International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management

Predicting purchase intentions for uni-national and bi-national products

Soyoung KimDawn Thorndike Pysarchik
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Soyoung KimDawn Thorndike Pysarchik, (2000),"Predicting purchase intentions for uni-national and bi-national products",
International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, Vol. 28 Iss 6 pp. 280 - 291
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Francis Piron, (2000),"Consumers’ perceptions of the country-of-origin effect on purchasing intentions of (in)conspicuous
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Cheng Lu Wang, Zhen Xiong Chen, (2004),"Consumer ethnocentrism and willingness to buy domestic products in a
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Predicting purchase
intentions for
uni-national and
bi-national products
Soyoung Kim and
Dawn Thorndike Pysarchik
The authors
Soyoung Kim is an Assistant Professor in the
Department of Human Environments, Utah State
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University, Logan, Utah, USA.
Dawn Thorndike Pysarchik is an Associate Professor in
the Department of Human Environment and Design, and
Associate Dean of International Studies and Programs,
Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA.
Keywords
Retailing, Product management, Brands,
Consumer behaviour, International marketing
Abstract
Aims to predict purchase intentions for uni-national and bi-
national products by examining the relationships among
brand attitude, country-of-manufacture (COM), consumer
ethnocentrism, product evaluation, and product attitude.
The sample included 281 students from three Midwestern
universities in the USA. A model incorporating the
hypothesized relationships among the variables was tested
separately for the three different product categories of
cameras, television sets, and sweaters. Data were analyzed
by a maximum-likelihood estimation procedure using
LISREL VII. The proposed model showed an acceptable fit
to the data for all three product categories. Findings
indicated that favorable attitudes toward a product
significantly predicted intention to purchase the product.
The relationships between ethnocentrism, brand attitude,
COM, and product evaluation were product-specific.
Electronic access
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is
available at
http://www.emerald-library.com
International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management
Volume 28 . Number 6 . 2000 . pp. 280±291
# MCB University Press . ISSN 0959-0552
280
Introduction
Today, many products available in the
marketplace are being sourced globally as
manufacturers move their production
facilities to countries with lower labor costs
(Thakor and Katsanis, 1997). This has
yielded a market environment with a myriad
of brands ± domestic, imported and hybrid ±
which often confuses consumers' traditional
decision-making criteria and strategies.
Products involving a single country are
referred to as uni-national products; these
products are either purely domestic or purely
foreign products. By comparison, hybrids or
bi-national products are those branded by a
company headquartered in one country yet
manufactured in another country. These
products, therefore, involve two countries: the
country-of-origin (COO) or origin country
(OC) and the country-of-manufacture
(COM). The COO denotes the home country
for a company or the country that consumers
infer from brand name, whereas the COM
reflects the country where the product is
manufactured (Han and Terpstra, 1988;
Nebenzahl et al., 1997; Samiee, 1994).
Multinational production has made the
issue of country image effects more complex,
(Brodowsky, 1998) and, thus, studying the
relationship between country-product image
and purchasing behavior has become more
important (Nebenzahl et al., 1997). Recently,
Nebenzahl et al. (1997), who recognized the
lack of theory development in country-
product image research, proposed a causal
model explaining the relationships among
consumer characteristics, country image
effects such as brand image and COM, and
purchase decisions. These variables have been
examined extensively in the past, but most
studies are descriptive (Nebenzahl et al.,
1997). Incorporating a number of variables
within one causal model facilitates
understanding of the predictive relationships
among the variables as well as the relative and
disparate effects of the variables. Thus, the
present study used the Nebenzahl, Jaffe, and
Lampert's model of product image as a
conceptual framework to explore the
predictive linkages between consumer
ethnocentrism (consumer individual
characteristic variable), brand attitude, COM
cues, product evaluation, product attitude,
and purchase intention.
 Predicting purchase intentions for uni-national and bi-national products
Soyoung Kim and Dawn Thorndike Pysarchik
Why certain consumers are more likely to
consider COO or COM cues is a relatively
new area of country-product image research
(Brodowsky, 1998). Researchers have
identified consumer characteristics such as
ethnocentrism (Brodowsky, 1998; Marcoux et
al., 1997; Shimp and Sharma, 1987),
consumer patriotism (Han, 1988), product
familiarity (Johansson et al., 1985; Johansson
and Nebenzahl, 1986) and consumer need for
cognition (Zhang, 1997) as predictor or
moderating variables that may explain the
salience of COO and COM cues. Among
these, consumer ethnocentrism is probably the
most widely studied consumer characteristic
variable in the country-product image
literature (Brodowsky, 1998; Durvasula et al.,
1997; Han, 1988; Marcoux et al., 1997;
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Sharma et al., 1995; Shimp and Sharma,
1987) and, thus, chosen in this study.
Consumers evaluate products by analyzing
extrinsic and intrinsic cues. Extrinsic cues are
those that are not a part of the physical
product, while intrinsic cues are those that are
integral to the product (Thakor and Katsanis,
1997). Brand name and COM cues are two
extrinsic cues that consumers often rely upon
to evaluate a product especially when they are
unable to detect its intrinsic qualities or when
intrinsic cues are not available (Ahmed and
d'Astous, 1996; Han, 1989). Consumers
form impressions of a brand name based on
their knowledge of products associated with
the brand, and such impressions are
determined not only by physical
characteristics of the product, but also by
other factors such as packaging, advertising,
price, and stereotype of the consumer
(Ahmed and d'Astous, 1996). On the other
hand, a favorable or unfavorable COM
reflects consumers' overall perceptions of
products made in the country or their
stereotypes associated with the country
(Nebenzahl et al., 1997). Although some
studies found insignificant effects of COM on
consumers' perceptions of products (McLean
et al., 1986; Sternquist and Davis, 1986), it
has been generally agreed that most products
originating in foreign countries are subject to
COM effects (Brodowsky, 1998; Dickerson,
1982; Han and Terpstra, 1988; Johannson
and Nebenzahl, 1986; Shim et al., 1989; Siu
and Chan, 1997; Thorelli et al., 1988; Wang
and Lamb, 1983). In addition, the COM has
been known to affect consumers' evaluations
of product-specific attributes as well as overall
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International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management
Volume 28 . Number 6 . 2000 . 280±291
product quality (Han, 1989; Li and Dant,
1997; Han and Terpstra, 1988; Thakor and
Katsanis, 1997).
Most past studies of COM effects on
consumer evaluations have dealt exclusively
with uni-national products and merely
reported the existence of differences in
perceived quality between domestic and
foreign brands (Han and Terpstra, 1988).
Only recently, researchers have begun to
examine the relative effect of COM and brand
name on consumer evaluations of bi-national
products (Ahmed and d'Astous, 1996;
Ahmed et al., 1997; Chao, 1989; d'Astous
and Ahmed, 1992; Haubl, 1996; Han and
Terpstra, 1988; Okechuku, 1994; Tse and
Gorn, 1993). Some of these studies have
found brand name to be a less important cue
than the COM (Ahmed and d'Astous, 1996;
Han and Terpstra, 1988; Tse and Gorn,
1993). In other studies, brand name appeared
to be a more important predictor of perceived
quality than the COM cue and price
information (Ahmed and d'Astous, 1993;
Chao, 1989; d'Astous and Ahmed, 1992).
Okechuku (1994), however, reported that
brand name and COM cues were about
equally important to consumers when
forming judgments about products.
Nebenzahl and Jaffe (1996) found that
consumers' impressions of a brand name
remained the same whether or not COM
information is provided, suggesting that
brand image is not affected by the presence of
COM cues. In the present study, we
attempted to investigate the relative
importance of brand attitude (or consumers'
overall impression of selected brands) and
COM cues as predictors of consumer
evaluations and intention to buy both uni-
national and bi-national products.
Some studies have suggested that the
influence of brand and COM cues in product
evaluations is product-specific rather than
country-specific (d'Astous and Ahmed, 1992;
Etzel and Walker, 1974; Hafhill, 1980; Siu
and Chan, 1997). d'Astous and Ahmed
(1992) observed that the COM cue and brand
name were relatively unimportant for T-shirts
while consumers relied heavily upon these
cues for more complex products such as VCRs
and automobiles. In this study, therefore, we
were interested to determine if the
relationships among brand attitude, COM,
product evaluations, and other variables of
interest vary across product categories.
 Predicting purchase intentions for uni-national and bi-national products
Soyoung Kim and Dawn Thorndike Pysarchik
The purposes of this study, therefore, were
to predict purchase intentions for uni-national
and bi-national products by examining the
relationships among the variables of consumer
ethnocentrism, brand attitude, COM, product
evaluation, and product attitude; and to
examine whether the relationships among the
variables are consistent for different product
categories (technical products are a camera
and a television, and one softgoods product is
a sweater).
Hypotheses
Consumer ethnocentrism
Consumer ethnocentrism reflects consumers'
beliefs about the suitability and virtue of
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purchasing foreign products (Shimp and
Sharma, 1987). It provides consumers with
feelings of belonging and guidelines of
purchase behavior acceptable to an in-group.
Ethnocentrism may account partially for
different evaluations of foreign and domestic
products (Netemeyer et al., 1991). According
to this view, highly ethnocentric consumers
may think that the purchase of imported
products is bad because it injures the domestic
economy, causes unemployment, and is
unpatriotic (Shimp and Sharma, 1987).
Therefore, they may devalue the quality of
foreign products. In contrast, nonethnocentric
consumers evaluate imports more objectively
regardless of national origin (McIntyre and
Meric, 1994). Shimp and Sharma (1987)
developed the consumer-ethnocentric
tendency scale (CETSCALE), an
instrument to measure consumers'
ethnocentrism.
Brodowsky (1998) found empirical support
for the presence of positive biases toward
domestic products and negative biases against
imports among highly ethnocentric US
consumers. Also, Marcoux et al. (1997) found
that Polish consumers with a low interest in
patriotic consumption showed a preference
for products made in Western countries.
Therefore, because the study was conducted
in the United States, the first hypothesis to be
tested was:
H1: Consumer ethnocentrism will
negatively affect the evaluation of
imported brands (e.g. Nikon and Gold
Star), but will not affect the evaluation
of domestic brands (e.g. Polo).
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Volume 28 . Number 6 . 2000 . 280±291
Brand attitude
The importance of overall brand attitude in
consumer perceptions of product attributes has
been widely reported in the consumer behavior
literature (e.g. Chao, 1989; d'Astous and
Ahmed, 1992; Han and Terpstra, 1988;
Okechuku, 1994; Thakor and Pacheco, 1997).
Overwhelmed by the proliferation of new
products in the marketplace, many consumers
tend to rely on familiar brand names when
making purchase decisions (Ahmed and
d'Astous, 1996). Brand names provide
customers with a recognized cue and
associative information about a firm's products,
which may be used for product evaluation to
infer the quality of a product (Rao and
Monroe, 1989). Han and Terpstra (1988)
observed that brand name affected consumer
evaluations of the quality of both uni-national
and bi-national products. Accordingly, the
following hypothesis was generated:
H2: Overall brand attitude will positively
affect product evaluation for both uni-
national and bi-national products.
Country of manufacture (COM)
Numerous studies (Dickerson, 1982; Han
and Terpstra, 1988; Shim et al., 1989;
Thorelli et al., 1988; Wang and Lamb, 1983)
have been conducted in an effort to determine
whether the COM of a product is used by
consumers as an information cue in purchase
decisions. Most of the studies suggested that
COM is an important determinant in a
consumer's perception of a product. For
example, Dickerson (1982) found that
consumers perceived domestic apparel to be
of higher quality than imported apparel.
Similarly, Shim et al. (1989) found that
college students held more favorable attitudes
toward domestic apparel.
Although consumers tend to evaluate their
own country's products more favorably, there
is also a tendency for consumers to rate
products from industrialized countries as being
superior to those from developing countries
(Thakor and Katsanis, 1997; Wang and
Lamb, 1983). For example, Howard (1989)
found American consumers to rate Japanese
products as being of significantly superior
quality than that of domestic products. Wang
and Lamb (1983) also reported that
respondents were more willing to purchase
products manufactured in countries which
were economically developed and democratic.
 Predicting purchase intentions for uni-national and bi-national products
Soyoung Kim and Dawn Thorndike Pysarchik
This suggests negative stereotyping of less
developed countries of origin.
Several studies (Johansson and Nebenzahl,
1986; Han and Terpstra, 1988; Tse and Lee,
1993; Cordell, 1992) have examined brand-
COM interaction effects in relation to
consumer evaluation of bi-national products.
Johansson and Nebenzahl (1986) argued that
COM effects decrease for brands with strong
images or a known brand name. In other
words, the COM effect on product
evaluations is greater for unfamiliar brand
names than brands with familiar names. Tse
and Lee (1993) also observed that a strong
global brand such as Sony could override a
negative COM. Thus, the third hypothesis
examined in this study is:
H3: The country-of-manufacture (COM)
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will not significantly affect product
evaluation for a well-known brand name
product (e.g. Nikon and Polo) but will
affect the product evaluation for a less
familiar brand name product (e.g. Gold
Star). When products carry less familiar
brands (e.g. Gold Star), consumers will
evaluate products manufactured in
developing countries (Malaysia) less
favorably than products manufactured
in the country of design (Korea).
Product attitude
Product attitude is generally defined as a
predisposition to respond to a particular
product in a favorable or unfavorable manner
(Kim, 1995). Fishbein's attitude model
proposes that a consumer's attitude toward a
product is a function of consumer evaluations
of the attributes possessed by the product.
Therefore, we predicted that:
H4: Consumers' evaluations of product
attributes will positively affect their
overall product attitudes for both uni-
national and bi-national products.
Purchase intention
The consumer's intention to purchase a
product was used as the ultimate dependent
variable in this study. According to Fishbein's
theory of reasoned action (Fishbein and Ajzen,
1975), consumers' purchase intention serves
as the mediator between their attitude toward
a product and their actual purchase behavior.
By noticing a high correlation (r = 0.95)
between purchase intention and purchase
probability, Gruber (1971) suggests that
intention provides a link between consumers'
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International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management
Volume 28 . Number 6 . 2000 . 280±291
reactions to products and their acquisition or
use of the products. Thus, intention has been
used in numerous studies as an alternative
measure to purchase behavior. The final
hypothesis to be tested, therefore, is:
H5: Consumers' product attitudes will
positively affect their purchase
intentions.
Methodology
Research design
This study used a cross-sectional
experimental design to investigate consumers'
purchase intentions of three branded
products (camera, TV, sweater) by examining
consumers' brand attitudes, ethnocentrism,
product evaluation, product attitudes, and
COM. Previous research indicated that there
was little difference in the estimation of
country-of-origin effects when tangible
product stimuli versus intangible product
descriptions were used (Liefeld, 1993). This
study was designed, therefore, using
intangible product descriptions. Respondents
were provided with a written survey
instrument that described different
hypothetical purchase situations associated
with each of the assigned products. The
instrument used in the study was adapted
from previously developed instruments
(Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975; Lee, 1990; Shimp
and Sharma, 1987; Ulgado and Lee, 1993).
Subjects were asked to imagine that they
were visiting a store to compare various
brands, features, and prices of two assigned
products. They were provided with written
information about the two products, and then
asked to respond to questions about each
product using a self-report written survey
instrument. The products described were
identical in each questionnaire except for the
COM, which was manipulated as described
below. No special attention was drawn to the
COM; it simply was listed as one of several
product attributes for each of the products.
Criteria for product and brand selection
were adopted from previous studies
(Crawford and Lumpkin, 1993; Han and
Terpstra, 1988; Liefeld, 1993; Ulgado and
Lee, 1993). These included:
. that items and brands should be
frequently bi-national; and
. the average consumer should be likely to
be familiar with them.
 Predicting purchase intentions for uni-national and bi-national products
Soyoung Kim and Dawn Thorndike Pysarchik
Additionally, focus group interviews were
conducted to further investigate consumers'
attitudes about product categories, attributes
important to specific products, brand names,
and quality/image perceptions of countries.
From the literature review and the focus
group interview discussion, the following
information was identified: three products
(two technical and one softgoods) with
relevant product attributes, brand names for
each product category, and country of origin
and country of manufacture perceptions.
The three product categories selected for
the study were technical products (camera
and color television), and a softgoods item
(sweater). The selected brands were Nikon
(from Japan) for the camera, Gold Star (from
Korea) for the TV, and Ralph Lauren Polo
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(from the USA) for the sweater. Two COMs
were selected for each product brand; one
being the home country of the manufacturing
company (uni-national and high match) and
the second being a lesser-developed country
(bi-national and low match). The selected
COMs for the Nikon camera were Japan (uni-
national) and China (bi-national), for the
Gold Star TV were Korea (uni-national) and
Malaysia (bi-national), and for the Polo
sweater were the USA (uni-national) and
Mexico (bi-national).
The self-report survey instrument,
containing all three products (camera, TV and
sweater), was pretested to assess question
comprehension and clarity, and instrument
administration. Pretest respondents indicated
that responding to questions about three
products made the instrument too long.
Therefore, the final questionnaire included
hypothetical buying situations and questions
for only two of the three brand products; the
Nikon camera and either the Ralph Lauren
(Polo) sweater or the Gold Star TV. This
necessitated the creation of four
questionnaires, each containing two of the
three products, with the COM of each of the
two products (one uni-national and one bi-
national) being the only manipulation; all other
product attributes for the two assigned
products were identical. Subjects were
randomly assigned to one of the four
treatments, which resulted in between-subject
measures: questionnaire #1, a Nikon camera
made in Japan (uni-national) and a Gold Star
TV made in Malaysia (bi-national);
questionnaire #2, a Nikon camera made in
Japan (uni-national) and a Polo sweater made
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International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management
Volume 28 . Number 6 . 2000 . 280±291
in Mexico (bi-national); questionnaire #3, a
Nikon camera made in China (bi-national) and
a Gold Star TV made in Korea (uni-national);
and questionnaire #4, a Nikon camera made in
China (bi-national) and a Polo sweater made
in the USA (uni-national). Previous studies
found that between-subject measures are
preferable to within-subject measures since
effects sizes were elevated when within-subject
designs were used (Liefeld, 1993).
Measures
Brand attitudes. Prior to exposure to the
hypothetical buying scenarios, subjects'
general impressions of the specific product
brands were assessed. This measure was
needed to ascertain respondents' attitudes
toward the branded product, which reflected
their previous experiences with the brand.
Respondents' prior impression of each brand,
therefore, was measured by responding to
separate questions about each product brand:
``We are interested in your general impression
of Nikon cameras/Gold Star TVs/Ralph
Lauren (Polo) sweaters'', using a five-point
Likert scale (1 = very bad to 5 = very good)
(Ulgado and Lee, 1993).
Consumer ethnocentrism. Shimp and
Sharma's (1987) consumer-ethnocentric
tendency scale (CETSCALE) was used to
measure consumer ethnocentrism. The
CETSCALE consists of 17 items (see
Table I). Respondents were asked to indicate
their agreement with each of the
17 statements, ranging from 1= strongly
disagree to 5= strongly agree. Higher scores
represented stronger ethnocentrism.
Cronbach's alpha coefficient of reliability was
0.95.
Product evaluation. To evaluate the product
attributes, subjects were presented with
hypothetical buying scenarios for each of the
assigned two products, and then asked
questions about each product separately.
They indicated their perceptions of the
presence of relevant intrinsic and extrinsic
attributes for each product (eight attributes
for the Nikon camera, eight for the Gold Star
TV, and six for the Polo sweater). Using a
five-point Likert scale (1 = very unlikely to
5 = very likely), subjects answered individual
questions about each attribute via the
following question: ``How likely is it that this
Nikon camera/Gold Star TV/Ralph Lauren
Polo sweater (described above) has the
following characteristics'': (attributes were
 Predicting purchase intentions for uni-national and bi-national products International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management
Soyoung Kim and Dawn Thorndike Pysarchik Volume 28 . Number 6 . 2000 . 280±291

Table I Ethnocentrism scale

Items
1. American people should always buy American-made products instead of imports
2. Only those products that are unavailable in the USA should be imported
3. Buy American-made products. Keep Americans working
4. American products, first, last, and foremost
5. Purchasing foreign-made products is un-American
6. It is not right to purchase foreign products because it puts Americans out of jobs
7. A real American should always buy American-made products
8. We should purchase products manufactured in America instead of letting other countries get rich off us
9. It is always best to purchase American products
10. There should be very little trading or purchasing of goods from other countries unless out of necessity
11. Americans should not buy foreign products, because this hurts American business and causes unemployment
12. Curbs should be put on all imports
13. It may cost me in the long-run, but I prefer to support American products
14. Foreigners should not be allowed to put their products on our markets
15. Foreign products should be taxed heavily to reduce their entry in the USA
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16. We should buy from foreign countries only those products that we cannot obtain within our own country
17. American consumers who purchase products made in other countries are responsible for putting their fellow
Americans out of work

listed for each product) (Lee, 1990; Ulgado Table II Factor analysis of product evaluation (sweaters)
and Lee, 1993). Factor
Data reduction was accomplished by Factor title and items loadings Alpha
conducting separate factor analyses for each
Sweater prestige
of the three sets of product attributes. Factor
Fashionable design 0.82
analysis results for cameras generated a single
Expensive price 0.81
factor that accounted for 43 percent of the
Prestigious brand name 0.64
total variance. The factor included items such
Desirable colors 0.55
as ``of good quality'', ``takes a sharp picture'',
0.79
``easy to use and operate'', ``manufactured
using high technology'', ``prestigious brand Sweater function
name'', ``expensive price'', and ``easily Easy care 0.83
accessible authorized service centers'' Desirable fiber content 0.80
(eigenvalue = 3.00) ( = 0.76). The factor Comfort 0.65
was named ``camera quality''. 0.82
Factor analysis of product attributes for
Sweater quality
TVs also resulted in a single factor, explaining
Manufacturered using
54 percent of the total variance. The factor
high technology 0.81
included items such as ``of good quality'',
Of good quality 0.79
``manufactured using high technology'',
0.53
``prestigious brand name'', ``expensive price'',
``easily accessible authorized service centers'',
Product attitudes. After subjects read the
``a sharp picture'', and ``quality hi-fi stereo
hypothetical product scenario and responded
sound system'' (eigenvalue = 3.75) ( =
to product evaluation questions for each of
0.85). The factor was labeled ``TV quality''.
the two assigned products, they were asked
Finally, factor analysis of product
about their overall attitudes toward each of
evaluation items for sweaters resulted in three
the products. Product attitudes were assessed
factors:
by the item, ``After seeing the product
(1) sweater prestige;
described above (Nikon camera/Gold Star
(2) sweater function; and
TV/Ralph Lauren Polo sweater), my general
(3) sweater quality (see Table II).
impression of the product would be good'' (1
The factors accounted for 68 percent of the = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree)
total variance. (Ulgado and Lee, 1993).
285
 Predicting purchase intentions for uni-national and bi-national products
Soyoung Kim and Dawn Thorndike Pysarchik
Purchase intention. Researchers have used
the intention-to-purchase scale as an
attitudinal measure of likely purchase
behavior. After reading the information in the
hypothetical scenario, subjects were asked
about their likelihood of buying the product
as described. A subject's purchase intention
for each of the products was assessed by two
measures: ``It is likely that I would buy the
camera/TV/sweater described above'' and ``I
believe that it would be wise for me to buy the
Nikon camera/Gold Star TV/Polo sweater
described above'', using a five-point Likert
scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly
agree) (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975; Lee,
1990). Cronbach's alphas were 0.67, 0.89,
and 0.78 for cameras, TVs, and sweaters,
respectively.
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Demographic information. Demographic data
were also collected for sample description
purposes. Respondents were asked about
their age, gender, marital status, education,
and income (family income if dependent
upon their parents).
Sample characteristics. The four self-
report questionnaires were randomly
assigned to 281 students from three
Midwestern US colleges and universities.
The three educational institutions were
selected to provide a broad representation
of students.
The first is a large research-intensive
university with undergraduate and graduate
programs, the second is primarily an
undergraduate university, and the third is a
junior college with a significant enrollment of
non-traditional (i.e. older and part-time)
students. Questionnaires were distributed in
different courses (education, technical,
business, retailing and others) at each
institution to obtain a diverse group of
students with varied educational backgrounds
and professional orientations.
Respondents were distributed
approximately equally from the three
institutions. They were between 17 and 54
years old; the average age was 23 years.
Women represented 84 percent of the sample.
Almost 71 percent of the respondents
reported an annual family household income
of $75,000 or less; approximately 27 percent
had an annual household income under
$9,999. Approximately 71 percent had some
college education, reflecting their current
student status.
286
International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management
Volume 28 . Number 6 . 2000 . 280±291
Analysis
The analysis was conducted using the
maximum-likelihood estimation procedure
via LISREL VII (JoÈreskog and SoÈrbom,
1989). This technique involves estimation of
the population parameters most likely to have
produced the observed data. Because the
scales used in this study revealed a reasonable
degree of internal consistency, we decided to
use summated scale scores as single item
indicators (Brown et al., 1993). In addition, it
was hypothesized that the three dimensions of
product evaluation for sweaters would have
no direct association, therefore, the residuals
were allowed to covary with each other. In
analyzing the proposed model, we first
evaluated model-data fit using several
goodness-of-fit indexes. Then, the parameter
estimates associated with the research
hypotheses were examined.
Results
Proposed model
Several measures such as a chi-square
statistic, goodness-of-fit index (GFI),
adjusted goodness-of-fit index (AGFI), and
root mean square residual (RMS) were used
to evaluate the proposed model. A chi-square
statistic measures the difference between the
sample variance-covariance matrix and the
one reproduced through model estimation;
accordingly, a large chi-square value
represents a poor model fit (JoÈreskog and
SoÈrbom, 1989; Pedhazur, 1982). On the
other hand, GFI and AGFI scores are
indicators of the extent to which the variance
and covariance are explained by the model.
The AGFI adjusts for the degrees of freedom
of a model relative to the number of variables,
while the GFI does not. Finally, the RMS is a
measure of the average residual variances and
covariances. Generally, a p value for a chi-
square test > 0.05, GFI > 0.95, AGFI > 0.90,
and RMS < 0.05 are considered evidence of
good fit (JoÈreskog and SoÈrbom, 1989).
The proposed model to the data shows
reasonable model-data fit for all three product
categories. The value of chi-square for the
model for cameras was 28.28 (df = 7,
p < 0.001) and the GFI, AGFI, and RMS
were 0.97, 0.90, and 0.07, respectively. The
chi-square statistic associated with the model
for TVs was not significant at the 0.01 level
 Predicting purchase intentions for uni-national and bi-national products
Soyoung Kim and Dawn Thorndike Pysarchik
(2 = 17.39, df = 7, p = 0.015), indicating
more satisfactory fit of the model for TVs.
The GFI, AGFI, and RMS for the TVs model
were 0.96, 0.89, and 0.07, respectively. The
chi-square statistic for the model for sweaters
International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management
Volume 28 . Number 6 . 2000 . 280±291
The last two hypotheses predicted the positive
relationships between product evaluation,
product attitude, and purchase intention.
Respondents' evaluations of the camera
quality strongly affected their attitude toward
was 21.75 (df = 9, p = 0.010), and the GFI, the camera (21 = 0.20, t = 3.42), which in
AGFI, and RMS were 0.96, 0.86, and 0.07, turn predicted their intention to purchase it
respectively.
Tests of hypotheses
As shown in Figure 1, four of the five
hypothesized relationships were confirmed
when the proposed model was tested for
cameras. Surprisingly, ethnocentrism had a
11 = ±0.03, t = ±0.34),
direct positive causal influence on Americans'
evaluations of the quality of the assigned
Nikon camera (
11 = 0.19, t = 3.23).
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Respondents who exhibited higher level
ethnocentric tendencies tended to perceive
22 = 0.33, t = 4.07), but not significantly
the quality of the Nikon camera more
31 = 0.04, t = 0.52).
favorably.
Overall brand attitude was found to have a
strong positive direct effect on respondents'
evaluations of the quality of the camera (
22 =
0.19, t = 3.27), in agreement with the second
hypothesis. Those who had more positive
overall impressions of a Nikon brand camera
( 32 = 0.37, t = 6.62).
Figure 2 presents parameter estimates of
the proposed model for TVs. Four of the five
hypothesized relationships were confirmed.
Ethnocentrism had no direct impact on
respondents' evaluation of the quality of a
Gold Star TV (
providing no support for the first hypothesis.
As expected by the second and third
hypotheses, respondents' evaluations of the
quality of a Gold Star TV was positively
influenced by their overall brand attitudes
(
influenced by COM (
Those who had a more positive overall
impression of a Gold Star brand perceived the
quality of the described Gold Star TV more
favorably.
In relation to the last two hypotheses,
respondents' evaluations of the TV quality
exerted a strong positive effect on their
perceived the quality to be more favorable. In attitude toward the TV (21 = 0.42, t = 5.38),
relation to the third hypothesis, we expected which in turn predicted their purchase
that COM would not be an important factor
determining consumers' evaluations of a
product when the product carries a well-
known brand name such as Nikon or Polo. As
expected, COM was not significantly related
to consumer evaluations of the quality of the
camera (
31 = 0.04, t = 0.62). evaluation for Polo, a domestic brand
Figure 1 Proposed model and parameter estimates (camera)
287
intention (32 = 0.65, t = 9.89).
The analysis of the model for Polo sweaters
provided partial support for the five
hypothesized relationships (see Figure 3). As
expected, ethnocentrism had no direct
influence on all three dimensions of product
 Predicting purchase intentions for uni-national and bi-national products International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management
Soyoung Kim and Dawn Thorndike Pysarchik Volume 28 . Number 6 . 2000 . 280±291

Figure 2 Proposed model and parameter estimates (TV)

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Figure 3 Proposed model and parameter estimates (sweater)

( 11 = 0.15, t = 1.78; 21 = 0.04, t = 0.47; More favorable evaluations of the prestige

31 = 0.02, t = 0.25). Overall, brand attitude and quality of the sweater led to a more
was shown to exert strong positive direct favorable overall attitude toward the sweater
effects on respondents' evaluations of the ( 41 = 0.27, t = 2.66; 43 = 0.27, t = 3.32),
prestige and functional aspects of the Polo but evaluations of the functional aspects of
sweater (
12 = 0.29, t = 3.58;
22 = 0.34, the sweater did not affect overall product
t = 4.19), but no effect on evaluations of attitude ( 42 = 0.05, t = 0.45). Consistent
sweater quality (
32 = 0.10, t = 1.19). Those with the final hypothesis, favorable attitudes
with a more positive overall impression of a were significant in predicting purchase
Polo brand tended to perceive the prestige intentions (54 = 0.68, t = 10.58).
and functional aspects of the Polo sweater
more favorably. COM significantly influenced
consumers' evaluations of the quality of the Discussion and recommendations
sweater; the sweater manufactured in Mexico
received less favorable responses than the While the effect of COM on the evaluation of
American-manufactured sweater in terms of uni-national products has received a great
quality (
33 = ±0.21, t = ±2.52). deal of attention, far less effort has been
288
 Predicting purchase intentions for uni-national and bi-national products
Soyoung Kim and Dawn Thorndike Pysarchik
focused on the relative importance of brand
attitude and COM as predictors of consumer
evaluations of both uni-national and bi-
national products. This study provided a
model which incorporated the relationships
between ethnocentrism, brand attitude,
COM cues, product evaluations, product
attitude and purchase intention.
First, the relationship between consumer
ethnocentrism and product evaluation was
examined. It is generally believed that
consumers' ethnocentric tendencies negatively
affect their evaluation of foreign brands or
imported products (Brodowsky, 1998;
McIntyre and Meric, 1994; Shimp and
Sharma, 1987). Interestingly, this study shows
that ethnocentrism has a positive impact on
US consumers' evaluations of Nikon
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(Japanese brand) cameras and no impact on
their evaluations of Gold Star (Korean brand)
TVs. A possible reason for this result may be
that Nikon is a well-known global brand so
that respondents might not have associated it
with imported products or ``foreign'' brands.
Samiee (1994) argued that some brands have
been considered ``domestic'' in more than one
country. For example, Singer was considered
a German brand by Germans, a UK brand in
the UK, and an American brand in the USA.
On the other hand, the Gold Star brand may
be less familiar to US consumers so
respondents might not have associated its
country-of-origin with Korea. Therefore,
future studies should examine the moderating
effect of the perceived brand familiarity in the
relationship between ethnocentrism and
consumer product evaluations. Johansson et
al. (1985) reported that familiarity of brands
of different national origins played a great role
in product evaluations.
With regard to the COM effect, we
expected that the COM information would
have no influence on consumer evaluations of
product attributes when the product carried a
well-known brand name, such as Nikon and
Polo. As expected, there was no effect of
COM on consumer perceptions of Nikon
cameras. This is consistent with the findings
of Tse and Lee (1993). For Polo sweaters,
however, the Polo sweater made in Mexico
received a lower rating for quality than the
one made in the USA. This suggests that a
brand's quality image may diminish for
apparel (sweater) if it is manufactured in a
less developed country. Therefore, apparel
manufacturers who choose to manufacture in
289
International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management
Volume 28 . Number 6 . 2000 . 280±291
developing countries in order to reduce
production costs should also recognize the
possibility of losing a brand's quality image,
which may negatively impact on sales.
In judging the quality of less familiar brand
name products such as Gold Star, consumers
were expected to rely on COM. Specifically,
we anticipated that consumers would evaluate
products made in a developing country such
as Malaysia less favorably than those made in
a more developed country such as Korea. The
results from this study, however, indicate no
significant relationship between COM and
product evaluations for Gold Star TVs. That
is, there was no difference in the perceived
quality between a Gold Star TV made in
Korea and one made in Malaysia. These
results are similar to those of Nebenzahl and
Jaffe (1996).
Concerning the impact of overall brand
attitude on product evaluation, consumers
with a more favorable brand attitude perceive
product attributes more favorably for all the
products studied. This suggests that the
perceived attributes of products are enhanced
when a consumer has a favorable attitude
toward the brand. This finding is consistent
with Han and Terpstra (1988) and Rao and
Monroe (1989). It should be noted that in the
case of Polo sweaters, brand attitude relates
only to evaluations of the prestige and
functional aspects of the sweaters, but not to
evaluation of its quality. Therefore, we can
conclude that the relation between brand
attitude and product evaluation is product-
dimension specific for sweaters. It appears
that brand attitude is strongly associated with
prestige-based and function-based image.
As expected, consumers' evaluations of
product attributes positively affect their
overall attitude toward the product. Finally,
in an attempt to assess the consistency of
consumer attitudes with consumer intention,
the relationship between overall attitude
toward a product and purchase intention was
examined. The relationship is significant for
all three products. This suggests that product
attitudes may be a good predictor of intention
to buy. This result supports Fishbein's
Theory of Reasoned Action (Fishbein and
Ajzen, 1975).
Based on the findings of this study, some
suggestions are offered for continued research
regarding consumer evaluations of uni-
national and bi-national products. First, the
representativeness of student versus
 Predicting purchase intentions for uni-national and bi-national products
Soyoung Kim and Dawn Thorndike Pysarchik
consumer samples has been debated.
Although Shimp and Sharma (1987) reported
that ethnocentric tendencies were less
common among younger respondents, Liefeld
(1993) reported no difference in the country-
of-origin effect size between consumer and
student samples. Other researchers found that
college students reacted no differently or
offered no more error (and often less) than
non-representative US samples (Albaum,
1997; Basil, 1996). At any rate, testing the
same causal model with other populations
would be instructive. Also, the study included
a preponderance of women in the sample.
Previous studies suggest that there is
inconsistency in men's and women's views of
COM. The results of this study, then, may
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not reflect those of males. Future research,
therefore, should include more men so that
gender differences could be examined (Wall et
al., 1988).
Second, this study considered only a limited
number of brands and product categories.
Since many studies have found COM effects
are product-specific, more product categories
as well as more brands with different levels of
brand familiarity should be conducted to test
the proposed models. Third, additional
research may consider other consumer
characteristic variables that may influence
purchase intentions for uni-national and bi-
national products. For example, inclusion of
consumers' brand and product familiarity and
purchase involvement would provide
additional understanding of the salience of
brand and COM cues.
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