Module 3a: Flow in Closed Equation of Continuity

Conduits At any given location (assuming incompressible fluid):

Continuity, Momentum, and Energy (Bernoulli)
Flow In = Flow Out
Qin = Qout

Robert Pitt
Since Q = (Velocity)(Cross-Sectional Area of Flow) = VA
University of Alabama
Where V = average (mean) velocity across the
and
profile.
Shirley Clark
(VA)in = (VA)out
Penn State - Harrisburg

Continuity Equation Continuity Equation

Example: Example:
Water flows in a 10-cm diameter pipe at a mean velocity of Water flows in a 10-cm diameter pipe at a mean velocity of
1.5 m/sec. What is the discharge rate of flow at a 1.5 m/sec. What is the discharge rate of flow at a
temperature of 5oC? temperature of 5oC?
Had the example asked for the mass rate of flow, the mass
Using the continuity equation, rate of flow is equal to the flow Q multiplied by the density
Q = VA of the fluid at the temperature of interest.

( )( )
Substituting:
Mass rate of flow = 0.012 m 3 /sec 1000 kg/m 3
⎛π ⎞
Q = (1.5m / sec )⎜ ⎟(0.10m )
2

⎝ ⎠
4 Mass rate of flow = 12 kg/sec
Q = 0.012m / sec
3

1
 Continuity Equation Continuity Equation

Example: Example:
Water is flowing in a 2-inch diameter pipe at a velocity of 16 Find the cross-sectional area of flow at points 1 and 2 (assume
ft/sec. The pipe expands to a 4-inch diameter pipe. Find the that the pipe is flowing full).
velocity in the 4-inch diameter pipe.
πD1 2 π (2in )(1 ft / 12in )2
By the Continuity Equation: A1 = = = 0.022 ft 2
4 4
V1A1 = V2A2 πD 2 π (4in )(1 ft / 12in )2
A2 = 2 = = 0.086 ft 2
4 4
Substituting:
V1 A1 = V2 A2
(16 ft / sec)(0.022 ft 2 ) = V2 (0.086 ft 2 )
V2 = 4.09 ft / sec

Momentum Equation Momentum Equation

• This is a vector relationship, i.e., the force equation may act in
more than one direction (x-component, y-component, and Example:
possible z-component). Determine the force exerted by the nozzle on the pipe shown
• The Law of Conservation of Momentum: when the flow rate is 0.01 m3/sec. Neglect all losses.
The time rate of change in momentum (defined as the mass rate
of flow ρAV multiplied by the velocity V) along the path of flow
will result in a force called the impulse force.
• Net force on a fluid caused by the change in momentum:
F = M(V2 – V1) = ρQ(V2 – V1)
Where F = net force
M = mass flow rate = ρQ
Assume the fluid is water. Need to find velocities using
V = velocity
continuity equation. Need cross-sectional area of flow for
Q = flow rate
continuity equation.
ρ = density

2
 Momentum Equation Momentum Equation

Solution: Solution:
Area at point 1: Velocity at point 1:

πD12 π (0.1m) 2 Q1 = Q = A1V1 = 0.01m3 / sec = (0.007854m 2 )V1

A1 = = = 0.007854m 2

4 4 V1 = 1.273m / sec

Area at point 2: Velocity at point 2:

πD2 2 π (0.025m) 2 V2 =
Q 0.01m3 / sec
=
A2 = = = 0.000491m 2
4 4 A2 0.000491m 2
V2 = 20.37 m / sec

Momentum Equation Momentum Equation

Solution: • Momentum equation usually applied to determining

Calculating the net force caused by a change in forces on a pipe in a bend.
momentum:

F = ρQ(V2 − V1 )
F = (998.2kg / m3 )(0.01m3 / sec)(20.37 − 1.273m / sec)
F = 190.6kg − m / sec2 = 190.6 N

After looking at significant figures: F = 190 N

From: Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. and George Tchobanoglous. Wastewater
Engineering: Collection and Pumping of Wastewater. McGraw-Hill, Inc. 1981.

3
 Momentum Equation Momentum Equation

Equation for the force in the x-direction: Example:

Fx = p2A2cosθ - p1A1 + ρQ(V2cosθ - V1) • Determine the magnitude and direction of the force needed to
counteract the force resulting from the change in momentum in
a horizontal 90o bend in a 200-mm force main. The rate of flow
through the force main is 0.1 m3/sec.
Equation for the force in the y-direction:
Fy = p2A2sinθ + ρQV2sinθ Note: The x-y plane
is horizontal in this
example with equal
gravitation forces on
all sections of pipe.
If the y-direction is vertical, the weight of the water and
the pipe will need to be added to the right side of the
Fy equation.

Momentum Equation Momentum Equation

Find the cross-sectional area of flow:

Solution:
• By continuity, the flow rate does not change. Therefore, Q = ⎛π ⎞ ⎛π ⎞
A = ⎜ ⎟ D 2 = ⎜ ⎟(0.20m )
2
V1A1 = V2A2. The problem indicates that at both points 1 and 2,
⎝4⎠ ⎝4⎠
the diameter is 0.20 m.
Therefore, A1 = A2, and by continuity V1 = V2. A = 0.0314m 2

Also given: D = 0.20 m

Find the velocity of flow:
θ = 90o Q 0.10m3 / sec
Looking up: ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 at 20oC (assume T) V= =
A 0.0314m 2
γ = 9789 kg/m2-sec2 at 20oC
V = 3.18m / sec

4
 Momentum Equation
Momentum Equation
Since the pressure in the system is based only on a
Find the pressure (convert velocity into an energy head term velocity component at both points 1 and 2, p1 = p2.
which equals the pressure head term):
Since V1 = V2 and A1 = A2 by continuity (and same
diameter pipe on both sides of the bend) and since p1
By Bernoulli’s equation: = p2, simplify the force equations:
p1 v2
= 1 Fx = pAcosθ - pA + ρQ(Vcosθ - V)
γ 2g
Fx = pA(cosθ - 1) + ρQV(cosθ - 1)
Substituting :
Fx = (pA + ρQV)(cosθ - 1)
p1 (3.18m / sec) 2
=
9789kg / m 2 − sec 2 2(9.81m / sec 2 ) Fy = pAsinθ + ρQVsinθ
Fy = (pA + ρQV)sinθ
p1 = 5045.4 kg/m-sec2 = 5045 Pa

Momentum Equation
Substituting:
( pA + ρQV ) = [(504.5kg / m − sec2 )(0.0314m2 ) + (998.2kg / m3 )(0.10m3 / sec)(3.18m / sec )]
( pA + ρQV ) = 475.8kg − m / sec2 = 475.8 N
cos θ = cos(90o) = 0
sin θ = sin(90o) = 1

Fx = (475.8 N )(0 − 1)
Fx = −475.8 N
Fy = (475.8 N )(1)
Fy = 475.8 N

Therefore, a thrust block capable of resisting 480 N (sig figs) must be placed
against the pipe in both the x-direction and the y-direction and pipe hangers
or appropriate bedding will be required to support the pipe from downward
gravitational forces.

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 Figure 2.17 Chin 2000

Bernoulli’s Equation (aka Energy Equation) Bernoulli’s (Energy) Equation

For Fluid Flow Between Two Points (in a pipe or channel):

2 2
P1 V1 P V
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z2 + h f1−2
γ 2g γ 2g
Where P/γ = pressure head
V2/2g = velocity head
z = static head
hf1-2 = head loss between two points(usually resulting from shear stress
along walls of pipe, within fluid, and from momentum changes at
entrances, exits, changes in cross-section or direction, and
fittings) – also abbreviated HL or hL.
Friction Slope = rate at which energy is lost along length Hydraulic Grade = pressure head + elevation head
of flow (channel or pipe) Energy Grade = hydraulic grade + velocity head

6
 Comparison of Bernoulli’s Equation for Pipe
Bernoulli’s Equation Flow vs. Open-Channel Flow

From: Terence McGhee. Water Supply and Sewerage, Sixth Edition. From: Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. and George Tchobanoglous. Wastewater
McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, NY. 1991. Engineering: Collection and Pumping of Wastewater. McGraw-Hill, Inc. 1981.

Bernoulli’s Equation Bernoulli’s Equation

Example:
Example:
• Water is flowing through a 2-inch pipe at a velocity of 16 ft/sec. Since the centerline does not change elevation z1 = z2, and z’s
The pipe expands to a 4-inch pipe. Given that the pressure in the cancel out.
2-inch pipe is 40 psig. What is the pressure in the 4-inch pipe Since friction is negligible, hf1-2 is negligible (set equal to zero).
just after expansion, assuming that friction is negligible? Substituting:
Given:
V1 = 16 ft/sec 40 lbf /in 2 (12 in/ft) 2 (16 ft/sec) 2 P (12 in/ft) 2 (4.1 ft/sec) 2
3
+ 2
= 2 3
+
g = 32.2 ft/sec2 62.4 lbf /ft 2(32.2 ft/sec ) 62.4 lbf /ft 2(32.2 ft/sec 2 )
γ = 62.4 lbf/ft3 92.31 ft + 3.98 ft = (2.31 in 2 − ft/lbf )P2 + 0.26 ft
96.03 ft = (2.31 in 2 - ft/lbf )P2
96.03 = (2.31 in 2 /lbf )P2
Solving the Continuity Equation earlier, V2 = 4.1 ft/sec
P2 = 41.57 lbf /in 2 = 41.6 psig

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 Bernoulli’s Equation Bernoulli’s Equation
Example:
Example:
What is the pressure at a depth of 300 feet in fresh water?
What is the theoretical velocity generated by a 10-foot
hydraulic head?
Elevation (Depth) Head = 300 feet
From Bernoulli’s Equation, look at pressure term (all energy is the
From Bernoulli’s Equation, look at velocity term (expresses
potential to do work as expressed by the pressure head term):
kinetic energy in system):
Velocity Head = V2/2g
Pressure Head = P/γ
g = 32.2 ft/sec2
For water, γ = 62.4 lbf/ft3
Substituting:
Substituting:
P V2
300 ft = 10 ft =
62.4lb f / ft 3 2(32.2 ft / sec2 )
P = (18720lb f / ft 2 )(1 ft 2 / 144in 2 ) V 2 = 10 ft (2)(32.2 ft / sec2 ) = 644 ft 2 / sec 2
P = 130lb f / in 2 = 130 psi
V = 25.4 ft / sec

Bernoulli’s Equation including Pumps in

Bernoulli’s Equation
the System
• Example:
A 1200-mm diameter transmission pipe carries 126 L/sec
p1 V12 p 2 V2 2 from an elevated storage tank with a water surface
+ + z1 + E pump = + + z 2 + h f1− 2
γ 2g γ 2g elevation of 540 m. Two kilometers from the tank, at an
elevation of 434 m, a pressure meter reads 586 kPa. If there
are no pumps between the tank and meter location, what is
the rate of head loss in the pipe? (Note: 1 kPa = 1000
where Epump = net energy supplied by the pump (expressed as a N/m2).
head) and includes head losses within the pump

8
 Bernoulli’s Equation Bernoulli’s Equation
• Solution: • Solution:
– Assume: velocity in tank is negligible (valid since the rate of – Check velocity head in pipe.
water drawdown at any time is slow compared to the volume
V2 0.11m / sec
of the tank). = = 0.0006m
– Assume: pressure head in tank is zero since it is likely open 2 g 2(9.81m / sec2 )
to the atmosphere and the reading on the pressure meter is
gauge pressure not absolute pressure. – Substitute into energy equation.
– Have pipe diameter and flow rate, so can calculate velocity. 2 2
P1 V1 P V
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z2 + h f1−2
Q = 126 L / sec(1m / 1000 L) = 0.126m / sec
3 3 γ 2g γ 2g
π π 0m + 0m + 540m =
586,000 N / m 2
+ 0m + 434m + h f
A= D2 = (1.2m) 2 = 1.13m 2
4 4 9,810 N / m3
Q 0.126m3 / sec h f = H L = 46.27 m
V= = = 0.11m / sec
A 1.13m 2 Friction Slope = 46.27 m / 2000m ≈ 2.3%