UNIT II

STATIC POWER CONVERTER ANALYSIS

Static Power Converters: 3 Pulse, 6 Pulse & 12 Pulse Converters, Converter Station and Terminal
Equipment Commutation Process, Rectifier and Inverter Operation, Equivalent Circuit for Rectifier,
Inverter and HVDC Link.
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HVDC Converter Station

The major components of a HVDC transmission system are converter stations where
conversions from AC to DC (Rectifier station) and from DC to AC (Inverter station) are
performed. A point to point transmission requires two converter stations. The role of rectifier and
inverter stations can be reversed (resulting in power reversals) by suitable converter control.
A typical converter station with two 12 pulse converter units per pole is shown in figure
below. The block diagram of converter station is given above.
Converter Unit:

This usually consists of two three phase converter bridges connected in series to form a
12 pulse converter unit as shown in above figure. The total number of valves in such a unit is
twelve. The valves can be packaged as single valve, double valve or quadrivalve arrangements.
Each valve is used to switch in segment of an AC voltage waveform. The converter is fed by
converter transformers connected in star/star and star/delta arrangements.
The valves are cooled by air, oil, water of freon. Liquid cooling using deionized water is
more efficient and results in the reduction of station losses. The design of valves is based on the
modular concept where each module contains a limited number of series connected thyristor
levels.
Valve firing signals are generated in the converter control at ground potential and are
transmitted to each thyristor in the valve through a fiber optic light guide system.
The valves are protected using snubber circuits, protective firing and gapless surge
arrestors.
Converter Transformer:
The converter transformer has three diferent configurations-
(i) three phase, two winding,
(ii) single phase, three winding and
(iii)single phase, two winding
 The valve side windings are connected in parallel with neutral grounded. The leakage
reactance of the transformer is chosen to limit the short circuit currents through any valves.

The converter transformers are designed to withstand DC voltage stresses and increased
eddy current losses due to harmonic currents. One problem that can arise is due to the DC
magnetization of the core due to unsymmetrical firing of valves.
Filters:
There are three types of filters used which are
1. AC Filters:
These are passive circuits used to provide how impedance, shunt paths for AC
harmonic currents. Both tuned and damped filter arrangements are used.
2. DC Filters:
These are similar to AC filters and are used for the filtering of DC harmonics.
3. High Frequency (RF/PLC) Filters:
These are connected between the converter transformer and the station AC bus to
suppress any high frequency currents. Sometimes such filters are provided on high-voltage DC
bus connected between the DC filter and DC line and also on the neutral side.
Reactive power source:
Converter stations require reactive power supply that is dependent on the active power
loading. But part of the reactive power requirement is provided by AC filters. In addition, shunt
capacitors, synchronous condensors and static VAR systems are used depending on the speed of
control desired.
Smoothing Reactor:
A sufficiently large series reactor is used on DC side to smooth DC current and also for
protection. The reactor is designed as a linear reactor and is connected on the line side, neutral
side or at intermediate location.
DC Switchgear:
It is modified AC equipment used to interrupt small DC currents. DC breakers or Metallic
Return Transfer Breakers (MRTB) are used, if required for interruption of rated load currents.
In addition to the DC switchgear, AC switchgear and associated equipment for protection
and measurement are also part of the converter station.
Modern Trends in DC Transmission
To overcome the losses and faults in AC transmission, HVDC transmission is preferred.
The trends which are being introduced are for the efective development to reduce the
cost of the converters and to improve the performance of the transmission system.
Power semiconductors and valves:
The IGBTs or GTOs employed required huge amount of current to turn it ON which was
a big problem. GTOs are available at 2500V and 2100A. As the disadvantage of GTOs is the
large gate current needed to turn them OFF, so MCT which can be switched OFF by a small
current is preferred as valves.
The power rating of thyristors is also increased by better cooling methods. Deionized
water cooling has now become a standard and results in reduced losses in cooling.
Converter Control:
The development of micro-computer based converter control equipment has made
possible to design systems with completely redundant converter control with automatic transfer
between systems in the case of a problem.
The micro-computer based control also has the flexibility to implement adaptive control
algorithms or even the use of expert systems for fault diagnosis and protection.
DC Breakers:
Parallel rather than series operation of converters is likely as it allows certain flexibility
in the planned growth of a system. The DC breaker ratings are not likely to exceed the full load
ratings as the control intervention is expected to limit the fault current.
Conversion of existing AC lines:
There are some operational problems due to electromagnetic induction from AC circuits
where an experimental project of converting a single circuit of a double circuit is under process.

Operation with weak AC systems:

The strength of AC systems connected to the terminals of a DC link is measured in terms
of Short Circuit Ratio (SCR) which is defined as
SCR = Short circuit level at the converter bus
Rated DC Power
If SCR is less than 3, the AC system is said to be weak. The conventional constant
extinction angle control may not be suitable for weak AC systems.
 Constant reactive current control or AC voltage control may overcome some of the
problems of weak AC systems.
The power modulation techniques used to improve dynamic stability of power systems
will have to be modified in the presence of weak AC systems.

Static power converters:Analysis of Graetz circuit ( 6 –pulse converter bridge )

The schematic diagram of a six-pulse Graetz circuit is shown in the fig.

 This Graetz circuit utilizes the transformer and the converter unit to at most level and it maintains low
voltage across the valve when not in conduction
 Due to this quality present in Graetz circuit it dominates all other alternative circuits from being
implemented in HVDC converter.
 The voltage across the valve is nothing but the peak inverse voltage which the valve should withstand

 The six pulse Graetz circuit consists of 6 valves arranges in bridge type and the converter transformer
having tapings on the AC side for voltage control
 AC supply is given for the three winding of the converter transformer connected instars with grounded
neutral.
 The windings on the valve side are either connected in star or delta with ungrounded neutral.
 The six valves of the circuit are fired in a definite and fixed order and the DC output obtained contains six
DC pulses per one cycle of AC voltage wave.
A) Operation without overlap:
 The six pulse converter without over lapping valve construction sequence are 1-2, 2-3, 3-4, 4-5, 5-6, 6-1.
 At any instant two valves are conducting in the bridge. One from the upper group and other from the
lower group.
 Each valve arm conducts for a period of one third of half cycle i.e., 60 degrees.
 In one full cycle of AC supply there are six pulses in the DC waveform. Hence the bridge is called as six
pulse converter.

 For simple analysis following assumptions are much:

i ) AC voltage at the converter input is sinusoidal and constant
ii)DC current is constant
iii)Valves are assumed as ideal switches with zero impedance when on(conducting) and
with infinite impedance when off(not conducting)
 In one full cycle of AC supply we will get 6-pulses in the output.
 Each pair of the devices will conduct 60 degrees.
 The dc output voltage waveform repeats every 60 degrees interval.
 Therefore for calculation of average output voltages only consider one pulse and multiply with six for one
full cycle. In this case each device will fire for 1200.Firing angle delay:
 Delay angle is the time required for firing the pulses in a converter for its conduction. It is generally
expressed in electrical degrees.
 In other words, it is the time between zero crossing of commutation voltage and starting point of forward
current conduction.
 The mean value of DC voltage can be reduced by decreasing the conduction duration, which can be
achieved by delaying the pulses ie., by increasing the delay angle we can reduce the DC voltage and also
the power transmission form one valve to another valve can also be reduced
 When = 0, the commutation takes place naturally and the converter acts as rectifier.

 When α> 60 deg, the voltage with negative spikes appears and the direction of
power flow is from AC to DC system without change in magnitude of current.
 When α = 90 deg, the negative and positive portions of the voltage are equal and because
of above fact, the DC voltage per cycle is zero. Hence the energy transferred is zero.
 When α > 90 deg, the converter acts as an inverter and the flow of power is from DC

system to AC system. Let valve 3 is fired at an angle of α. the DC output voltage is given by V d c = V d o
  From above equation we can say that if firing angle varies, the DC output voltage varies

DC Voltage wave form: The dc voltage waveform contains a ripple whose frequency is six times the
supply frequency. This can be analysed in Fourier series and contains harmonics of the order h=np Where p is the
pulse number and n is an integer. The rms value of the hth order harmonic in dc voltage is given by

 Although α can vary from 0 to 180 degrees, the full range cannot be utilized. In order to
ensure the firing of all the series connected thyristors, it is necessary to provide a minimum limit of α
greater than zero, say 5 deg.
 Also in order to allow for the turn off time of a valve, it is necessary to provide an upper limit less than
1800
 The delay angle α is not allowed to go beyond 180-γ where γ is called the
extinction angle (sometimes also called the marginal angle).
 The minimum value of the extinction angle is typically 10 deg, although in normal operation as an
inverter, it is not allowed to go below 15deg or 18deg
AC current waveform:

It is assumed that the direct current has no ripple (or harmonics) because of the smoothing reactor
provided in series with the bridge circuit. The AC currents flowing through the valve (secondary) and
primary windings of the converter transformer contain harmonics. The waveform of the current in a valve
winding is shown in fig
The rms magnitude of a rectangular current waveform is given by

By Fourier analysis, the peak value of a line current of fundamental frequency component is given by

Now the rms value of line current of fundamental frequency component is given by

In general the RMS value of nth harmonic is given by

Where I=Fundamental current and n= nth order harmonic

The harmonic contained in the current waveform are of the order given by h=np±1

Where n is an integer , p is the pulse number

The power Factor:

The AC power supplied to the converter is given by

Where is the power factor

The DC power must match the AC power ignoring the losses in the converter. Thus we get

Substituting for Vdc=Vdocosα and we obtain

The reactive power requirement are increased as α is increased from 0

When α=900 the power factor is zero and only reactive power is consumed.

WITH OVERLAP:

In fig Lc indicates leakage inductance of transformer

Vd, Id = DC voltage and current flowing in the line

Ld = DC side reactance

V1 = voltage across the thyristors

P ,n = positive and negative pole on the line

Due to the leakage inductance of the converter transformers and the impedance in the supply network, the
current in a valve cannot change suddenly and thus commutation from one valve to the next cannot be
instantaneous. For example, when valve 3 is fired, the current transformer from valve 1 to valve 3, takes a finite
period during which both valves are conducting. This is called overlap and its duration is measured by the
overlap (commutation) angle µ

Commutation delay or process:

The process of transfer of current from one path to another path with both paths carrying current
simultaneously is known overlap.
The time required for commutation or overlapping which is expressed in electrical degrees is done with
commutation angle, denoted by µ.
During normal operating conditions the overlap angle is in the range of 0 to 60 degrees, in which two (or) three
valves are conducting.
However, if the overlap angle is the range of 60 to 120 degrees, then three to four valves are in conducting state
which is known as abnormal operation mode .During commutation period, the current increases from 0 to I d in
the incoming valve and reduces to zero from Id in the outgoing valve. The commutation process begins with
delay angle and ends with extinction a n g l e i e . , i t s t a r t s w h e n w t = µ a n d e n d s w h e n w t = α + µ = δ ,
w h e r e δ i s k n o w n a s a n extinction angle
There are three modes of the converter as follows:

1.Mode-1----Two and three valve conduction (µ<60deg)

2.Mode-2----Three valve conduction (µ=60deg)

3.Mode-3----Three and four valve conduction (µ>60deg)

Depending upon the delay angle α, the mode 2 must be just a point on the boundary of modes 1 and 3.

i) Analysis of Two and Three valve conduction mode: Generally overlap angle will be less than 60deg, so let us
analyze this mode.

T i m i n g d i a g ra m

In this mode each interval of the period of supply can be divided into two sub intervals. In the first sub interval, three
valves are conducting and in this condo subinterval, two valves are conducting.
Let us assume the input voltages

Corresponding line voltages are eac , eba , ecb

Simillarly

Each valve will conduct for 120 degrees and each pair will conduct for 60degrees, if there is no overlap. Let us
consider non-overlap of only valve 1,2 conducting followed by overlap of 3 with 1.Ie., 1,2 and 3 conducting.
When only valve 1 and 2 conducting
When valve 3 is fired then 3 will overlap with 1 and it will be 3 valve conduction periods ie., 1, 2 and 3.For this
period the emanation for the voltage and current are different and thus can be obtained as follows:

Consider that valve 3 is ignited at angle α and for overlap angle both 1 and 3 conduct together. The duration of
overlap 1 and 3 will conduct top with 2 at the bottom as shown in the fig. Just at the beginning,

At

When the overlap ends at an angle (α+µ)

At

The angle ( ) is called extinction angle

During overlap a loop is formed as N-3-1-N

For this loop,

Assuming the dc current either i1 alone conduct, i3 alone when 3 alone conducts should be equal to Id So both 1
and 3 conduct overlap
So

Integrating both sides

Voltage and current waveforms during firing of a valve (a) rectifier (b) Inverter
Expression for average DC voltage:
During one cycle there will be six pulse of DC voltage each pulse having one non-overlap duration and one
overlap duration.

For example between and devices 1,2 and 3 will conduct, to when only 3 and 2

will conduct. Total duration for the pulse being

1, 2, 3 conduct 3 & 2 conduct

When E= rms phase voltage if

If µ=0 , no overlap

DC voltage and valve voltage waveform for rectifier when α=150 , µ=150 and δ=300
Converter Bridge Characteristics
Rectifier:
The rectifier in general has three modes;
1) First mode :Two and three mode conduction mode (µ<600)
2) Second mode: Three valve conduction mode 0≤α≤300 (µ=600)
3) Third mode : Three and four valve conduction mode α>300 (600<µ≤1200)
As the DC current continues to increase the converter operation changes over from mode 1 to 2 and finally to
mode 3.
The DC voltage continues to decrease until it reaches zero.
For α≥300 mode 2 is bypassed
From mode 1 we have

From mode 3

The voltage and current characteristics are linear in these cases.

For mode 2 µ=600 for µ=constant the characteristics are elliptical and equation is given by

Where
Inverter characteristics
 The inverter characteristics are similar to the rectifier characteristics.
 The operation of an inverter requires a minimum commutation margin angle during which the voltage
across the valve is negative
 Hence operation of inverter is diferent from that of rectifier
 The commutation margin angle ( ξ ) is equal to the extinction angle (γ) only for values of β≤600

 From the figure the voltage across the valve has a positive dent D because of succeeding
commutation

 This dent normally occurs for β<600

 Hence under this condition ξ = γ

 First Range: β<600

ξ=γ

 With increased overlap and consequently earlier firing of the valve the dent encroaches on the
period in which the valve voltage would be negative

 This makes ξ < γ

 Second Range: 600< β<900

ξ = 600 -µ= γ-(β- 600

 After the front of the dent become entirely

negative further advance of the dent does not decrees commutation
margin further

 Thus the margin angle (ξ) has different relation ship to γ depending on
the operation

 Third Range: β>900

ξ = γ-300
Twelve pulse converters
A 12 pulse converter is obtained by the series connection of two bridges.
The 300 phase displacement between the two sets of source voltages is achieved by the transformer
connections Y/Y for feeding one bridge and Y/∆ for feeding the second bridge.
The use of 12 pulse converter is preferable over the six pulse converter because of the reduced filtering
requirements
Analysis of a twelve pulse converters:
The currents supplied by the supply are sum of the currents flowing in the two primary windings thus

iA =iAS +iAD
iB =iBS +iBD
iC =iCS +iCD
Assume turns ratio of the transformer feeding bridge 1 as 1:1
And second bridge as 1:√3
Assume eA ,eB and ec are defined as follows

We get the line to line voltages applied to the second bridge as

Assuming the identical delay angle for both the bridges valve 3 in the second bridge will be fired 30 0 after firing valve 3 in
bridge 1
intervals I(a) I(b) II(a) II(b) III(a) III(b) IV(a) IV(b) V(a) V(b) VI(a) VI(b)
Conducting
2,3 3,4 4,5 5,6 6,1 1,2
Valves bridge I
Vd1 ebcS ebaS ecaS ecbS eabS eacS
 Conducting
1,2 2,3 3,4 4,5 5,6 6,1 1,2
Valves bridge II
Vd2 eacD ebcD ebaD ecaD ecbD eabD eacD

The DC voltage Vdc for a 12 pulse converter is the sum of the DC voltages for the individual bridges. Thus

For the interval I(a) the R.H.S can be expressed as

Where Em is defined as

The average DC voltage (Vdc) is given by

Where

The current iBD flowing in the primary winding of the star/delta connected transformer is given by

The Wave form of iBS , iBD , and iB are shown in fig. below

The rms valve of the fundamental component of the supply current in a 12 pulse converter is given by
The harmonic current Ih is given by