Section 2

Principles of Petroleum Production

System Analysis

• Introduction to well flow capacity calculations

¾ Production from undersaturated oil reservoir
¾ Production from two-phase reservoir
¾ Production from natural gas reservoir
• Single phase flow of compressible vs.
incompressible flow
• Introduction to two-phase flow systems
 Undersaturated Reservoirs – Darcy’s law
application

• Darcy’s law in cylindrical coordinate – radial direction

q k dp
= (2.1)
A µ dr
• Transient flow equation: Production-Rate-Decline curve:
∂ 2 p 1 ∂p φµct ∂p 162.6qBµ  k 
+ = ⇒ p = p − 
 log t + log − 3.23 (2.2)
φµct rw
wf i
∂r 2
r ∂r k ∂t kh 
2


kh ( p i − p wf )
q=
 k  (2.3)
162 .6 B µ  log t + log − 3 .23 
 φµ c t rw2

Steady state well performance

• Rearranged Darcy’s equation:

2 π rhk dp qµ r
q = ⇒ p − p wf = ln
µ dr 2 π hk rw (2.4)

• Well damage and skin effect:

qµ r
p − p wf = (ln + s) (2.5)
2π hk rw

141.2Bqµ re
pe − pwf = (ln + s) (2.6)
hk rw
Inflow Performance Relationship - IPR
pwf (psi)

S
S3

S2
1
S4

q (STB/d)
Production from Horizontal Wells

k H h( pe − pwf )
• Permeability anisotropy: q=
141.2 Bµ (ln Γ1Γ2 )
(2.7)

L2  I ani h 
a+ a − 2
  0 .5
4  I ani h   L  k 
where : Γ 1 = , Γ2 =   , and I ani =  H 
L/2 r ( I
 w ani + 1 )   kV 
0 .5

L  
0 .5
  r 
4
  L
a =  0 .5 +  0 . 25 +  eH    for < 0 . 9 reH
2  L/ 2   2

• Skin effect:
k H h∆p (2.8)
q=
  I ani h  ' 
141 .2 Bµ ln Γ1Γ 2 +   seq 
  L  
 Two-Phase Reservoir Production
Condensate Gas
• Fluid properties Oil reservoir reservoir reservoir
– bubble point Pi, T C D E
– formation volume C
factor
– GOR
Pwf, Twf
• Basic reservoir
Pressure
property estimation
Ptf, Ttf
• Standing Charts D’ E’
C’
Two-Phase Region

Cricondentherm
(Gas+Liquid)

Temperature
Two-phase reservoir - Property estimation (cont.)
• Liquid actual volumetric flow rate: ql=Boqo (2.10)
• Gas actual volumetric rate: qg=Bg(GOR-Rs)qo (2.11)
• Solution gas-oil-ratio (Vasquez-Beggs correlations):
Vasquez and Beggs bubble point correlation: (2.12)
C2
 
a  C1 R s
 γ gs p 1 / C 2 − a
p =  (10 )   ⇔ Rs = 10
  γ  C
 gn  1
coefficient API≤30 API>30
(γ l )
where a = -C 3 and C1 27.62 56.18
T + 460
 p  C2 0.914328 0.84246
γ gs = γ g 1 + 5 .912 × 10 − 5 (γ l ) Ts log( s ) 
 114 .7  C3 11.172 10.393

γl or S.G. of liquids/oil= density of liquids/density of pure water @

60oF (15.5 oC)

o
API = (141.5/ γl) -131.5

Specific gravity (gases) γg = MW/29

Two-phase reservoir - Property estimation (cont.)

FVF for pressures below bubble point: (2.13)

Bo= 1.0 + 4.67x10-4 Rs + 0.1751x10-4F - 1.8106x10-8RsF γl ≤ 30o API
Bo= 1.0 + 4.67x10-4 Rs + 0.11x10-4F + 0.1337x10-8RsF γl > 30o API
Where:
 γl 
F = (T − 60) 
γ 
 gs 

For pressures above bubble point:

1  ∂Bo 
co = −   or Bop = Bob exp[− co ( p − pb )]
Bo  ∂p T
− 1.433 + 5 Rs + 17 .2T − 1.150 γ gs + 12 .61γ l
co = (2.14)
p × 10 5
Two-phase reservoir - Property estimation
(cont.): Density and viscosity

• Fluid apparent density: (2.15)

8 ,830
+ 0 . 01361 γ gd R s
ρo =
131 . 5 + γ l ρ o = ρ ob exp [c o ( p − p b )]
Bo
• Fluid (oil) viscosity: (2.16)
Beggs –Robinson equation for dead oil viscosity

µod= 10A - 1 and log A=3.0324-0.02023γl -1.163log T

Egbogah-Ng modified equation for A: log A=1.8653 – 0.025086(γl) - 0.56441log T
B
Beggs-Robinson equation for live oil including dissolved gas: µob= Cµod

Where, C = 10.715 (Rs+100)-0.515 and B = 5.44 (Rs+150)-0.338

Vasquez-Beggs’ correction for pressure: µo= µob(p/pb)m
1.187
Where, m = 2.6p exp (-11.513 - 8.98x10-5p)
-2.488 0.9036 0.0197γl
Labedi’s pressure correction: µo= µob + (p/pb - 1)(10 µod pb0.6151/ 10 )
Fluid properties estimation - Accounting for
water presence

ql = qo ( WOR + Bo ) (2.17)

WORρw + Bo ρo
ρ l= (2.18)
WOR + Bo

 WORρw   Bo ρo 
µl =  µw +  µo
 WORρ w + Bo ρo   WORρ w + Bo ρo 
(2.19)
Reservoir Saturation and Relative
Permeabilities

• Relative permeability: ko= k kro , kw= k krw and kg=kkrg (2.20)

• Inflow equations:

141.2Bo qo µo re
( pe − pwf )o = (ln + s) (2.21a)
hkkro rw

141.2Bwqw µw re
( pe − pwf ) w = (ln + s) (2.21b)
hkkrw rw
 IPR for two-phase reservoirs
• Vogel IPR equation:

  p wf   p wf 
2

k o hp 1 − 0 .2  − 0 .8  
  p   p  
qo = (2.22)
  re  
254 .2 Bo µ o ln   + s 
  rw  
• Fetkovich Approximation:
n
  p wf 
2

q o = q o ,max 1 −    (2.23)
  p  
Natural Gas Production – Gas Properties and
Phase Behaviour
• Behavior of ideal gas: PV=NRT
• Behavior of a real (non-ideal) gas
• Compressibility factor approach: PV=NZRT
• Important equations of state – PVT Relationships
9 Virial
9 Benedict-Webb-Rubin (BWR)
9 Cubic equations
9 Van der Waals
9 Saove-Redlich-Kwang (SRK)
9 Peng-Robinson (PR)
9 Etc.
Natural Gas Production – Gas Properties and
Phase Behaviour: Physical Property Tables
Natural Gas Production – Gas Properties and
Phase Behaviour: Physical Property Tables
Natural Gas Production – Gas Properties and
Phase Behaviour: Molecular Weight – Mole
concept
ƒ Weight of a mole of any substance
ƒ Different units in Imperial, SI and CGS
systems
ƒ Moles = Weight of a gas component divided by
its molecular weight
ƒ Key’s mixing rule of molar averaging
ƒ Average molecular weight =

MW = ∑[yN .(MW ) N ] (2.24)

Natural Gas Production – Gas Properties and
Phase Behaviour: Properties estimation
techniques
• Specific Gravity and Density
– Density=mass of unit volume (lb/ft3)
– Specific gravity (liquids/oil)
• γl or S.G. = density of liquids/density of pure water
@ 60oF
• oAPI=141.5/ γl -131.5
– Specific gravity (gases)
• γg = MW/29
γg p ( MW ) p
• Density: ρg = 2.7 or ρ g = 0.093 (2.25)
TZ TZ
Natural Gas Production – Gas Properties and
Phase Behaviour: Properties estimation
techniques, cont.
• Critical temperature = the maximum temperature at
which the component can exist as a liquid
• Critical pressure= vapour pressure of a substance at its
critical temperature
• Beyond critical temperature and pressure there is no
distinction between a liquid and a gas phase

ppc = Σ ynpcn and Tpc = Σ ynTcn (2.26)

pcn and Tcn from Figure
23-2 GPSA
• Principles of corresponding states and gas
compressibility factor
Natural Gas Production – Gas Properties and
Phase Behaviour: Properties estimation
techniques, cont.

• Standing-Katz compressibility charts (Figures 23-3,

23-4, and 23-5 GPSA)
• Brown-Katz-Oberfell-Alden charts (Figures 23-7, 23-
8, and 23-9 GPSA)
• Acid gas content consideration by Wichert-Aziz
correction factors
'
P T
T pc = Tpc − ε
pc pc
and Ppc' = (2.27)
T pc + Bε ( 1 − B )

ε from Figure 23-10 GPSA

• Compressibility from equations of state
 Brown-Katz-Oberfell-Alden Z charts
Compressibility charts

Standing-Katz compressibility charts

Empirical Correlations – Natural Gas: Viscosity

• Carr et al. correlation (Fig. 23-32 and 23-33 GPSA)

• Viscosity of gas mixture from single component data:
n

∑µ 1 gi yi M i0.5
µ1g = i =1
n (2.30)
∑yM
i =1
i i
0.5

• Lee et al. for natural gas:

10 −4 (9.4 + 0.02 M g )T 1.5
µ g = K exp( Xρ ) where, K =
y
g
209 + 19 M g + T (2.31)
X = 3.5 + 986 / T + 0.01M g and y = 2.4 − 0.2 X

• GPSA charts – Figs. 23-30 through 23-38

• Dean and Stiel method
1/ 6
TPC
[ ]
5/9
ξ = 5.4402 ; for T > 1 . 5, ξµ = 166 . 8 (10 −5
) 0 . 1338 T − 0 . 0932 ,
( ∑ y i M i )1 / 2 PPC
2/3 Pr g Pr

and for TPr ≤ 1 .5, ξµ g = 34 .0 (10 − 5 )TPr8 / 9

(2.32)
Viscosity Charts
Natural Gas Production – Gas Properties and
Phase Behaviour: FVF

• Gas formation volume factor FVF

VR  T  PSC  (2.33)
Bg = = Z   
VSC  TSC  P 
SC= Standard Conditions:

T  P = 14.696 psia = 101.325 kPa,abs

B g = 3.47 × 10 − 4 Z   ( SI units )
P T = 60 oF (520 oR) = 15.5 oC (288.7 K)

T 
B g = 0.0283 Z   ( Field units )
P
• Gas isothermal compressibility coefficient:
1 1  ∂V  1 1  ∂Z 
Cg = =−   = −  
bulk mod ulus V  ∂P  T P Z  ∂ P  T (2.34)
Natural Gas Production – Well Deliverability

0.0283Z T 1424qµ Z T  re 
Bg = ⇒ pe − pwf =
2 2
 ln + s 
( pe + pwf ) / 2 kh  rw 
(2.35)

•For Darcy flow:

q = C( p 2 − pwf
2
) (2.36)

•high gas flow rates, turbulent (non-Darcy flow):

q = C( p 2 − pwf
2
)n where 0.5 < n < 1 (2.37)
 Natural Gas Production – Well Deliverability:
Non-Darcy Flow
• Aronofsky-Jenkins equation: (2.38)

kh( p 2 − p wf2 ) rd 0.00026 kt

q= and = 1.5 t D where t D =
  rd   rw φµct rw2
1424 µ Z T ln   + s + Dq 
  rw  

• Determining the non-Darcy coefficient - D:

p 2 − pwf
2

p 2 − pwf
2
= aq + bq 2 or = a + bq (2.39)
q
alternatively D can be estimated using :

6 ×10−5 γk s−0.1h
D=
µrw hperf
2 (2.40)
Natural Gas Production: Production-Rate-
Decline curve or Transient Flow
Combing Darcy’s and conservation of mass laws:

∂ 2 p 2 1 ∂ p 2 φµ c t ∂ p 2 p p
+ = and m(p) = 2 ∫ dp
∂r 2
r ∂r k ∂t po µZ
∂ 2 m ( p ) 1 ∂ m ( p ) φµ c t ∂ m ( p ) (2.41)
+ =
∂r 2
r ∂r k ∂t

Similar solution to the oil diffusion equation results:

q=
[
kh m ( p i ) − m ( p wf ) ]
 k 
1,638 T µ  log t + log − 3 .23  (2.42)
 φ ( µ c t )i rw2

Natural Gas Production: Horizontal Wells

k H h( pe2 − pwf
2
)
q=
 I ani h  (2.43)
1424µZT  Dq + ln Γ1Γ 2 
 L 

L2  I anih 
a+ a − 2
  0.5
4  Ianih   L   kH 
where: Γ1 = , Γ2 =   , and Iani =  
L/ 2  rw( Iani +1)  kV 
0.5

L  
4 0.5
  reH    L
a = 0.5 + 0.25+     for < 0.9reH
2 
  L / 2   2
