It is defined as “the time that one work unit spends being processed or

assembled”. It is the time interval between when one work unit begins the
operation and the next unit begins. Mathematically,
Tc = To + Th + Tt
Where Tc is the cycle time (min/pc), To is the actual processing time in the
operation (min/pc), Th is the work handling time (min/pc) and Tt is the tool
handling time.
The time to produce a batch of parts in a unit operation consists of the time to set
up for the batch plus the actual run time. Or:
𝑇𝑏 = 𝑇𝑠𝑢 + 𝑄𝑇𝑐
Where 𝑇𝑏 = total time to complete the batch (min/batch), 𝑇𝑠𝑢 =setup time
(min/batch) and Q is the batch quantity (number of pieces pc)
To determine the average production time per piece 𝑇𝑝 ,

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P20
Lean production
It aims to improve efficiency and quality in manufacturing.
Lean production: it is based on the Toyota production system developed by
Toyota Motors in Japan in 1950s. Its definition:
“Doing more work with fewer resources”
It means
- fewer workers and less equipment to accomplish more production in less
time and higher quality.
- Reducing the waste which includes:
1- Production of defect parts
2- Production of more parts than required
3- Excessive inventories
4- Unnecessary processing steps
1
 5- Unnecessary movement of workers
6- Unnecessary movement and handling
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Mechanical properties are important in design because the function and

performance of a product depend on its capacity to resist deformation under the
stresses encountered in service.
In manufacturing it exactly the opposite. Mechanical properties that are desirable
to the designer, such as high strength, usually make the manufacture of the product
more difficult.
It is helpful for the manufacture engineer to appreciate the design viewpoint and
for the designer to be aware of the manufacturing viewpoint.
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Stresses: ‫االجهادات‬
It includes three types of static stresses which are:
Tensile stresses: tend to stretch the material.
Compressive stresses: tend to squeeze the material.
Shear stresses: tend to cause adjacent portions of the materials to slide against
each other.
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Stress – Strain Relationships
Tensile Properties:
It is useful for studying the stress – strain relationship for metals. In the test, a
force is applied that pulls the material, tending to elongate it and reduce its
diameter as shown in fig.

2
Standards by ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) specify the
preparation of the test specimen and the conduct of the test itself as shown in fig.

At the beginning of the test, the specimen has an original length (𝐿𝑜 ) and area
(𝐴𝑜 ). The length is measured as the distance between the gage marks. During the
testing of a metal, the specimen stretches, then necks and finally fractures as
shown below.

3
The load and the change in length of the specimen are recorded as testing proceeds
to provide the data required to determine the stress – strain relationship. Vid 12,
13, 14 and 15.
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Engineering Stress – Strain Curve ‫منحني االجهاد – االنفعال الهندسي‬
The engineering stress at any point on the curve is defined as the force divided by
the original area:

Where s is the engineering stress, MPa, F is the applied force in the test, and Ao
is the original area of the test specimen, mm2
The engineering strain at any point in the test is given by:

Where 𝑒 is the engineering strain, mm/mm,

L is the length at any point during the elongation, mm.
The units of engineering strain are given as mm/mm, but think of it as representing
elongation per unit length, without units.

4
 The stress – strain relationship in the fig indicates two regions of behavior:
(1) Elastic
(2) Plastic
TS is the tensile strength
Fmax
TS = Ao

Y is the yield point

In the elastic region, the relationship between stress and strain is linear. Elastic
means the material returns to its original length when the load (stress) is released,
like spring. Mathematically it can be defined by Hook’s law

Where 𝐸 is the modulus of elasticity (or Young modulus), MPa and it is define as
“the measure of the inherent stiffness of a material”. It is a constant of
proportionality whose value is different for different materials. See table 3.1 for
typical values for several materials, metals and nonmetals.

5
Yield point (Y): is a strength characteristic of the material and sometimes called
yield strength, yield stress or elastic limit.
Tensile strength (or sometime called ultimate tensile strength) and the yield point
are important strength properties in design and manufacturing calculations. See
table 3.2.

Fracture stress: it the stress just before the fracture occurring.

Ductility: is the ability of a material to plastically strain without fracture. It can be
taken as either elongation or area reduction. Elongation is defined as:
Lf − Lo
EL =
Lo
Where EL is the relative elongation, Lf is the specimen length at fracture, mm.
Lo is the original specimen length, mm.
See table 3.3 for typical values of percent elongation for various materials.

6
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Compression Properties
A compression test applies a load that squeezes a cylindrical specimen between
two platens, as in fig.

7
As the specimen is compressed, its height is reduced and its cross – sectional area
is increased. Engineering stress is defined as

The engineering strain is defined as

Where h is the height of the specimen at a particular moment into the test, mm.
and ℎ𝑜 is the starting height, mm. because the height is decreased during
compression, the value of e will be negative and can be ignored when expressing
values for compression strain.
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Stress Vs Strain Curve

8
This curve is similar to the tensile test curve but the shape of the plastic portion is
different. The computed stress will be higher due to:
- The compression causes the cross section to increase.
- The load increases more rapidly.
- Friction at the surfaces in contact with the platens tends to prevent the ends
of the cylinder from spreading. So, additional energy is consumed by this
friction during the test.
Vid 16, 17 and 18.