, & Wilsonc, 2013) Commented [G26]: Inserted: ve
Commented [G27]: Deleted:s
Its lightweight property can be a disadvantage, as it can become a nuisance when easily
Commented [G28]: Deleted:s
blown around by air. Also, transportation of such a material will be costly due to its large

volume. Incineration of plastics releases many toxic chemicals into the atmosphere hence this

method of disposal of EPS can have many disadvantages on the environment. (Mwashaa,

Armstrong-Richardson, & Wilsonc, 2013)

Developing an efficient process to recycle EPS is very important since this material is used

in abundance throughout the world for purposes such as packaging, insulation and in the

making of foam plates and cups (Mwasha, 2011).

 This study will provide an insight, knowledge, and information on the utilization of

Syzygium malaccense, Makopa leaf oil extract as a solvent on the dissolution of polystyrene Commented [G29]: Inserted: ,

foam. The study will determine whether the Syzygium leaf oil extract prove to be an effective Commented [G30]: Inserted: the

solvent of polystyrene foam and can be acquired from a natural resource and at a low cost.

1.5 Scope and Delimitation of the Study

This study focuses on the effects of Syzygium malaccense as an alternative solvent of

polystyrene foam. Acquisition of the essential oil extract of makopa will come from the fresh

leaves. The fresh leaves will undergo pre-extraction preparation, such as washing, drying and

weighing by the difference between before and after drying. Commented [G31]: Inserted: the

The dried leaves will undergo hydrodistillation, also termed as water distillation. In this

method, the material is completely immersed in water, which is boiled by applying heat by

direct fire, steam jacket, closed steam jacket, closed steam coil or open steam coil. The main

characteristic of this process is that there is direct contact between boiling water and plant

material. Due to the influence of hot water and steam, the essential oil is freed from the oil

glands in the plant tissue. The vapor mixture of water and oil is condensed by indirect cooling

with water. From the condenser, distillate flows into a separator, where oil separates

automatically from the distillate water.

The essential oil will be characterized using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy. The

solubility of the polystyrene foam with the extracted leaf oil will be determined using Commented [G32]: Inserted: The s
Commented [G33]: Deleted:S
gravimetric analysis expressed as the mass of PS and the solvent volume ratio expressed in mL.

Lastly, evaluation of the dissolution rate of polystyrene in the extracted leaf oil by dissolving

at different temperature at which the dissolution should be performed. Higher temperatures will

not be tested to prevent polymer chain degradation.

 The only material to be utilized and disclosed in this study is the Makopa (Syzygium

malaccense) leaves.
 CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter is one of the most important components of this research. It covers the review

of related literature and studies to understand in order the concept of the study including its

background, material composite and framework.

2.1 Syzygium malaccense (Myrtaceae)

The Malay apple tree, commonly known in the Philippines as Makopa is rather fast-

growing, reaching 40 to 60 ft (12-18 m) in height, and has an erect trunk to 15 ft (4.5 m) in

circumference and a pyramidal or cylindrical crown. Its evergreen leaves are opposite, short-

petioled, elliptic-lanceolate or oblanceolate; soft-leathery, dark-green and fairly glossy on the upper

surface, paler beneath; 6 to 18 in (15-45 cm) long, 3 1/2 to 8 in (9-20 cm) wide. The veins are

indistinct above, but they and the pale midrib are prominent on the underside. New growth is wine-

red at first, changing to pink-buff. The abundant flowers, only mildly fragrant, and borne on the

upper trunk and along leafless portions of mature branches in short-stalked clusters of 2 to 8, are 2

to 3 in (5-7.5 cm) wide, and composed of a funnel-like base topped by 5 thick, green sepals, 4

usually pinkish-purple to dark-red (sometimes white, yellow or orange) petals, and numerous

concolorous stamens to 1 1/2 in (4 cm) long tipped with yellow anthers. Though showy, the flowers

are hidden by the foliage until they fall and form a lovely carpet on the ground. The fruit, oblong,

obovoid, or bell-shaped, 2 to 4 in (5-10 cm.) long, 1 to 3 in (2.5-7.5 cm) wide at the apex, has thin,

smooth, waxy skin, rose-red or crimson or sometimes white with streaks of red or pink, and white,

crisp or spongy, juicy flesh of very mild, sweetish flavor. There may be a single oblate or nearly

round seed or 2 hemispherical seeds, 5/8 to 3/4 in (1.6-2 cm) in width, light-brown externally, green

internally and somewhat meaty in texture. The fruits of some trees are entirely seedless. (Morton,

1987)
 The ripe fruit is eaten raw though many people consider it insipid. It is best stewed with

cloves or other flavoring and served with cream as dessert. Asiatic people in Guyana stew the

peeled fruit, cooking the skin separately to make a sirup which they add to the cooked fruit.

Malayan people may add the petals of the red-flowered hibiscus (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L.) to make

the product more colorful. Malay apples are often cooked with acid fruits to the benefit of both.

They are sometimes made into sauce or preserves. The slightly unripe fruits are used for making

jelly and pickles. (Morton, 1987)

In Puerto Rico, both red and white table wines are made from the Malay apple. The fruits

are picked as soon as they are fully colored (not allowed to fall) and immediately dipped in boiling

water for one minute to destroy surface bacteria and fungi. The seeds are removed and, for red

wine, the fruits are passed through a meat grinder and the resulting juice and pulp weighed. To this

material, they add twice the amount of water and 1 1/2 lbs (680 g) of white sugar per gallon, and

pour into sterilized barrels with the mouth covered soon with cheesecloth. Yeast is added and a coil

inserted to maintain circulation of the water. The barrels are kept in the coolest place possible for

6 months to 1 year, then the wine is filtered. It will be of a pale-rose color so artificial color is added

to give it a rich-red hue. In making white wine, the fruits are peeled, the only liquid is the fruit

juice, and less sugar is used, only 1 1/4 lbs (565 g) per gallon, so as to limit alcohol formation over

a fermenting period of 3 to 6 months. (Morton, 1987)

In Indonesia, the flowers are eaten in salads or are preserved in sirup. Young leaves and

shoots, before turning green, are consumed raw with rice or are cooked and eaten as greens.

Food Value Per 100 g of Edible Portion*

Moisture 90.3-91.6 g
Protein 0.5-0.7 g
Fat 0.1-0.2 g
Fiber 0.6-0.8 g
 Ash 0.26-0.39 g
Calcium 5.6-5.9 mg
Phosphorus 11.6-17.9 mg
Iron 0.2-0.82 mg
Carotene 0.003-0.008 mg
(Vitamin A) 3-10 I.U.
Thiamine 15-39 mcg
Riboflavin 20-39 mcg
Niacin 0.21-0.40 mg
Ascorbic Acid 6.5-17.0 mg
Table 4. Nutrition value of the edible portion of Makopa (Syzygium malaccense) according to

analyses made in Hawaii, El Salvador and Ghana.

A study entitled, “Ichthyotoxic Properties and Essential Oils of Syzygium malaccense

(Myrtaceae)”, was conducted by Intan S. Ismail, et. al., where it deals with the ichthyotoxic

properties, the characterization of the isolated components from the hexane leaves extract, and

volatile constituents of the leaves and fruits of S. malaccense. They have found that the leaves

fraction was the most ichthyotoxic against tilapia-fish (Tilapia oreochromis). Three compounds,

namely ursolic acid (1), β-sitosterol (2) and sitost-4-en-3-one (3), were isolated and their structures

were elucidated with the aid of spectroscopic data and comparison with previously reported

investigations. (Ismail, Ismail, & Lajis, 2010)

According to Akana's translation of Hawaiian Herbs of Medicinal Value, the astringent

bark has been much used in local remedies. It is pounded together with salt, the crushed material is

strained through coconut husk fiber, and the juice poured into a deep cut. "The patient must exercise

absolute self-control as the liquid bums its way into the flesh and nerves." In the Molucca, or Spice,

Islands, a decoction of the bark is used to treat thrush. Malayans apply a powder of the dried leaves

on a cracked tongue. A preparation of the root is a remedy for itching. The root acts as a diuretic

and is given to alleviate edema. The root bark is useful against dysentery, also serves as an
emmenagogue and abortifacient. Cambodians take a decoction of the fruit, leaves or seeds as a

febrifuge. The juice of crushed leaves is applied as a skin lotion and is added to baths. In Brazil,

various parts of the plant are used as remedies for constipation, diabetes, coughs, pulmonary

catarrh, headache and other ailments. Seeded fruits, seeds, bark and leaves have shown antibiotic

activity and have some effect on blood pressure and respiration. (Morton, 1987)

2.2 Recycling using natural products

According to K. Hattori in his study entitled “Recycling of Expanded Polystyrene Using

Natural Products”, in recycling polystyrene foams, melting or solvent treatment is required to

reduce the volume and be reshaped subsequently, as seen in Figure 1. The melting process is simple,

but brings about some chemical degradation and cannot avoid debasing the quality of the original

polystyrene, so the solvent treatment is, in many respects, more desirable for an effective recycling

system. (Hattori, 2015)

Figure 1. Material Recycling System of EPS

 The leaf oils of Abies sachalinensis and Eucalyptus species were utilized because it

contains many monoterpenes and assumed its suitability as a biomass because they are not utilized

effectively at present. Table 4 shows the summary of some liquid monoterpenes and terpenoids

selected from the viewpoint of content rate in their leaf oils. Both are significantly different. d-

Limonene is much contained in Abies sachalinensis, but a little in Eucalyptus. The largest amount

of bornyl acetate in Abies sachalinensis is not contained in Eucalyptus. In contrast, 1,8-cineole

occurs abundantly in Eucalyptus, whereas does not occur at all in Abies sachalinensis. (Shikata,

Watanabe, Hattori, Aoyama, & Miyakoshi, 2011)

Table 4. Components in the leaf oils of Abies sachalinensis and Eucalyptus.

Different forms of monoterpenes were used to test its Solubility and Dissolution rate in

polystyrene. In conclusion, the dissolving power and solubility of different monoterpenes were

identified and compared to organic and petroleum-based solvents. Hattori stated that, the essential

oil in plants and its main components, terpenes and terpenoids, are good solvent for PS. EPS is

recyclable by using those natural solvents in place of petroleum-based ones. The dissolving power

of terpenes for PS strongly depends on their chemical structure. (Hattori, 2015)

 Another study has been made by N.O. Tecson, et. al., entitled “d-Limonene from

Calamansi (Citrus Microcarpa) Rind Extract: An effective Dissolution Agent of Expanded

Polystyrene Foam. In this study, d-limonene were extracted from the Calamansi rind using

hydrodistillation. The varying volumes of d-limonene extract from the rind were treated to different

sizes of expanded polystyrene foam. Six trials for each size were treated with a given volume of d-

limonene. The dissolution time of each sample was measured. Variations among the sizes of the

EPS and the volume of d-limonene were determined using two-way ANOVA. (Tecson, Violago,

& Velayo, 2005)

Tecson, et. al., concluded that natural occurring solvent such as d-limonene is effective as

a dissolution agent of EPS foam thus making it a promising safe replacement of synthetic and toxic

non-polar compounds such as toluene and benzene in disposing and recycling these non-

biodegradable solid wastes.

Another study that supports the idea of using d-limonene, a monoterpene constituent,

entitled “Reduction in Polystyrene with Activated Agent” conducted by Claudia Iovino, where the

d-limonene is activated through heating or distillation readily attacks the Polystyrene foam and

provides faster dissolution. The process involves the exposure of the foams to vapors or sprays of

d-limonene which has been subjected to thermal conversion to an active state within 1 to 3 months

of use. (United States of America Patent No. 5,223,543, 1993)

A study using p-cymene, another monoterpene constituent, has been studied by Ma. Teresa

Garcia Gonzales, et. al., entitled “Waste Expanded Polystyrene Recycling by Cymene using Liquid

or Supercritical CO2 for Solvent Recovery.” The polystyrene’s solubility was determined, using p-

cymene, gravimetrically as the minimum solvent weight necessary to completely dissolve a sample

of PS foam. The solubility was expressed as the mass of PS and the solvent volume ratio expressed

in mL. The effect of temperature on polydispersity and decomposition temperature was also

determined. Solvent elimination was also done using supercritical fluid, in this case, they used CO2.

(Ma. Teresa García González)

2.3 Dissolution using Organic Solvents

A study entitled, “Management of Polystyrene Wastes Using a Supercritical Solvent –

Propanone”, by Abrahams Mwasha, et. al., used a supercritical solvent, Propanone or commonly

known as Acetone.

The objective of this paper was to investigate the possibility of using green technology for

densification polymeric wastes. The research found that Propanone can be used effectively to

minimize the volumetric polystyrene wastes by 98.5%. The other advantage of using this chemical

is that it can be produced in developing countries (e.g., Philippines) by fermenting agricultural

wastes. (Mwashaa, Armstrong-Richardson, & Wilsonc, 2013)

2.4 Terpene and Terpenoids

The term terpenes originates from turpentine (lat. balsamum terebinthinae). Turpentine, the

so-called "resin of pine trees", is the viscous pleasantly smelling balsam which flows upon cutting

or carving the bark and the new wood of several pine tree species (Pinaceae). Turpentine contains

the "resin acids" and some hydrocarbons, which were originally referred to as terpenes.

Traditionally, all natural compounds built up from isoprene subunits and for the most part

originating from plants are denoted as terpenes. (Breitmaier, 2006)

Terpenes and terpenoids are largely found as constituents of essential oils. They are mostly

hydrocarbons. The building block is a five-carbon isoprene unit. Terpene

hydrocarbons have a molecular formula of (C5H8)n; the n dictates the number of units involved.

Terpene hydrocarbons are classified according to the number of isoprene units and the general

structure can be found in Figure 2:

● Monoterpenes: 2 isoprene units, 10 carbon atoms.

● Sesquiterpenes: 3 isoprene units, 15 carbon atoms.

● Diterpenes: 4 isoprene units, 20 carbon atoms.

● Triterpenes: 6 isoprene units, 30 carbon atoms.

● Tetraterpenes: 8 isoprene units, 40 carbon atoms.

 The biological and ecochemical functions of terpenes have not yet been fully investigated.

Many plants produce volatile terpenes in order to attract specific insects for pollination or otherwise

to expel certain animals using these plants as food. Less volatile but strongly bitter-tasting or toxic

terpenes also protect some plants from being eaten by animals (antifeedants). Last, but not least,

terpenes play an important role as signal compounds and growth regulators (phytohormones) of

plants, as shown by preliminary investigations. (Breitmaier, 2006)

Many insects metabolize terpenes they have received with their plant food to growth

hormones and pheromones. Pheromones are luring and signal compounds (sociohormones) that

insects and other organisms excrete in order to communicate with others like them, e.g. to warn

(alarm pheromones), to mark food resources and their location (trace pheromones), as well of

assembly places (aggregation pheromones) and to attract sexual partners for copulation (sexual

pheromones). Harmless to the environment, pheromones may replace conventional insecticides to

trap harmful and damaging insects such as bark beetles. (Breitmaier, 2006)

Figure 2. Parent hydrocarbons of terpenes (isoprenoids)

Conceptual Model of the Study

In order to illustrate the Syzygium malaccense leaf oil extract as an alternative solvent of

polystyrene foam, this conceptual design should be followed and formulated.

Research Concept

INPUT
Knowledge Requirements:
 ASTM Standards PROCESS
 Extraction process of plant
material
 Properties of leaves
Material/Tools/Equipment:
 Makopa Leaves
 Expanded polystyrene foam
 Weighing scale
 Heating Plate
 Laboratory Apparatus
Cooperating Firms:
 Analytical Services
 Laboratory Services
Software Requirements:
 Microsoft Office Word
 Microsoft Office Excel
 Microsoft Office PowerPoint

OUTPUT
Characterization of Syzygium malaccense, Makopa leaf oil
extract and solubility to expanded polystyrene foam.

Figure 3. Conceptual research

Operational Definition of Terms

Expanded Polystyrene - a synthetic thermoplastic material obtained by polymerizing styrene;

used as a white rigid foam (expanded polystyrene) for insulating and packing and as a glasslike

material in light fittings and water tanks.

Syzygium malaccense – also known as Makopa is a tree reaching a height of 10 meters. Leaves are

pinkish when young. Older leaves are large, drooping, elliptic-oblong to broadly oblong-lanceolate,

15 to 30 centimeters long, 7 to 15 centimeters wide, narrowed and pointed at both ends. Flowers

are large, showy, crimson, 5 to 6 centimeters in diameter, borne on the branches below the leaves,

clustered on short, few-flowered racemes, 6 centimeters long or less. Fruit is shiny, oblong or pear-

shaped, 5 to 7.5 centimeters long, either white splashed, striped with pink, or wholly crimson to

purplish, and slightly shiny, seedless or one-seeded. Flesh is white, pithy, juicy. Although rather

tasteless, some varieties have a pleasant flavor.

Extraction – a process used to remove a desired compound from a solid or a liquid mixture using

a suitable solvent.

Hydrodistillation / Water distillation - the simplest and cheapest distillation method. The plant

material is totally immersed in water and boiled. The steam and oil vapor is condensed and the oil

is separated from the water using the system.

Solvent - a liquid, typically one other than water, used for dissolving other substances.

Dissolution – to dissolve; to cause a solute to pass into solution.

Dissolution rate – a measure of the actual release rate of the compound at the given particle size

etc. in an aqueous media. It often vary considerably with solid form, e.g. particle size and shape.

Solubility – a chemical property referring to the ability for a given substance, the solute, to dissolve

in a solvent.
 CHAPTER 3

MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

3.1. Project Conceptualization

A schematic diagram of the entire study is presented in this section as an overview to the

researcher of the flow of the study. The acquisition of the materials, preparation, methodology,

instrumentation and evaluation of results will be discussed in the following section of this chapter.

Figure 4. Process flow diagram of the study

3.2. Problem Identification

The amount of waste of Polystyrene (PS) foams is increasing due to their use in isolation,

protecting, and storing many different food products. Thus, recycling of polystyrene foams is

gaining importance around the world.

Conventional methods of recycling such as crushing and shrinking by heated air or

frictional heat have the disadvantages of molecular degradation, resulting in a reduction of the

quality of the recycled polymer.

Dissolution with suitable solvents is one of the cheapest and more efficient processes for

polystyrene waste management. Today, there exists many supercritical solvents such as benzene,

toluene, xylene, tetrahydrofuran, chloroform, nitrobenzene, N,N-dimethylformamide, etc. which

could be used during the disposal and management of the plastic wastes. Most of these supercritical

solvents are extremely toxic and expensive to produce.

In order to deal with the problem of using toxic solvents and recycling of polystyrene

foams, researchers have managed to find a way to use a natural product as an alternative solvent in

dissolving polystyrene foams. Researchers have developed a “green process” where the

constituents of essential oils are tested to dissolve polystyrene foams and the action of these solvent

does not produce any degradation of polymer chains.

3.3. Data Gathering and Evaluation

The information and data that will be gathered in this research will be gathered using the

internet and from conducting an experimentation. Some of the information, application,

characteristics and properties of Macopa will be gathered through related works of literature and

studies.
3.2. Materials

3.2.1. Syzygium malaccense leaf oil extract

The Syzygium malaccense oil will be utilized as the dissolution agent and will be the core

material (extracted from the collected fresh leaves). The leaf oil extract that will be produced should

be yellow in color and is lighter than water. (Ismail, Ismail, & Lajis, 2010) Acquisition of the leaves

should be from a mature and healthy tree, and should be fresh and without any form of damage to

ensure the oil glands are not broken. To ensure that a single composition and a single species is

used, the tree should be located in one area. Essential oils are usually contained in oil glands, or

veins that are fragile. Poor handling will break these structures and release the oils resulting in

losses. This is the reason a strong smell is given off when these plants are handled. (Kumar &

Tripathi, 2006)

Figure 5. Syzygium malaccense leaves

 3.2.2. Polystyrene Foam

Polystyrene foam should be obtained from a single local store or area to ensure same size

and composition will be used for the experiment.

3.3. Methodology

The entire study and experimentation is divided into four parts: (1) preparation and

extraction of the Syzygium malaccense leaves which is the source of the leaf oil extract and is the

dissolution agent, (2) characterization of leaf oil extract’s chemical constituents using FTIR

instrument, (3) determination of the solubility of Polystyrene in the oil extracted from Syzygium

malaccense leaves using gravimetric analysis expressed as the mass of PS and the solvent volume

ratio expressed in mL.; and (4) the dissolution time of PS will be measured at several different

temperatures.

3.3.1. Preparation and extraction of Syzygium malaccense leaves

The first part of the methodology which is preparation and extraction of the Syzygium

malaccense is divided further into two parts namely (1) air drying of the leaves, and (2)

Hydrodistillation for extraction of the essential oil. The essential oil will be obtained by

hydrodistillation using a Clevenger-type apparatus with a water-cooled oil receiver to reduce

hydrodistillation over-heating artifacts according to the British Pharmacopoeia. (Karioti, Skaltsa,

& Gbolade, 2007) The fresh leaves will be immersed in distilled water and refluxed under a Dean

Stark condition for 2 hours. (Ismail, Ismail, & Lajis, 2010) The obtained volatile oils for the leaves

will be separated from the water layer by mixing with anhydrous sodium sulphate prior to filtering

to get the oils.

 3.3.2. Characterization of Syzygium malaccense leaf oil extract

Characterization of the chemical constituents of the Syzygium malaccense leaf oil extract

will be measured by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. FTIR spectra of the Syzygium

malaccense leaf oil extract will be obtained to determine if the presence of the discussed chemical

constituents, which are terpenes and terpenoids, can be found in the oil. This will prove if the leaf

oil extract can be able to dissolve the polystyrene foam.

3.3.3. Solubility test

A known weight of a small piece of commercial polystyrene foam film will be put in 0.5

mL of the leaf oil extract, the dissolution will be judged from the disappearance of birefringence of

the polystyrene foam piece. The additional piece, if necessary, will be put after complete dissolution

is achieved. As mentioned earlier, the solubility will expressed as the mass of polystyrene foam

and the solvent volume ratio expressed in mL.

The accuracy and reproducibility of the experimental procedure will be determined by

comparing the results from three independent runs (3-trial test) carried out under identical

conditions.

3.3.4. Dissolution Rate

Dissolution rate tests will be carried out in order to determine the temperature at which the

dissolution should be performed. The levels of temperatures that will be observed is 25˚C, 40˚C,

50˚C, 60˚C and 70˚C. When the recycling efficiency of PS is being considered, not only dissolving

power but also dissolution rate is one of the important factors on evaluating the performance of a

solvent.
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