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Contents
Unit-1 ADVANCE EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY ................................................ 3
Unit-1 INTRODUCTION:............................................................................................... 3
1.1 Educational Psychology; Meaning, scope and Fuction. .............................. 3
 The Learner ................................................................................................................. 8
 The Learning Process .................................................................................................. 8
 The Learning situation. ............................................................................................... 8
 The Learner: ................................................................................................................ 8
 The Learning Process:................................................................................................. 8
 The Learning Situation: .............................................................................................. 8
1. Development of Learning Theories. ........................................................................... 9
2. Formulation of practical suggestions. (i.e. Application of there theories).................. 9
1.2 What is the role of an Educational Psychologist? ....................................................... 9
The role of Educational Psychology ............................................................................ 9
The role of Educational Psychologists ......................................................................... 9
1.3 Methods of educational psychology . ...................................................................... 9

Unit-2 SOCIAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT .................................................. 14

2.1 Personal and Social Development ............................................................................. 15
Personal development ....................................................................................................... 15
2.2 Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development ............................................................... 17
Level1. Preconventional Morality ................................................................................... 18
Level 2. Conventional Morality ........................................................................................ 18
Level 3. Postconventional Morality .................................................................................. 18
Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development: ................................................ 19
2.3 Islamic Value and Moral Development: ................................................................ 19

Unit-3 Intellectual Development ....................................................................... 22

3.1 STAGES OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT ........................................... 23
3.2 Processes of Development: ............................................................................. 25
3.3 Assimilation, Accommodation, Equilibration: ............................................... 27

Unit-4 HUMAN LEARNING ................................................................................... 28

4.1 Historical perspectives on Learning: Pavlov, Thorndike, Gastalt .......................... 28
4.2 Behavioral Theories of Learning: Operant Conditioning ........................................ 30
Introduction to Operant Conditioning....................................................................... 30
4.3 Cognitive perspectives of learning / Cognitive development ................................... 31
4.4 Information Processing Theory ................................................................................ 31
4.5 FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNING .................................................................... 36

Unit-5 Intelligence ........................................................................................... 38

5.1 Concept of Intelligence According To Modern Science and Ancient Texts .. 39
5.2 Multiple Intelligences ..................................................................................... 40
5.3 Measures of intelligence ................................................................................. 42
5.4 intelligence and school performance .............................................................. 47

Unit no.6 Individual differences ....................................................................... 51

6.1 Sources and Types of individual differences .................................................. 51
6.2 Immersion Approach and Course Materials ................................................... 52
6.3 THE EFFECTS OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES ON LEARNING ........ 53

Unit no.7 Gagne’s 9 Events of Instruction ......................................................... 54

Definition ...................................................................................................................... 54
The conditions of learning ............................................................................................ 54
The nine events of instruction ....................................................................................... 54
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7.1 Gain attention: ................................................................................................ 54

7.2 Describe the goal: ........................................................................................... 54
7.3 Stimulate recall of prior knowledge ............................................................... 55
7.4 Present the material to be learned ................................................................... 55
7.5 Provide guidance for learning......................................................................... 55
7.6 Elicit performance "practice" ......................................................................... 55
7.7 Provide informative feedback , ....................................................................... 55
7.8 Assessing Performance , ................................................................................. 55
7.9 Enhance retention and transfer : ..................................................................... 55

Unit-.8 Personality Development ...................................................................... 56

Personality development ........................................................................................... 56
Aristotle and the Western tradition ........................................................................... 56
8.1 Origins ............................................................................................................ 56
8.2 Personality Traits ............................................................................................ 57
8.3 Interests vs. aptitudes ...................................................................................... 58
8.4 Moral aspects of Personality........................................................................... 59
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Unit-1 ADVANCE EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

INTRODUCTION:

It is a well-known fact that the study of educational psychology has

influenced the educative process in many ways. Keeping into consideration the
importance, the teaching of educational psychology has been made compulsory in
teachers training programme to equip the prospective teacher with the necessary
skills and competencies to enable him to deal effectively with teaching-learning
problems of the class. It is a common experience of most of us that teacher with
equal academic qualifications differs to a great extent in communicating their
ideas effectively in the class. Thus it may be said that it is not knowledge of the
subject matter alone which makes good teacher. He difference may be attributed to
lack of knowledge of educational psychology i.e., the knowledge of the learners,
their abilities, and stages of development and the influence of environment.

Definition Educational Psychology

The word psychology has been derived from “Psyche” which means Soul.
Psychology has been defined by various scholars in different ways. Consider the
following definitions.

 According to Skinner’s View

“Educational psychology deals with the behaviour of human beings in educational

situation”.

 According to Plato & Aristotle,

Psychology is the study of Soul.

 According to Kant

Psychology is the study of “Mind” again the mind has no clear definition as some
consider it as “ A Kind of matter in Brain” while others consider it as an
Assemble of Ideas in Brain, which develops through experiences.

 According to Watson

Psychology is defined as the Study of Behaviour. The Behaviour means a

response to stimuli Thus the Behaviour is a collected name of all the emotional,
mental, physical & Physiological activities etc This definition of Psychology is
more strong and today psychology is define as the study of the behaviour of man,
animals, Normal, Abnormal people etc.

1.1 Educational Psychology; Meaning, scope and Fuction.

Meaning of Psychology
The word ‘Psychology’ is derived from two Greek words
‘Psyche’ and ‘Logos’. Psyche means soul and Logos means Science. Thus Psychology
was the first defined as the “science of soul”. According to earlier psychologists the
function of psychology was to study the nature, origin and destiny of the human soul. But
it is something metaphysical. It cannot be seen, observed and touched and we cannot
make scientific experiments on soul.
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What is Educational Psychology?

Educational Psychology is one of the many branches of Psychology dealing

mainly with the problems, process and products of education. It is an attempt to
apply the knowledge of Psychology in the field of education. Educational
Psychology may be defined as that branch of Psychology which studies the
behaviour of the learner in relation to his educational needs and his environment.
Skinner defines Educational Psychology as that branch of Psychology which deals
with teaching and learning.

Branches of Educational Psychology

CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY:
Clinical psychologists assess and treat people with psychological
problems. They may act as therapists for people experiencing normal psychological crises
(e.g., grief) or for individuals suffering from chronic psychiatric disorders. Some clinical
psychologists are generalists who work with a wide variety of populations, while others
work with specific groups like children, the elderly, or those with specific disorders (e.g.,
schizophrenia). They are trained in universities or professional schools of psychology.
They may be found working in academic settings, hospitals, community health centers, or
private practice. The homepage of Division 12 (Clinical Psychology) can be found here.

COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY:
Counseling psychologists do many of the same things that
clinical psychologists do. However, counseling psychologists tend to focus more on
persons with adjustment problems rather than on persons suffering from severe
psychological disorders. The homepage of Division 17 (Counseling Psychology) can be
found here.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY:
Developmental psychologists study how we develop
intellectually, socially, and emotionally over the lifespan. Some of the areas they are
interested in are: Children's peer relations, language comprehension, computational
models of cognitive development, parent-infant interactions, social and communicative
behavior in infants, and language acquisition across languages and cultures. The
homepage of Division 7 (Developmental Psychology) can be found here.

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY:
Educational psychologists conduct research and develop
theories about teaching and learning. They attempt to understand the basic aspects of
learning and then develop materials and strategies for enhancing the learning process.
Their efforts are applied to improve teacher training and help students learn more
efficiently. The homepage of Division 15 (Educational Psychology) can be found here.

EVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY:
Environmental psychologists focus on the relationship
between people and the physical environment they live in. As such, they are interested in
the effects of the physical environment on a person's behavior and mental processes. For
example, they examine how environmental stimuli such as noise, temperature, and
weather affect a person's emotions, cognitive processes, performance, and social
interactions; the effects of the social environment, crowding, personal space; and the
psychological effects of environmental disasters The homepage of Division 34
(Population and Environmental Psychology) can be found here.
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EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY:
This area includes a diverse group of psychologists who do
research in the most basic areas of psychology (e.g., learning, memory, cognition,
perception, motivation, and language). Their research may be conducted with animals
instead of humans. Most of these psychologists work in academic settings. The homepage
of Division 3 (Experimental Psychology) can be found here.

FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY:
Forensic psychologists study of questions and issues
relating to law and the legal system. A forensic psychologist offers an expert
psychological opinion in a way that it impacts one of the adversarial arenas, typically the
courts. Forensic psychologists evaluate various areas, such as expert testimony, jury
selection, child testimony, pretrial publicity, repressed memories, the death penalty,
battered woman syndrome, domestic violence, drug dependence, and sexual disorders.
Although many people think of forensic psychologists as focusing on criminal matters,
this is certainly not always the case. The American Academy of Forensic Society website
can be found here.

HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY:
Health psychologists are concerned with psychology's
contributions to the promotion and maintenance of good health and the prevention and
treatment of illness. They recognize the importance of life style and behavioral factors
that contribute to physical disease, the search for ways to contain health care costs, and
potential of health-oriented psychological interventions. They may design and conduct
programs to help individuals stop smoking, lose weight, manage stress, and stay
physically fit. They are employed in hospitals, medical schools, rehabilitation centers,
public health agencies, academic settings, and private practice. The homepage of
Division 38 (Health Psychology) can be found here.

HUMAN FACTORS PSYCHOLOGY:

Human Factors psychologists study the
human/machine interface. They may help make appliances such as cameras user-friendly,
or they may do studies of safety-related issues in the design of machinery, airplane
controls and instrument layouts, or they may do basic research on human perceptual and
motor abilities as they relate to the operation of machines, computers, and other
mechanical devices. Human Factors information can be found here.

INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY:
Industrial/organizational psychologists are primarily
concerned with the relationships between people and their work environments. They may
develop new ways to increase productivity or be involved in personnel selection. They
are employed in business, government agencies, and academic settings. The homepage of
Division 14 (Industrial and Organizational Psychology) can be found here.

NEUROPSYCHOLOGY / PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY:

These psychologists are concerned with
brain/behavior relationships. They may be involved in clinical work, in the assessment of
brain-damaged patients, or in research, such as attempts to relate cognitive activity to
brain activity as seen in brain scans. The homepage of Division 6 (Behavioral
Neuroscience and Comparative Psychology) can be found here.
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SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY:
School psychologists are involved in enhancing the
development of children and adults in educational settings. They assess children's psycho
educational abilities and recommend actions to facilitate student learning. They are
typically trained in Schools of Education and work in public school systems. They often
act as consultants to parents, teachers, and administrators to optimize the learning
environments of specific students. The homepage of Division 16 (School Psychology)
can be found here.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY:
Social psychologists study how our beliefs, feelings,
and behaviors are affected by other persons. Some topics of interest to social
psychologists are attitude formation and change, aggression, prejudice, and interpersonal
attraction. Most social psychologists work in academic settings, but some work in federal
agencies and businesses doing applied research. The homepage of Division 8 (Social
Psychology) can be found here.

SPORT PSYCHOLOGY:
Sports psychologists study the psychological
factors associated with participation and performance in sport, exercise, and other types
of physical activity. Sport psychologists focus primarily on two areas. First, they focus on
helping athletes use psychological principles and skills to achieve optimal mental health
and to improve performance. Second, they
seek further understanding of how an individuals' participation in sport, exercise, and
physical activity affects their psychological development, health, and well-being.

CONTRIBUTION OF EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY TO THE TEACHING PROCESS:
Education aims at shaping the behaviour of the students in a desirable way
and bringing about all-round development in their personality. This task is carried
out through the process of formal and informal teaching and learning. Educational
Psychology helps in the process of teaching and learning by adopting the scientific
principle. Educational Psychology helps a teacher in the following way:

 A teacher can teach effectively by making minimum use of his energy in

terms of time and labor.
 The students can learn effectively by spending less of their time and effort.
 Helps to carry out the processes and produce the results of education.
 It supplies the necessary knowledge and skills, especially for the teacher to
realize the objectives of education.
 It equips the teacher with essential scientific skills, technological expertise
and advice in moulding and shaping the behaviour of the students.
Educational Psychology thus plays the same role as other sciences and
technology in helping the teachers and other persons connected with the
building of the future of the youngsters in their charge. Thus, Educational
Psychology can be described as the science and technology of Education.

SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY:

Scope of the subject implies its field of study. Speaking in specific terms, it means
the areas of study that are included in a particular subject. The scope of Educational
Psychology is securing greater and greater importance in the field of education.
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Educational psychology is the combination of two i.e. Educational and

Psychology. So educational psychology is the study of behavior of the teacher, taught and
persons connected to educational environment.

Educational psychology is, therefore, that branch of educational content, which deals
with human behavior and its modification.

The following are included in the scope of Educational Psychology.

(1) Human Behavior:

It studies human behavior in educational situations. Psychology is the study of behavior

and education deals with the modification of behavior and hence, educational psychology
pervades in whole field of education.

(2) Growth and Development:

It studies growth and development of the child. How a child passes through various
stages of growth and what are the characteristics of each stage are included in the study
of Educational Psychology.

(3) Learning Process:

It studies the law of learning: learning is a major phenomenon in education. It studies

how learning can take place most effectively and economically.

(4) Heredity and Environment:

To what extent heredity and environment contribute towards the growth of the individual
and how this knowledge can be used for bringing about the optimum development of the
child, form a salient feature of the scope of Educational Psychology.

(5) Personality:

Educational Psychology deals with the nature and development of the personality of an
individual. In fact, education has been defined as an all-round development of the
personality of an individual; personality development also implies a well-adjusted
personality.

(6) Individual Difference:

Every individual differs from another and it is one of the fundamental facts of human
nature, which has been brought to light by Educational Psychology. This one fact has
revolutionized the concept and process of education.

(7) Intelligence and its Measurement:

The scope of Educational Psychology includes the study of the nature of intelligence as
well as its measurement. This is of great importance for a teacher or an educator.

(8) Guidance and Counseling:

This is one of the most important fields or areas of study included in the field of
Educational Psychology. Education is nothing but providing guidance to the growing
child. Thus, guidance forms an important aspect of Educational Psychology.
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The following five areas were named by American Psychological Associations:

(1) Human growth and development, including the effect of heredity and environment on
various aspects of individual,

(2) Learning: The nature of learning process, factors influencing the learning process etc.,

(3) Personality and adjustment: It include many sub-topics, such as, mental health of the
students and teachers character,

(4) Measurement and evaluation, statistics,

(5) Techniques and methods of Educational Psychology.

Thus, Educational Psychology describes and explains the learning experience of an

individual from birth to old age. Its subject matter is concerned with the conditions that
affect learning.

SCOPE AND CONTENTS OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY:

According to Lindgre (1962) there are three aspects of education that concern the
educational psychologist:

 The Learner
 The Learning Process
 The Learning situation.

 The Learner:

By the word “learner” we mean the children or students, who

individually and collectively comprise the classroom group and on whose behalf
the educational programme exists and operates. The learner or the child is the
theme in educational psychology.

 The Learning Process:

By Learning Process we mean what goes on when people learn. The

teacher and the child may teach sometimes the teacher a subject but the child
learns something else. At other time the teacher may not teach something but the
child may learn it. The educational psychologist is interest in what happens when
a child learn.

 The Learning Situation:

By learning situation we mean those factors or conditions that affect

the learner and the learning process. The class room setting, the attitude and
behaviour of the teacher, the moral of the class and emotional climate of school
are some of the significant factors that affect the learner and the learning process.
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Functions OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY:

The educational psychology has two major factions.

1. Development of Learning Theories.

2. Formulation of practical suggestions. (i.e. Application of there theories)

1.2 What is the role of an Educational Psychologist?

The role of the Educational Psychology profession has been changing and developing in
recent years. In addition to the statutory role a widely accepted framework exists across
Scotland (Currie Report, 2002). This details five core functions; consultation, assessment,
intervention, training, research and development, operating at three levels; child and
family, whole school and local authority. Across these core functions the Educational
Psychologist can be described as an indirect agent of change and facilitator of
communication. The sharing of psychology and expertise in the application of
psychological theory and knowledge is central to empowering those worked with.

Educational Psychologists participate as team members within different contexts such as

schools, communities and multi-disciplinary settings, often providing a link in
communication. In addition to this they work with schools and the local authority to
guide, inform and review policy development.

The role of Educational Psychology

Educational Psychology is concerned with the

psychological and educational development of children and young people within the
context of homes, school and community.

The role of Educational Psychologists

Educational Psychologists (EPs) bring a
specialized perspective to working with children. They are concerned with children's
learning and development and they aim to bring about positive change for children. They
have skills in a range of psychological and educational assessment techniques and in
different methods of helping children and young people who are experiencing difficulties
in learning, behaviour or social adjustment.

During their training, EPs study normal child development, the psychology of learning
and teaching and psychological aspects of educating children with special needs. They
study how groups function and how people communicate and maintain relationships.
They also learn about assessment, solving problems, counseling, treatment, research and
training others.

EPs have a role in the assessment of children's difficulties from an early stage and a
statutory role in the multi-professional assessment, as required by the Education Act
1996. Much of the work of EPs is with children and young people from 0 to 19 years,
both at pre-school level and in mainstream and special schools.

In their work, EPs attempt to make the bridge between theory and practice by translating
research into innovative and relevant practice in the classroom.

1.3 Methods of educational psychology

Different types of techniques are used by researchers to collect data and conduct research
studies. With the increasing use of educational technology in education, psychology and
other social sciences, new research strategies are evolved.
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Following are the important methods and techniques of collecting data are:

1. Introspection
2. Observation
3. Clinical method
4. Case study
5. Survey or differential methods
6. Scientific or experimental method
Etc

1. Introspection

Historically introspection is the oldest method of all, which was

formerly used in philosophy, and then in psychology to collect data about the conscious
experience of the subject. Introspection means to see with in one self or self observation.
To understand one’s own mental health and the state of mind. This method was
developed by the structuralisms in psychology who defined psychology as the study of
conscious experiences of the individual. Introspection has some advantages and
disadvantages;

Merits:

1. It gives information about one’s own self which is difficult by other methods.
2. It is an easy method and needs no equipment
3. It makes a base for other methods such as experimental and observation method

Demerits:

1. This method is subjective in nature and lacks scientific objectivity

2. The most serious objection against this method is that human mind is not static like
inanimate objects such as stone or chairs etc. our mental process is under constant
changes so when one attempts to introspect, the sate of mental process disappears and it
becomes a retrospect.
3. The human mind is divided in two parts. One is his own mental operation and the other
is the object to which this mental operation is directed. To expect any individual to attend
the workings of his own mind during a mental process, specially in a complex and
emotional state such as anger or fear, is a mistaken idea. Ross commenting on the
limitation of introspection said, “ The observer and the observed are the same, the mind is
both the field and the instrument of observation
4. Introspection can not be employed on children and insane propel.
5. There are conflicting reports, as regards the findings collected from different
introspections.

2. Observation
With the development of psychology as an objective science of behaviour, the method of
introspection was replaced by careful observation of human and animal behaviour.
Observation literally means looking outside oneself. It is a very important method for
collecting data in almost all type of research studies. Different type of Observation used
in research, direct or indirect, scheduled or unscheduled, natural or artificial, participant
and non-participant. But there are two basic types of observation. They are;
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1. Natural observation

In natural observation the observer observe the specific behavioral and characteristics of
subjects in natural settings and the subject does not aware of the fact that their behaviour
is being observed by someone. The teacher can observe the behaviour of his student in
the playground or in any other social gathering without making him conscious. Natural
observation can be done any where with out any tools.

2. Participant observation

In participant observation the observer became the part of the group which he wants to
observe.
Observational study is particularly very important and produces significant results on
developmental characteristics of children. No doubt that observation is a scientific
technique of collecting data, whose results can be verified and relied upon to locate
behavioral problems

Merits:

1. this type of observation is a natural and normal way of knowing the external world but
also the mind of the subject

2. This method is objective in nature and free form personal bias and prejudice.

3. Through this method we can observe as many children as we like

4. This method id quite suitable for children and abnormal person who can not be
examined through introspection.

5. this can be used any time and anywhere

Demerits:

1. Observation is useful only for collecting data about overt behaviour which is
manifested in a number of activities. This overt behaviour does not provide reliable
information regarding the internal mental process. We can only guess about the mental
state of the individual on the basis of overt behaviour which may or may not be true. It
becomes very difficult to draw any conclusion in case of adults who can hide their actual
behaviour in the presence of the observer.

2. Subjectivity of interpretation is another limitation of this method. The observer may

interpret his sensation of external stimulus on the bias of his past experience. He may be
biased in his interpretation. It has also been found in some studies that strong personal
interests tend to make researcher see only those things which he wants to see.

3. Observation is subject to two types of errors, sampling error and observer error. The
first error occurs because of inadequacies of selecting situation to be observed. The
observer error may be due to knowledge and background of the situation to be observed.
Because some time the observer is not familiar with the total situation and hence he may
commit error.
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3. Experimental Method
This method has been developed in psychology by the
continuous efforts by psychologists to make objective and scientific study of human
behaviour. One of the major contributions of the behaviorism is the development of
experimental method to understand, control and predict behaviour. It is the most precise,
planned systematic observation. The experimental method uses a systematic procedure
called experimental design. Experimental design provides important guide lines to the
researcher to carry out his research systematically. The lay out of the design depends on
the nature of the problem that an investigator wants to investigate. The lay out or design
of the experimental method is as follows:

1. selecting a research topic

2. formulating hypotheses
3. selecting an appropriate design
4. collect data
5. analyzing and interpreting data
6. discussion and conclusions

Experiments may be conducted in a laboratory or in the classroom or anywhere else in

the community. Experimentation involves comparison between behaviour of a control
group and that of an experimental group.
Hypotheses have a rational base or they emerged from a frame work of theory or
preliminary experimentation. An experiment involves two or more variables for example;
incentives have a measurable impact on learning. The variables whose effects are being
studied are called independent variable.

Merits:

1. This method is the most systematic procedure of solving problems. It provides reliable
information.
2. It is a revisable method
3. It makes psychology a scientific study
4. It provides objective and precise information about the problems.
5. It give observer easy approach to the mind of an individual
6. It provides innovative ideas for the further experimentation.
7. It enables us to control and direct human behaviour
8. It is applicable in educational, individual and social problems

Demerits:
1. It is arranged in a laboratory like situation. This situation is artificially arranged.
Behaviour is a natural phenomena and it may change under artificial environment.
2. This method is time consuming and costly. Moreover it requires specialized knowledge
and skills.
3. Psychologists have criticized the fact that mostly the experiments have conducted on
rats, cats and dogs. The results are conducted and then applied on human beings.
4. It some times interferes with the very thing that we are trying to observe

4. Clinical Method

This method is primarily used to collect detailed information on the

behaviour problems of maladjusted and deviant cases. The main objective of this method
is to study individual case or cases of group to detect and diagnose their specific
problems and to suggest therapeutic measures to rehabilitate them in their environment.
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It involves the following steps;

1. Interview
2. Information gathering
3. A hypothesis formulate
4. Diagnoses are made
5. Planned a treatment programme

5. Case Study
Case study is in-depth study of the subject. It is the in-depth analysis of a
person, group, or phenomenon. A variety of techniques are employed including personal
interviews, psychometric tests, direct observation, and archival records. Case studies are
most often used in psychology in clinical research to describe the rare events and
conditions of the subject; case study is specially used in education psychology. It deals in
education the following problems;

Lack of interest in students

Aggressive behaviors in student
Day dreaming
Poor academic performance
Emotional problem
Social problems
Empathetic understanding
Find the problem
Establish report
Treatment
Etc
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Unit-2 SOCIAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Social and Moral Development

Introduction
Development means a quality change in the overall aspects of an
individual i.e. physical mental, emotional and moral as well as social growth, which is an
immeasurable and continues process, occurring throughout the life history of an
individual.

The various aspects of development include:

 Physical development which means a quantitative increase in size, length, width

etc.
 Cognitive Development which means an increase in the thinking lower,
understanding etc.
 Emotional development which means a control over feeling line anger, happiness
etc.
 Social Development which means adjustment to the society.

Social Development:
Every human being needs a company. A society is a group of
individual where every one depends upon each others and all of them share common
resources & they all obey common terms & Rules regulations of the region where they
live. Social development means to behave according to the expectations of a society or
it is a process by which a Biological individual becomes a man in Human Being.
Education is a process by which positive changes are brought about, in the behaviour of
an individual to adjust his / her into the society & thus the ultimate aim is to produce
good citizens. Isolation from the society which create Cognitive emotional & other
problems. Development in Social groups results in a happy & adjusts life in the society.
“The Conformity of rules, values & understanding accomplished through process is
called Socializations.

The Emerging Moral Sense:

Professor Sir David M. B. Hall and Lewis A. Leavitt, MD

How and why do children acquire a sense of right and wrong? The study of how children learn to
walk and talk is no easy matter, but the challenges inherent in trying to understand the emergence
of a moral sense are far more difficult. Definitions are elusive, measurement methods are virtually
nonexistent and (in contrast with research on language or motor skills) researchers are
encumbered with their own moral baggage that threatens objectivity. Our modern experimental
approach to child development is less than a century old, yet we readily assume that our current
methodology will lead us to a definitive understanding of the subject. In considering the mass of
fascinating but sometimes conflicting evidence discussed in this Round Table, we should
remember that each generation probably believed they understood childhood. In his account of
the lives of Medieval Children,1 Nicholas Orme noted that for at least the last 1000 years, adults
have regarded childhood as a distinct phase of life, parents treated children like children as well
as like adults, with care and sympathy, and children had cultural activities and possessions of
their own. Children’s duties, religious lives and ways of learning have attracted scholarly interest
through the ages. Of course, our ideas and attitudes have changed dramatically. In our great
grandfathers’ generation, little boys were sent up chimneys, the flogging of little children was
considered not merely acceptable but a parental duty and child labor was the norm. In many parts
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of the world today, child soldiers and child prostitutes are still commonplace. In the “privileged”
Western world, violence, family breakup, mental illness and a lifestyle of idleness, vulgarity and
Heavy drinking are daily themes. Evidently, we have not yet achieved enlightenment but, given
the widely held belief that the child is indeed father to the man, it is not surprising that there
should be an unprecedented investment in the study of early childhood in search of clues to the
Origins of socially undesirable behavior. In a largely post religious society in which only
a minority looks beyond human horizons for their moral guidance exists, there is a
widespread hope that social, educational and behavioral interventions will fill the vacuum
left by religion. This is not merely a matter of scientific interest, but an issue that attracts
politicians who seek that Holy Grail — a cost-effective way of raising educational and
living standards, reducing crime and cutting demands on mental health services.

2.1 Personal and Social Development

Personal development
Personal development includes activities that improve awareness and identity, develop
talents and potential, build human capital and facilitates employability, enhance quality
of life and contribute to the realization of dreams and aspirations. The concept is not
limited to self-help but includes formal and informal activities for developing others, in
roles such as teacher, guide, counselor, manager, coach, or mentor. Finally, as personal
development takes place in the context of institutions, it refers to the methods, programs,
tools, techniques, and assessment systems that support human development at the
individual level in organizations.

At the level of the individual, personal development includes the following activities:

 improving self-awareness
 improving self-knowledge
 building or renewing identity
 developing strengths or talents
 improving wealth
 spiritual development
 identifying or improving potential
 building employability or human capital
 enhancing lifestyle or the quality of life
 improving health
 fulfilling aspirations
 initiating a life enterprise or personal autonomy
 defining and executing personal development plans
 improving social abilities

The concept covers a wider field than self-development or self-help: personal

development also includes developing other people. This may take place through roles
such as those of a teacher or mentor, either through a personal competency (such as the
skill of certain managers in developing the potential of employees) or a professional
service (such as providing training, assessment or coaching).

Beyond improving oneself and developing others, personal development is a field of

practice and research. As a field of practice it includes personal development methods,
learning programs, assessment systems, tools and techniques. As a field of research,
personal development topics increasingly appear in scientific journals, higher education
reviews, management journals and business books.
16

Aristotle and the Western tradition

The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC) influenced theories of personal
development in the West. In his Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle defined personal
development as a category of phronesis or practical wisdom, where the practice of virtues
(arête) leads to eudaimonia, commonly translated as "happiness" but more accurately
understood as “human flourishing” or “living well" Aristotle continues to influence the
Western concept of personal development to this day, particularly in the economics of
human development and in positive psychology.

Social Development
Social Development is a broad term that describes actions that are taken to
build positive outcomes and prevent negative social outcomes that can adversely affect a
community. These outcomes include issues ranging from crime, poverty, gang activity,
school disengagement, teen pregnancy, addictions and substance abuse, obesity, and poor
health.

The aim of social development is to improve the availability of support systems in the
community that prevent negative outcomes before they occur or buffer (lessen) their
impact. For example, rather than reacting to a crime after it has already happened,
measures are taken within the community that prevent crime from ever occurring.

Good prevention starts with parents before they have children and very directly once
conception has occurred. Evidence suggests that negative environments not only affect
pregnant mothers but can very directly alter the architecture of the brain of the unborn
child. These events and circumstances forever change the pathways of development and
ways of interacting with the world and the people in it. In other words, adverse events
and circumstances affect a child’s capacity to learn, their behaviour and their health.

Recent research has suggested that there is a 17:1 return on investment in the early years
for vulnerable children and a 1:8 return for the remainder of the population. Social
development is about creating environments that enable children and youth to thrive and
not merely survive.

1. Develop and maintain networks in the community and, when possible, provide the
partnership development resources necessary to these organizations to ensure that
Prince Albert is offering the best level of social development services possible.
This includes monitoring efforts to eliminate duplication and overlap of services,
identifying service delivery gaps, and capitalizing on partnership opportunities.
2. Conduct research and compile information on a city-wide basis that will provide
an integrated evidence base required for all levels of government to make
informed decisions on policy, resource deployment, funding, and program
delivery.
17

The Social Development Plan

Prince Albert City Council has adopted a strategy aimed at 5 pillars of social
development and activity. They are:

Addictions and Substance Abuse

Early Childhood Development

Food Security
A community is food secure when all people at all times have physical and economic
access to food that is safe, sufficient, nutritious and culturally acceptable.

Homelessness and Housing

Youth

These areas were chosen in part because they can have a significant impact on supporting
positive outcomes and preventing negative social outcomes in Prince Albert. They were
also chosen in part because there would be a great benefit achieved by coordinating the
strong organizational base that Prince Albert already had in these areas.

Other activities of the Social Development Division include:

 Support the work of the Race Relations and Social Issues AdvisoryCommittee
 Act as secretary to the Committee
 Support the work of the Coalition of Municipalities Against Racism and
Discrimination (CMARD)
o Arrange for John Riley from Edmonton to speak to the Committee and to
the Regional Intersectional Committee (RIC)
o Help to develop the infrastructure to support the initiative
o Report the progress on the Ten Common Commitments Support the work
of the New Immigrants to Canada working group, and
o Continue as an advisor to the Urban Aboriginal Strategy Steering
Committee.

2.2 Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Moral development is a major topic of interest in both psychology and education. One of
the best known theories was developed by psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg who
modified and expanded upon Jean Piaget's work to form a theory that explained the
development of moral reasoning.

Piaget described a two-stage process of moral development, while Kohlberg's theory of

moral development outlined six stages within three different levels. Kohlberg extended
Piaget's theory, proposing that moral development is a continual process that occurs
throughout the lifespan.

"The Heinz Dilemma"

Kohlberg based his theory upon research and interviews with groups of young children.
A series of moral dilemmas were presented to these participants and they were also
interviewed to determine the reasoning behind their judgments of each scenario.
18

The following is one example of the dilemmas Kohlberg presented"

Heinz Steals the Drug

"In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug
that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the
same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist
was charging ten times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $200 for the radium and
charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug.

The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but
he could only get together about $ 1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist
that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the
druggist said: "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it." So
Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the drug-for his wife. Should
the husband have done that?" (Kohlberg, 1963).

Kohlberg was not interested so much in the answer to the question of whether Heinz was
wrong or right, but in the reasoning for each participant's decision. The responses were
then classified into various stages of reasoning in his theory of moral development.

Level1. Preconventional Morality

 Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment

The earliest stage of moral development is especially common in young children,
but adults are also capable of expressing this type of reasoning. At this stage,
children see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it
is a means to avoid punishment.
 Stage 2 - Individualism and Exchange
At this stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view
and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. In the Heinz
dilemma, children argued that the best course of action was the choice that best-
served Heinz’s needs. Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral development,
but only if it serves one's own interests.

Level 2. Conventional Morality

 Stage 3 - Interpersonal Relationships

Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of moral
development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an
emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence
relationships.
 Stage 4 - Maintaining Social Order
At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a whole
when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following
the rules, doing one’s duty and respecting authority.

Level 3. Postconventional Morality

 Stage 5 - Social Contract and Individual Rights

At this stage, people begin to account for the differing values, opinions and
beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but
members of the society should agree upon these standards.
 Stage 6 - Universal Principles
Kolhberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based upon universal ethical
principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized
principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.
19

Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development:

 Does moral reasoning necessarily lead to moral behavior? Kohlberg's theory is

concerned with moral thinking, but there is a big difference between knowing
what we ought to do versus our actual actions.
 Is justice the only aspect of moral reasoning we should consider? Critics have
pointed out that Kohlberg's theory of moral development overemphasizes the
concept as justice when making moral choices. Factors such as compassion,
caring and other interpersonal feelings may play an important part in moral
reasoning.
 Does Kohlberg's theory overemphasize Western philosophy? Individualistic
cultures emphasize personal rights while collectivist cultures stress the
importance of society and community. Eastern cultures may have different moral
outlooks that Kohlberg's theory does not account for.

2.3 Islamic Value and Moral Development:

Istanbul, March 23—Delegates to the first Global Human Development Forum today
unanimously adopted an “Istanbul Declaration” calling on the world community to take
bold action against global social inequities and environmental deterioration at the UN
Conference on Sustainable Development in Rio this June.

“It is time to reset the global development agenda,” the Istanbul Declaration states. “The
world needs a renewed commitment to sustainable development and strong political
leadership to implement it.”

The Istanbul Declaration was adopted by consensus at the conclusion of the two-day
Global Human Development Forum, a gathering of more than 200 leading development
experts, civil society activists, government ministers, private sector representatives and
UN officials from all regions of the world.

The Forum was organized by UNDP’s Human Development Report Office and Bureau of
Development Policy in partnership with the Government of Turkey’s Ministry of
Development.

Today’s Istanbul Declaration was supported by the Government of Turkey as a key

contribution to the UN debates and discussions leading up to the Rio + 20 conference in
June. Negotiations on the conference agenda and proposed resolutions resumed this week
at UN headquarters in New York.

The Declaration stresses the need for global and national development strategies to put
“strong emphasis on social inclusion, social protection, and equity, in recognition of the
fact that economic development has too often gone hand in hand with environmental
degradation and increased inequality.”

Achieving those goals will require better-coordinated “mobilization of global capital and
local resources,” good governance on the local and global level, and full empowerment of
women “through access to education, health care, basic services and their participation in
the labour force,” the Declaration says.

“I hope that this Forum will help establish new partnerships across sectors, and that you
will take these discussions and this Declaration home to capture the imagination and
interest of a much broader audience,” UNDP Associate Administrator Rebeca Grynspan
told Forum participants.
20

The Declaration endorses the recommendations of the Secretary-General’s High-Level

Panel on Global Sustainability and UNDP’s 2011 Human Development Report on
Sustainability and Equity, and stresses “the need to maintain progress towards meeting
the Millennium Development Goals in 2015, while building a consensus for a new post-
2015 global framework that:

 Is universal in character, with relevance for all nations;

 Reflects the entirety of the sustainable development agenda, including the
continuing importance of reducing poverty and inequality—particularly for the
least developed countries;
 Addresses all three dimensions of sustainable development (social, economic and
environmental), and their interconnections; and
 Is based on measurable indicators that can promote effective monitoring of
progress and response to challenges.”

In a personal message to Forum participants, UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon said:

“Sustainable development recognizes that our economic, social and environmental
objectives are not competing goals that must be traded off against each other, but are
interconnected objectives that are most effectively pursued together in a holistic manner.
We need an outcome from Rio+20 that reflect this understanding and that relates to the
concerns of all.”

More than 120 heads of state and government have confirmed their participation in the
Rio conference, making it one of the largest such gatherings of world leaders in recent
times.

“The most important question that needs to be decided is, are we going to advance and
develop economically for now, or are we going to focus on sustainable development
while considering future generations?” Turkish Deputy Prime Minister Ali Babacan, a
member of the Secretary-General’s High-Level Panel of Global Sustainability, said at the
Forum. “As long as development and the economy do not progress at the same pace, it is
difficult to achieve prosperity.”

Government and civil society leaders from developing countries have strongly urged that
the Rio conference address not only ecological threats such as climate change and
pollution, but place equal emphasis on such critical social concerns as hunger,
preventable disease and endemic poverty. The 2011 Human Development Report, cited
in the Declaration and analyzed in depth at this week’s Forum, argued that simultaneous
progress on both fronts is essential. The 2011 Report showed that reducing social and
economic inequalities within and among nations should help reduce environmental risks,
while a failure to slow environmental deterioration will further widen social and
economic inequalities around the world.

“This is also a matter of intergenerational equity,” said Khalid Malik, director of UNDP’s
Human Development Report Office. “What we do today as a world community will
determine what kind of societies and environment will be inherited by those who come
after us, and their opportunities for further human development should not be restricted
by our failure to make the right policy choices now.”

The Human Development Report has pioneered new approaches to measuring

development since its introduction of the Human Development Index more than two
decades ago, and participants at the Global Human Development Forum stressed the
importance of continuing innovation in this area, at the Rio + 20 conference and beyond.

“We manage what we measure—and, in turn, what we measure affects what we do,” the
Istanbul Declaration stated. “It is therefore vital that we measure progress towards
sustainable development in a more comprehensive manner. Measures are required that go
21

beyond GDP to capture a fuller picture of human development, and emphasize

sustainable and equitable outcomes. We urge greater support for the work underway
around the world, in the United Nations and elsewhere, to design and use more
appropriate measures of progress, and for countries and communities to collect data
accordingly.”

Commented Thakur Singh Powdyel, Bhutan’s Education Minister, who introduced the
Declaration for adoption at the Forum today: “What we measure is what we value. We
can’t steer a course without a reliable compass.”
Among other featured speakers at the Global Human Development Forum were Tarja
Halonen, the former President of Finland; Kandeh K. Yumkella, Director-General,
United Nations Industrial Development Organization; Brian Atwood, Chair, OECD
Development Assistance Committee; Gunilla Carlsson, Minister for Development
Cooperation, Sweden; Wycliffe Ambetsa Oparanya, Minister of Planning, Kenya;
Muhammad Asghar, President of the National University of Science and Technology of
Pakistan; and Senator Christian Buarque of Brazil.

“In 2011 and so far in 2012, we have heard clear warnings from Nature that humanity is
arrogantly pushing her boundaries, just as we have heard societies demanding human
rights and justice, opportunities and decent jobs, affordable health care and energy
access,” said Olav Korven, director of UNDP’s Bureau of Development Policy.
“Responding successfully will require decision-makers from across the environmental,
social and economic divides coming together to create the future we all want.”
22

Unit-3 Intellectual Development

Introduction:
An increase in thinking power, understanding imagination & reasoning
abilities, is called the Intellectual or Cognitive Development.

The Cognitive or Intellectual Development depends upon the physical growth,

However it is not necessary the physical development must always lead to the intellectual
development. (In some case the intellectual development may be lower than the physical
development.

The Intellectual development may also be defined as “The addition of

information’s to ones mind or an increase in knowledge”
It is a process by which man is differentiates from animals, by using brain & five
senses. The word Cognitive “Literally means “To Know” thus cognition means the
physical abilities (i, e. to think deeply & to know more) is called cognitive development.

Intellectual Development
Jean Piaget Author: Wanda Y. Ginn
The focus of this paper is Jean Piaget's theory of intellectual development. Piaget
has been labeled an integrationist as well as a constructivist. His interest in
cognitive development came from his training in the natural sciences and his
interest in epistemology. Piaget was very interested in knowledge and how
children come to know their world. He developed his cognitive theory by actually
observing children (some of whom were his own children). Using a standard
question or set of questions as a starting point, he followed the child's train of
thought and allowed the questioning to be flexible. Piaget believed those
children’s spontaneous comments provided valuable clues to understanding their
thinking. He was not interested in a right or wrong answer, but rather what forms
of logic and reasoning the child used (Singer, 1978). After many years of
observation, Piaget concluded that intellectual development is the result of the
interaction of hereditary and environmental factors. As the child develops and
constantly interacts with the world around him, knowledge is invented and
reinvented. His theory of intellectual development is strongly grounded in the
biological sciences. He saw cognitive growth as an extension o biological growth
and as being governed by the same laws and principles (London, 1988). He argued
that intellectual development controlled every other aspect of development - emotional,
social, and moral.

Aspects of Intellectual Development:

Consider the following important aspects of the intellectual development.

 Intelligence & Mental Development:

The intelligence & mental Development (regarding the
Intellectual Development) is high or somehow moderate in the childhood during
infancy, this development is very rapid but slower down in youth.
23

 Sensation & Preception:

At the first 5th year of age the five senses & their use is
developed. At this stage the recognition of objects & their effects are also starts
development

 Concept Formation:

After sensory development & Preception the individual can

generalize the meanings to an object or can develop an idea which is called
concept formation.

 Language Development:

Another Important aspect of the Cognitive development is

the development of language. It structure from early childhood where the child
first attempt is to speak or try to speak.

 Memory:

The ability of an individual to recall the previous events & objects

is called memory. It is also an important aspect of the Cognitive development.
Where childhood it is in the form of rote memory, while it is conceptualized with
maturity
.
 Creativity:

The ability to produce to think about something new is called

creativity. The creativity power & its development differ from individual to individual.
However in early childhood male childhood are more creative than the female childhood.

3.1 STAGES OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT

Piaget may be best known for his stages of cognitive development. Piaget
discovered that children think and reason differently at different periods in their
lives. He believed that everyone passed through an invariant sequence of four
qualitatively distinct stages. Invariant means that a person cannot skip stages or
reorder them. Although every normal child passes through the stages in exactly the
same order, there is some variability in the ages at which children attain each
stage. The four stages are: sensor motor - birth to 2 years; preoperational - 2 years
to 7 years; concrete operational - 7 years to 11 years; and formal operational
(abstract thinking) - 11 years and up. Each stage has major cognitive tasks which
must be accomplished. In the sensorimotor stage, the mental structures are mainly
concerned with the mastery of concrete objects. The mastery of symbols takes
place in the preoperational stage. In the concrete stage, children learn mastery of
classes, relations, and numbers and how to reason. The last stage deals with the
mastery of thought ( Evans, 1973 ).

HOW CHILDREN LEARN

A central component of Piaget's developmental theory of

learning and thinking is that both involve the participation of the learner.
Knowledge is not merely transmitted verbally but must be constructed and
reconstructed by the learner. Piaget asserted that for a child to know and construct
knowledge of the world, the child must act on objects and it is this action which
24

provides knowledge of those objects ( Sigel, 1977 ); the mind organizes reality and
acts upon it. The learner must be active; he is not a vessel to be filled with facts.
Piaget's approach to learning is a readiness approach. Readiness approaches in
developmental psychology emphasize that children cannot learn something until
maturation gives them certain prerequisites (Brainerd, 1978). The ability to learn
any cognitive content is always related to their stage of intellectual development.
Children who are at a certain stage cannot be taught the concepts of a higher stage.
Intellectual growth involves three fundamental processes: assimilation,
Accommodation and equilibration. Assimilation involves the incorporation of new
events into preexisting cognitive structures. Accommodation means existing
structures change to accommodate to the new information. This dual process,
assimilation-accommodation, enables the child to form schema. Equilibration involves
the person striking a balance between him and the environment, between assimilation and
accommodation. When a child experiences a new event, disequilibrium sets in until he is
able to assimilate and accommodate the new information and thus attain equilibrium.
There are many types of equilibrium between assimilation and accommodation that vary
with the levels of development and the problems to be solved. For Piaget, equilibration is
the major factor in explaining why some children advance more quickly in the
development of logical intelligence than do others (Lavatelli, 40)

IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATION

A Piagetian-inspired curricula emphasizes a child- centered educational

Philosophy. The teaching methods which most American school children are
familiar with -teacher lectures, demonstrations, audio-visual presentations,
teaching machines, and programmed instruction - do not fit in with Piaget's ideas
on the acquisition of knowledge. Piaget espoused active discovery learning
environments in our schools. Intelligence grows through the twin processes of
assimilation and accommodation; therefore, experiences should be planned to
allow opportunities for assimilation and accommodation. Children need to
explore, to manipulate, to experiment, to question, and to search out answers for
themselves - activity is essential. However, this does not mean that children should
be allowed to do whatever they want. So what is the role of the teacher? Teachers
should be able to assess the child's present cognitive level; their strengths and
weaknesses. Instruction should be individualized as much as possible and children
should have opportunities to communicate with one another, to argue and debate
issues. He saw teachers as facilitators of knowledge - they are there to guide and
stimulate the students. Allow children to make mistakes and learn from them.
Learning is much more meaningful if the child is allowed to experiment on his
own rather than listening to the teacher lecture. The teacher should present
students with materials and situations and occasions that allow them to discover
new learning. In his book To Understand Is to Invent Piaget said the basic
principle of active methods can be expressed as follows: "to understand is to
discover, or reconstruct by rediscovery and such conditions must be complied with
if in the future individuals are to be formed who are capable of production and
creativity and not simply repetition" (p.20). In active learning, the teacher must
have confidence in the child's ability to learn on his own.

IMPLICATIONS FOR INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY

The technologies that encourage interactivity such as multimedia , Hypermedia

and virtual reality fit in with Piagetian thought. Computer software that is strictly
drill and practice does not fit in with an active discovery environment. Drill and
25

practice does not encourage creativity or discovery. Students not only use
multimedia to learn, but they also use it to communicate their understanding of the
subject to those around them. They can create what they learn by using an
authoring tool such as HyperCard. Peer teaching is used as the students work
together in the making of their projects. Students become active participants
instead of passive sponges and the teacher truly takes on the role of facilitator as
she gives them guidance in their creations. Hypermedia also allows the students to
manipulate their environment as they follow the path(s) of their choice. Virtual
reality has the potential to move education from its reliance on books to
experiential learning in naturalistic settings. For example, rather than reading
about an event, the children can participate in the event with simulated persons
and/or objects. These technologies supply the students with a learning
environment that encourages children to initiate and complete their own activities.

Assimilation, Accommodation, Equilibration:

Intellectual growth involves three fundamental processes: assimilation,

accommodation, and equilibration. Assimilation involves the incorporation of new
events into preexisting cognitive structures. Accommodation means existing
structures change to accommodate to the new information. This dual process,
assimilation-accommodation, enables the child to form schema. Equilibration
involves the person striking a balance between him and the environment, between
assimilation and accommodation. When a child experiences a new event,
disequilibrium sets in until he is able to assimilate and accommodate the new
information and thus attain equilibrium. There are many types of equilibrium
between assimilation and accommodation that vary with the levels of development
and the problems to be solved. For Piaget, equilibration is the major factor in
explaining why some children advance more quickly in the development of logical
intelligence than do others

3.2 Processes of Development:

The Bahá'í Approach
The most important successes of Bahá'í development initiatives are
qualitative in nature. With an emphasis on grassroots action and evolutionary growth,
Bahá'í development projects complement the many other elements of Bahá'í community
life. Development activities are an integral aspect of Bahá'í efforts to create a pattern of
living that releases individual potential and simultaneously promotes the collective good.
The systems of belief and administration underlying the Bahá'í program of community
building uniquely integrate the moral and the practical, provide a unity of conception that
allows for great flexibility of application, and above all arouse and maintain motivation.
Typically constrained by the limited resources of the communities in which they operate,
Bahá'í projects are primarily focused on exploring new models of social change that
encourage individuals, communities and institutions to develop cooperative methods of
participation and decision-making. Specific endeavors designed to improve human well-
being flow directly from the application of these models.
A Bahá'í kindergarten class in Uganda. The two year kindergarten program was
established in 1957 and now has 140 students.
Upraising the quality of life through the systematic application of Bahá'í principles is, in
some sense, the very definition of Bahá'í development. There are six main development
processes that form the basis of a pattern of action by Bahá'í communities around the
world:
26

Organic Growth

In general, social and economic development activities best begin with a

relatively simple set of actions at the grassroots. The desire for change must come
directly from individuals and communities and cannot be imposed from the outside. As
experience is gained from action, grassroots initiatives can naturally grow in complexity.
A tutorial school, for example, can in principle become a center for activities such as
health education, family counseling and reforestation, but in most cases, it will start
simply as a school focusing all its resources on the children it proposes to serve.
Although simple, well-defined projects have the greatest likelihood of success, to raise
local action to a reasonable level of effectiveness may eventually require that
development initiatives extend beyond the village level to regional and national levels.

Capacity Building
Development is not a product to be delivered by the "developed" to the
"underdeveloped." Rather, it is a process in which individuals and communities in all
parts of the world, regardless of the degree of their material prosperity, become the
principal actors in defining, analyzing and solving their own problems. While concrete
action in any project should be directed towards visible improvement of some aspect of
life, the success of a development initiative is ultimately measured by its impact on the
capacity of a community to address development issues at increasingly higher levels of
complexity and effectiveness.
A people's ability to participate fully in its own process of development entails a number
of interrelated elements. Generating and sustaining an integrated set of social and
economic activities relate directly to the development of specific capacities at the
personal and group level. Certain key capacities include learning how to take initiative in
a disciplined and imaginative manner; adopting methods of decision-making that are non-
adversarial and inclusive in nature; thinking systematically in understanding problems
and searching for solutions; replacing relationships based on dominance and competition
with relationships based on reciprocity, collaboration, and service to others; encouraging
recognition of the essential nobility of human beings; fostering rectitude of conduct at all
levels of society; and developing the skills and commitment necessary to generate and
apply technical knowledge.

Learning
Learning to apply Bahá'u'lláh's teachings to individual and collective life is the
centerpiece of Bahá'í social and economic development. This learning takes place at all
levels and involves all the members of Bahá'í communities, whatever their capacities and
experiences. It entails not only study, but a systematic and ongoing process of
consultation, reflection, and action designed to bring about consistent patterns of change.
Such a learning process can occur in a very simple manner at the village and local level,
but with greater sophistication at the regional and national levels. In this regard, every
Bahá'í development project, regardless of size, endeavors to become a center for learning
concerned with promoting material, moral, and spiritual well-being.

Development of Human Resources

Intimately related to learning and building of capacity is the development
of human resources. Training methods--which foster participation and an open attitude
toward learning--principally involve individuals and groups at the grassroots, but can also
include professionals and students from other regions and countries. In this way, a
worldwide process of learning is encouraged.
27

That development ideas and projects are not imposed from above, and that institutions
should respond to the aspirations and initiatives of communities at the local level, are
established characteristics of Bahá'í development. However, the application of these
principles does not preclude the possibility of utilizing proven and well-conceived
approaches to training developed at the national or international levels. Thus, project sites
may be seen as locations where training is provided for an increasing number of
individuals from all parts of the world and from all sectors of society.

Contributing to the Advancement of Society

The application of the teachings of Bahá'u'lláh to social and economic
development is part of a larger process of creating stability and prosperity in human
affairs. Development activities offer opportunities for the Bahá'í community to become
directly involved in the life of society. Bahá'í projects are thus designed to engage and
benefit all the members of a community and not only Bahá'ís. Collaboration with
organizations and leaders of thought concerned with social, moral and economic
advancement is an important component of Bahá'í development endeavors.
Integration
The world's experience has shown that fragmented activities in different fields do
not bring about development. The knowledge that should be brought to bear on
development problems does not fit into a single discipline. The integration of efforts
across various fields, such as health, education, agriculture, and environmental
preservation, is essential for real progress in a region. Such integration can be achieved
when simple grassroots initiatives evolve to more stable and complex stages of operation.
In Bahá'í development, the concept of integration also pertains to the integration of
material progress and spiritual development. Social and economic development activities
are therefore an expression of faith in action.
Underpinning the Bahá'í approach to development is the belief that every culture and
segment of humanity represents a distinct heritage that must be encouraged to flourish
and contribute to an emerging global civilization. The Bahá'í commitment to social
change and progress derives directly from Bahá'u'lláh's vision of humanity as one people.
Fostering unity of purpose among individuals, groups, and institutions is consequently an
essential characteristic of all Bahá'í development pursuits.
Bahá'í communities operate a number of low-powered radio stations, such as the one
shown here in Ecuador. These stations broadcast a wide variety of cultural, educational,
and community-service programs. Stations, for example, frequently provide agricultural
and health advice. Here two Bahá'ís from Quechua background are speaking in their
native language. The five stations in Latin America all broadcast extensively in
indigenous languages, a feature which serves to maintain the cultural identity of local
peoples.

3.3 Assimilation, Accommodation, Equilibration:

Intellectual growth involves three fundamental processes: assimilation,
accommodation, and equilibration. Assimilation involves the incorporation of new
events into preexisting cognitive structures. Accommodation means
existing structures change to accommodate to the new information. This dual
process, assimilation-accommodation, enables the child to form schema.
Equilibration involves the person striking a balance between him and the
environment, between assimilation and accommodation. When a child experiences
a new event, disequilibrium sets in until he is able to assimilate and accommodate
the new information and thus attain equilibrium. There are many types of
equilibrium between assimilation and accommodation that vary with the levels of
development and the problems to be solved. For Piaget, equilibration is the major
factor in explaining why some children advance more quickly in the development
of logical intelligence than do others.
28

Unit-4 HUMAN LEARNING

Learning
In psychology, the process by which a relatively lasting change in
potential behavior occurs as a result of practice or experience. Learning is distinguished
from behavioral changes arising from such processes as maturation and illness, but does
apply to motor skills, such as driving a car, to intellectual skills, such as reading, and to
attitudes and values, such as prejudice. There is evidence that neurotic symptoms and
patterns of mental illness are also learned behavior. Learning occurs throughout life in
animals, and learned behavior accounts for a large proportion of all behavior in the higher
animals, especially in humans.

4.1 Historical perspectives on Learning: Pavlov, Thorndike, Gastalt

Models of Learning
The scientific investigation of the learning process was begun at the end of the 19th cent.
by Ivan Pavlov Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich , 1849–1936, Russian physiologist and
experimental psychologist. He was professor at the military medical academy and
director of the physiology department at the Institute for Experimental Medicine, St.
Petersburg, from 1890.
..... Click the link for more information. in Russia and Edward Thorndike Thorndike,
Edward Lee , 1874–1949, American educator and psychologist, b. Williamsburg, Mass.,
grad. Wesleyan Univ., 1895, and Harvard, 1896, Ph.D. Columbia, 1898.
..... Click the link for more information. in the United States. Three models are currently
widely used to explain changes in learned behavior; two emphasize the establishment of
relations between stimuli and responses, and the third emphasizes the establishment of
cognitive structures. Albert Bandura maintained (1977) that learning occurs through
observation of others, or models; it has been suggested that this type of learning occurs
when children are exposed to violence in the media.

Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich

1849–1936, Russian physiologist and experimental
psychologist. He was professor at the military medical academy and director of the
physiology department at the Institute for Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, from
1890. Pavlov was a skillful ambidextrous surgeon; using dogs as experimental animals,
he established fistulas from various parts of the digestive tract by which he obtained
secretions of the salivary glands, pancreas, and liver without disturbing the nerve and
blood supply. For his work on the physiology of the digestive glands he received the
1904 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Using the same technique to create an
artificial exterior pouch of the stomach, he experimented on nervous stimulation of
gastric secretions and thus discovered the conditioned reflex behaviorism, school of
psychology which seeks to explain animal and human behavior entirely in terms of
observable and measurable responses to environmental stimuli. Behaviorism was
introduced (1913) by the American psychologist John B.
..... Click the link for more information. ), which has had widespread influence in
neurology and psychology. He also demonstrated that specific areas in the cerebral cortex
are concerned with specific reflexes and based on these findings a mechanistic theory of
human behavior that found political favor; in 1935 the government built a laboratory for
him. His chief work was Conditioned Reflexes (1926, tr. 1927).
29

Thorndike, Edward Lee

Born Aug. 31, 1874, in Williamsburg, Mass.; died Aug. 9, 1949, in Montrose, N.Y.
American psychologist.

A professor at Columbia University from 1904, Thorndike worked primarily in the field
of comparative psychology and learning. He devised a system for the study of animal
behavior in which problem boxes were used—that is, cages equipped with a hidden
mechanism, the secret of which the animal itself must discover. A new type of
experiment was thus introduced, wherein movements were registered as responses to a
problem situation. Thorndike came to the conclusion that animal behavior lacks goal-
directedness—that is, the characteristically human faculty of sudden understanding and
decision-making on the basis of a single trial. Picturing the mind of an animal as an
instrument for its adaptation to the environment, Thorndike formulated the trial-and-error
principle: chance behavior in a trial, when successful, is subsequently reinforced, creating
the appearance of purposeful behavior.

Thorndike’s work was instrumental in overcoming anthropomorphic interpretations of

animal behavior and introducing objective research methods in the study of behavior. In
essence, Thorndike laid down the foundations of behaviorism, although behaviorists have
criticized him for not fully eliminating the subjective approach. The limitations of the
trial-and-error principle have been demonstrated in Soviet psychology, as well as in
works by J. Piaget, G. S. Hall, and E. C. Tolman. The principle has been shown to be
applicable only within the narrow sphere of artificially constructed situations.

Thorndike’s Educational Psychology (1903) was a seminal work in the development of

learning theory in the United States; the range of its influence included the concept of
programmed learning. Thorndike regarded learning as a process of individual adaptation
to the environment—that is, from the biological point of view; a central concept in his
work was the “law of effect,” according to which the degree of reinforcement of a
reaction depends on the extent or lack of satisfaction that is obtained as a result.

Gestalt psychology
As mentioned, Plato believed that education was a process of
finding balance between the body, mind, and spirit. Two thousand years later, European
psychologists posed the question whether or not the three parts that Plato believed people
tried to balance were in fact one. Thus, while Plato thought that the teacher provided
balance of the body, mind, and spirit, the Gestalt Psychologists viewed the body, mind,
and spirit as one concept that defined human mind and behavior.

While much of the work in Gestalt psychology centers on how

people perceive scenes, spaces and other stimuli, the take away is how forms, structures,
and configurations are whole sums rather than individual parts. According to Segal
(2001), Gestalt psychologists view elements as parts of larger structures rather than
individual elements. Furthermore, Segal noted, "Whereas other systems thought of
learning as gaining new connections between elements through association, they thought
that the best learning (problem solving) was due to insight, or restructuring the
components of a whole so that they could be seen or understood in a new way".

Therefore, the Gestalt psychologists used their belief of holistic processes to advance
Plato’s tripartite view of human nature. Instead of recognizing that the body, mind, and
spirit acted as separate parts trying to strike a balance, the Gestalt psychologists
recognized that they were all one entity. By recognizing that the body, mind, and spirit
30

together defined human behavior, the Gestalt psychologists played a vital role in the
development of experiential education. Their understanding of holistic properties set
forth the idea that experience brings together the body, mind, and spirit. In regards to
experiential education, while Gestalt focused on concepts of perception, it also focused
on awareness of experience. Thus, according to Gestalt, processes help bring awareness
to experience, and thus enhance experience by making emotional content accessible.

4.2 Behavioral Theories of Learning: Operant

Conditioning
Introduction to Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method
of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant
conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that
behavior.

Operant conditioning was coined by behaviorist B.F. Skinner, which is why you may
occasionally hear it referred to as Skinnerian conditioning. As a behaviorist, Skinner
believed that internal thoughts and motivations could not be used to explain behavior.
Instead, he suggested, we should look only at the external, observable causes of human
behavior.

Skinner used the term operant to refer to any "active behavior that operates upon the
environment to generate consequences" (1953). In other words, Skinner's theory
explained how we acquire the range of learned behaviors we exhibit each and every day.

Examples of Operant Conditioning

We can find examples of operant conditioning at work all around us. Consider the case of
children completing homework to earn a reward from a parent or teacher, or employees
finishing projects to receive praise or promotions.

In these examples, the promise or possibility of rewards causes an increase in behavior,

but operant conditioning can also be used to decrease a behavior. The removal of an
undesirable outcome or the use of punishment can be used to decrease or prevent
undesirable behaviors. For example, a child may be told they will lose recess privileges if
they talk out of turn in class. This potential for punishment may lead to a decrease in
disruptive behaviors.

Components of Operant Conditioning

Some key concepts in operant conditioning:

Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. There
are two kinds of rein forcers:

1. Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the
behavior. In situations that reflect positive reinforcement, a response or behavior
is strengthened by the addition of something, such as praise or a direct reward.
2. Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes
after the display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by
the removal of something considered unpleasant.

In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.

31

Punishment, on the other hand, is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that
causes a decrease in the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of punishment:

1. Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by application,

involves the presentation of an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken
the response it follows.
2. Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when an
favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs.

4.3 Cognitive perspectives of learning / Cognitive

development
Cognitive development is a field of study in neuroscience
and psychology focusing on a child's development in terms of information processing,
conceptual resources, perceptual skill, language learning, and other aspects of brain
development and cognitive psychology compared to an adult's point of view. A large
portion of research has gone into understanding how a child imagines the world. Jean
Piaget was a major force in the discovering of this field study, forming his "theory of
cognitive development". Many of his theoretical claims have since fallen out of favor.
However, his description of the general tendencies of cognitive development (e.g., that it
moves from being dependent on actions and perception in infancy to understanding of the
more observable aspects of reality in childhood to capturing the underlying abstract rules
and principles in adolescence) is generally acceptable today. Besides, many of the
phenomena that he discovered, such as object permanence in infancy and the
conservations in school age children, are real and attracts the interest of researchers in the
present day in spite of everything. In the recent years alternative models have been
advanced, including the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development, which aim to
integrate Piaget's ideas which stood up well to the test of time with more recent
theorizing and methods in developmental and cognitive science.

A major controversy in cognitive development has been "nature vs. nurture", or nativism
versus empiricism. However, it is now recognized by most experts that this is a false
dichotomy: there is overwhelming evidence from biological and behavioral sciences that
from the earliest points in development, gene activity interacts with events and
experiences in the environment. Another issue is how culture and social experience relate
to developmental changes in thinking. Another question is phylogenic convergence or
homology with non-human animals. Most aspects of learning and cognition are similar in
humans and non-human animals. These issues propagate to nearly every aspect of
cognitive development.

4.4 Information Processing Theory

The Gale Group

SENSORY MEMORY

WORKING MEMORY

LONG-TERM MEMORY

IMPLICATIONS FOR INSTRUCTION

32

The Gale Group

Humans process information with amazing efficiency and often perform better than
highly sophisticated machines at tasks such as problem solving and critical thinking
(Halpern, 2003; Kuhn, 1999). Yet despite the remarkable capabilities of the human mind,
it was not until the 20th century that researchers developed systematic models of
memory, cognition, and thinking. The best articulated and most heavily researched model
is the information processing model (IPM) developed in the early 1950s. The IPM
consists of three main components, sensory memory, working memory, and long-term
memory (see Figure 1). Sensory and working memory enable people to manage limited
amounts of incoming information during initial processing, whereas long-term memory
serves as a permanent repository for knowledge. In this entry, the information processing
model will be used as a metaphor for successful learning because it is well supported by
research and provides a well-articulated means for describing the main cognitive
structures (i.e., memory systems) and processes (i.e., strategies) in the learning cycle.

SENSORY MEMORY
Sensory memory processes incoming sensory information for very brief periods of time,
usually on the order of 1/2 to 3 seconds. The amount of information held at any given
moment in sensory memory is limited to five to seven discrete elements such as letters of
the alphabet or pictures of human faces. Thus, if a person viewed 10 letters
simultaneously for 1 second, it is unlikely that more than five to seven of those letters
would be remembered.

The main purpose of sensory memory is to screen incoming stimuli and process only
those stimuli that are most relevant at the present time. For example, drivers on a busy
freeway in heavy traffic are constantly bombarded with visual and auditory stimuli. To
maximize efficiency and safety, they process only information that is relevant to safe
driving. Thus, they would attend to road conditions but not buildings they pass as they
drive. Similarly, they would attend to sounds of other cars, but not to music from the
radio or one passenger's casual conversation with another.

Researchers agree that information processing in sensory memory usually occurs too
quickly for people to consciously control what they attend to. Rather, attention allocation
and sensory processing are fast and unconscious. Information that is relevant to the task
at hand, and information that is familiar and therefore subject to automatic processing,
are the most likely types of information to be processed in sensory memory and
forwarded to the working memory buffer. Information that is highly relevant may receive
some degree of controlled, conscious processing if it is crucial to a task (e.g., attending to
salient information such as animals along the road while driving at high speed). However,
controlled processing in sensory memory would be likely further to reduce the limited
amount of information that can be processed at any given moment.

WORKING MEMORY
After stimuli enter sensory memory, they are either forwarded to working memory or
deleted from the system. Working memory is a term that is used to refer to a multi-
component temporary memory system in which information is assigned meaning, linked
to other information, and essential mental operations such as inferences are performed. A
number of different models of working memory have been proposed (Shah & Miyake,
1999). However, the three-component model developed by Baddeley (1998, 2001) is the
most common, and will be discussed shortly.
33

Figure 1ILLUSTRATION BY GGS INFORMATION SERVICES. CENGAGE

LEARNING, GALE.

Several useful terms have been developed to describe efficient cognitive processing in
working memory. One term is limited attentional resources, which refers to the highly
limited nature of information processing (Anderson, 2000; Neath, 1998). All individuals
experience severe limitations in how much mental activity they can engage in due to
limited cognitive resources (Kane & Engle, 2002). Although humans differ with respect
to available cognitive resources, all learners experience severe limitations regardless of
their skill and ability level. Often, differences between one learner and another are not
due to the amount of resources, but how efficiently those resources are used.

Another key term is automaticity, which refers to being able to perform a task very
quickly and efficiently due to repeated practice (Stanovich, 2003). Automated activities
usually require few cognitive resources; thus, even a complex skill such as driving a car
at 75 miles per hour can seem effortless. Effective information processing in sensory
memory requires a high degree of automaticity with regard to recognition of familiar
stimuli such as spoken or printed words, faces, and sounds.

A third key term is selective processing, which refers to the act of intentionally focusing
one's limited cognitive resources on stimuli that are most relevant to the task at hand. For
example, when driving in snow, one might allocate more of one's limited cognitive
resources to watching the center line in the highway than one would allocate on a clear
summer day. In contrast, on an extremely windy day, one would pay little attention to the
whereabouts of the center line but pay special attention to any flying debris that could
cause an accident. In essence, selective processing enables learners to be optimally
efficient by putting all of their cognitive eggs in one basket. It is no coincidence that
highly effective learners succeed because they identify what is most important to learn
and allocate limited attention to relevant information.

Baddeley's 2001 model of working memory consists of three components, the executive
control system, articulatory loop, and visual-spatial sketch pad. The role of the executive
control system is to select incoming information, determine how to best process that
information, construct meaning through organization and inferences, and subsequently
transfer the processed information to long-term memory or choose to delete that
information from the memory system altogether (e.g., a telephone number that is no
longer needed). Most models of working memory assume that the central executive is the
place where humans “make conscious meaning” of the information they process (Shah &
Miyake, 1999). The role of the articulatory loop is to maintain and further process verbal
information. The role of the visual-spatial sketch pad is analogous to the articulatory loop
in that it maintains and further processes non-verbal and visual information. Information
is lost quickly from working memory (i.e., 5 to 15 seconds) unless some type of mental
rehearsal occurs. Barring rehearsal (e.g., repeating a telephone number), information is
either forwarded to long-term memory or is deleted from the system.

Baddeley's model makes several critical assumptions about the processing of information
in working memory. One is that each of the three subsystems possesses its own

Table 1ILLUSTRATION BY GGS INFORMATION SERVICES. CENGAGE

LEARNING, GALE.

pool of limited cognitive resources. This means that, under normal information
processing circumstances, each subsystem performs work without taxing the other
subsystems. A second assumption is that the executive control system regulates the
articulatory loop and visual-spatial sketch pad.
34

LONG-TERM MEMORY
Unlike sensory and working memory, long-term memory is not constrained by capacity
or duration of attention limitations. The role of long-term memory is to provide a
seemingly unlimited repository for all the facts and knowledge in memory. Most
researchers believe that long-term memory is capable of holding millions of pieces of
information for very long periods of time (Anderson, 2000). A great deal of research has
gone into identifying two key aspects of long-term memory: (a) what types of
information are represented, and (b) how information is organized. These two questions
are addressed in the next section of this entry. For present purposes, there is universal
agreement that qualitatively different types of information exist in long-term memory and
that information must be organized, and therefore quickly accessible, to be of practical
use to learners.

Figure 1 shows that working memory and long-term memory are connected by encoding
and retrieval processes. Encoding refers to a large number of strategies that move
information from temporary store in working memory into long-term memory. Examples
include organization, inference, and elaboration strategies, which will be discussed later.
Retrieval refers to processes that enable individuals to search memory and access
information for active processing in working memory. Both encoding and retrieval
greatly facilitate learning when information in long-term memory is organized for easy
access.

A comparison of the three components of the IPM indicates that both sensory and
working memory are relatively short term in nature (see Table 1). Their main roles are to
screen incoming information, assign meaning, and relate individual units of information
to other units. In contrast, the main role of long-term memory is to serve as a highly
organized permanent storage system. Sensory and working memory process few pieces of
information within a short time frame. Automaticity of processing and selective
allocation of limited cognitive resources greatly increases the efficiency of information
processing. Long-term memory is assumed to be more or less permanent and unlimited in
terms of capacity. The main processing constraint on long-term memory is the
individual's ability to quickly encode and retrieve information using an efficient
organizational system.

The information processing model provides a conceptual model which explains the
different functions and constraints on human memory. The IPM also has had a major
impact on instructional theory and practice. Sweller and Chandler's 1994 work developed
cognitive load theory to explain how different instructional and learner constraints affect
optimal information processing. The crux of their argument is that each task imposes
some degree of cognitive load, which must be met either by available cognitive resources
or learner-based strategies such as selective attention and automaticity. Reducing
cognitive load enables individuals to learn with less overall mental effort. Cognitive load
theory has been especially helpful in terms of planning instruction and developing
learning materials. Others researchers such as Mayer and Moreno (2003) have developed
frameworks to increase learning by systematically reducing cognitive load through better
design of learning materials and more strategic use of limited resources by students.

In summary, the information processing model postulates a three-component model of

information processing. The IPM is consistent with empirical findings and provides an
excellent framework for understanding principles of effective learning, which are
considered later in this entry. Sensory and working memories are limited with respect to
capacity and duration, whereas long-term memory is more or less unlimited. Information
processing efficiency is increased due to automaticity and selectivity. Encoding and
retrieval of information in long-term memory is increased due to efficient organizational
strategies.
35

IMPLICATIONS FOR INSTRUCTION

The information processing model provides four important implications for improving
learning and instruction. The first is that memory stores are extremely limited in both
sensory and working memory. The two main strategies that effective learners use to cope
with limited capacity are selectively focusing their attention on important information
and engaging in as much automated processing as possible. From an educational
perspective, it is essential for students to become automated at basic skills such as letter
and word decoding, number recognition, and simple procedural skills such as
handwriting, multiplication, and spelling. Automaticity makes available limited
processing resources that can be used to engage in labor intensive self-regulation (Butler
& Winne, 1995; Zeidner, Boekaerts, & Pintrich, 2000; Zimmerman, 2000) and
comprehension monitoring (Schraw, 2001; Sternberg, 2001).

A second implication is that relevant prior knowledge facilitates encoding and retrieval
processes. Highly effective learners possess a great deal of organized knowledge within a
particular domain such as reading, mathematics, or science. They also possess general
problem-solving and critical-thinking scripts that enable them to perform well across
different domains. This knowledge guides information processing in sensory and working
memory by providing easy-to-access retrieval structures in memory. It also serves as the
basis for the development of expertise (Alexander, 2003; Ericsson, 2003). Thus, helping
students use their prior knowledge when learning new information promotes learning.

A third implication is that automated information processing increases cognitive

efficiency by reducing information processing demands. As discussed earlier,
automaticity is an important aspect of effective learning for two reasons. One is that
being automated makes it easier selectively to allocate limited resources to information
that is most relevant to the task at hand. Unfortunately, there is no easy road to
automaticity other than sustained, regular practice. In addition, automaticity frees limited
resources that can be used for other activities such as drawing inferences and connecting
new information to existing information in memory.

A fourth implication is that learning strategies improve information processing because

learners are more efficient and process information at a deeper level (Pressley & Harris,
2006; Pressley & McDonald-Wharton, 1997). All effective learners draw from a
repertoire of learning strategies in a flexible manner. Some of these strategies are used
automatically, while some require controlled processing and metacognitive control that
place high demands on limited cognitive resources. Good learners use a wide variety of
strategies and use them in a highly automatic fashion. However, there are three general
strategies that all effective learners use in most situations. These include organization,
inferences, and elaboration (Mayer & Moreno, 2003). Organization refers to how
information is sorted and arranged in long-term memory. Information that is related to
what one already knows is easier to encode and retrieve than isolated information. In
some cases, individuals already possess well organized knowledge with empty slots that
can be filled easily with new information. Activating existing knowledge prior to
instruction, or providing a visual diagram of how information is organized, is one of the
best ways to facilitate learning new information. Constructing inferences involves
making connections between separate concepts. Elaboration refers to increasing the
meaningfulness of information by connecting new information to ideas already known.
36

4.5 FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNING

INTRODUCTION
Learning, as we know, can be considered as the process by which
skills, attitudes, knowledge and concepts are acquired, understood, applied and
extended. All human beings, whether grown ups or children engage in the process of
learning, either consciously, sub-consciously or subliminally. It is through learning that their
competence and ability to function in their environment get enhanced. It is important
to understand that while we learn some ideas and concepts through instruction or
teaching, we also learn through our feelings and experiences. Feelings and experiences
are a tangible part of our lives and these greatly influence what we learn, how we
learn and why we learn.
Learning has been considered partly a cognitive process and partly a social and
affective one. It qualifies as a cognitive process because it involves the functions of
attention, perception, reasoning, analysis, drawing of conclusions, making interpretations
and giving meaning to the observed phenomena. All of these are mental processes
which relate to the intellectual functions of the individual. Learning is a social and
affective process, as the societal and cultural context in which we function and the
feelings and experiences which we have, greatly influence our ideas, concepts, images
and understanding of the world. These constitute inner subjective interpretations and
represent our own unique, personalized constructions of the specific universe of
functioning. Our knowledge, ideas, concepts, attitudes, beliefs and the skills which we
acquire are a consequence of these combined processes. You may be wondering
why we are discussing the concept of learning, since our concern in this unit is with
factors affecting learning. We are doing this to enable you to appreciate the fact that
the process of learning involves cognition, feeling, experience and a context. Individuals
vary greatly with regard to their ability, capacity and interest in learning. You must
have noticed such variations among your friends and students. In any family, children
of the same parents differ with respect to what they can learn and how well they can
learn. For example, a particular child may be very good at acquiring practical skills
such as repairing electrical gadgets, shopping for the household etc., while his brother
or sister may in contrast be very poor on these, and good at academic tasks, instead.
Even for yourself, you may be perplexed why you can do some tasks well, but not
others given the same competence level. For example learning the tunes of songs
and even their lyrics is often found to be easier than learning a formula or a poem. Do
4

you ever wonder why this is so? You may have observed that for some people, 1
learning driving or swimming or cooking is achieved easily, while for some others it is 1
a nightmare. Why this happens, what could be the underlying reasons and why
individuals differ with respect to how and what they learn, are the key questions
addressed in the present unit. To find some answers to these questions, we will try to
identify and understand the various factors affecting learning

IDENTIFICATION OF SIGNIFICANT FACTORS

Let us now try to understand some of the significant factors affecting learning. There
are some personal factors affecting learning that deal with the innate aspects of an
individual and are unique to hirn/her. These are extremely significant as they influence
what the individual can learn, how much time, effort and energy helshe is required to
put in and how well helshe is likely to learn. The environmental factors are other
factors which mediate the learning process. Research has shown that the following
are the key factors that affect learning:
Intelligence
Aptitude
Goals
Interests
Readiness & Maturation
Motivation
Self Concept
37

Attitudes & Values

Level of Aspiration
Learning style
Socio cultural determinants
Each of these factors play a significant role in learning. We will now examine them
one by one a little later, in terms of what they mean, how they vary across individuals
and how they influence the process of learning.
38

Unit-5 Intelligence

Introduction To Intelligence

1. Defining intelligence Binet (1916) defined it as the capacity to judge well, to reason
well, and to comprehend well Terman (1916) defined it as the capacity to form concepts
and grasp their significance Pintner (1921) defined it as the ability of an individual to
adapt well to new situations in life
2. Thorndike (1921) defined it as the power of good responses from the point of view of
truth or fact Thurstone (1921) defined it as the capacity to inhibit instinctive response,
imagine a different response, and realize the response modification into behavior
3. Psychometric approach focuses on how well people perform on standardized mental
tests and with what the scores correlate Achievement tests - based on learning Aptitude
tests--measure the ability to acquire skills in the future ---the difference is really one of
degree and intended use since all are based to some extent on experience with words,
objects, etc.
4. Development theories Focuses on uniformities and interindividual similarities in
cognitive growth Actions of assimilation and accommodation on the external world.
Assimilation consists of fitting new experiences into preexisting cognitive
structure(schemata)
5. The historical concept is too narrow. It needs to be expanded. 8. Cognitive
psychologists want to how" people solve problems in addition to whether or not
they get the right answer (the psychometric approach).
6. Application of intelligence testing Diagnosis of the presence and nature of brain
damage Selection, placement and classification of students in higher education,
employees in business and industrial organizations, and personnel in military and
government dept. Vocational and educational counseling and rehabilitation
7. Assessing Intelligence: Sample Items from the WAIS VERBAL General Information
Similarities Arithmetic Reasoning Vocabulary Comprehension Digit Span
PERFORMANCE Picture Completion Picture Arrangement Block Design Object
Assembly Digit-Symbol Substitution

Intelligence and IQ

Intelligence is a person's capacity to (1) acquire knowledge

(i.e. learn and understand), (2) apply knowledge (solve problems), and (3) engage in
abstract reasoning. It is the power of one's intellect, and as such is clearly a very
important aspect of one's overall well-being. Psychologists have attempted to measure it
for well over a century.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is the score you get on an intelligence test. Originally, it was a
quotient (a ratio): IQ= MA/CA x 100 [MA is mental age, CA is chronological age].
Today, scores are calibrated against norms of actual population scores.

Under 70 [mentally retarded] -- 2.2%

70-80 [borderline retarded] -- 6.7%
80-90 [low average] -- 16.1%
90-110 [average] -- 50%
110-120 [high average] -- 16.1%
120-130 [superior] -- 6.7%
Over 130 [very superior] -- 2.2%
39

Intelligence clearly has a powerful genetic component. But we can also see a number of
environmental aids and hindrances: A stimulating environment, parental encouragement,
good schooling, specific reasoning skills, continued practice, and so on, certainly help a
person become more intelligent. Likewise, there are certain biological factors that are
nevertheless environmental: prenatal care, nutrition (especially in early childhood),
freedom from disease and physical trauma, and so on.

Most of the normal curve of intelligence, I believe, is due to a variety of physiological

impairments of brain efficiency, such as that resulting from malnourishment, prenatal
trauma, chromosomal damage, and, most often, simple inheritance of certain
neurochemical makeup. These stretch what would otherwise be a much “tighter” curve
out to the low end.

The great majority of us have fairly healthy brains. A very few have particularly healthy
brains. It would seem that having particularly healthy brains would be a fantastic aid to
one’s “fitness,” so I can only guess that not being too bright must be even better!

5.1 Concept of Intelligence According To Modern

Science and Ancient Texts
Intelligence has been described (on Microsoft Encarta 98) as the 'capacity to learn or to
understand'. However, Gross (1) reminds us that "The concept of intelligence is
extremely difficult to define, despite being one of the most intensively researched aspects
of individual difference and having such practical significance". 'General Intelligence' is a
term first coined by Spearman in 1923 (2). It is the idea that there is a general intelligence
opposed to much different intelligence. The concept that there is one intelligence means
that it can be easily measured; this is the reason that Intelligence Quotient (IQ) tests are
used in many situations. According to Ancient Indian Texts Intelligence is regarded as a
means to an end rather than an end in itself.

This paper is an attempt to review various theories on Intelligence according to Modern

Science and explore the concept according to the Ancient Texts.

Summary & Conclusion:

There are several studies on the efficacy of yoga in improving mental functions of
normal and subnormal adults and children but there are no studies on the effect of yoga in
normal healthy children on their Intelligence Quotient
The aim of this study was to assess the efficacy of intensive integrated yoga modules on
children in regard to their Intelligence Quotient.
The present study was also done to examine whether the intelligence quotient group
(yoga module) showed much improvement in the IQ in school children. The present
study was also done to check whether gender had an effect on the changes in IQ scores.

In this study, 153 school children (age range = 13 to15 years) were randomly assigned to
three groups namely IQ, CR, and PS.

The groups had interventions of IYM to enhance CR, IQ and PS. The number of students
in each group was IQ (n=51), CR (n=52), PS (n=50).

The assessments for intelligence quotient were taken on the 1st and 9th day of the
course. The necessary conditions for the test namely, the seating arrangement, timing was
strictly adhered to.
40

The scoring done for the test was based on Draw a man test Indian version for children.
The intervention for the study included yoga practices, which were very specific for the
three yoga modules.
The base line data was analyzed by one way ANOVA. Pre-post data of all three and full
group were analyzed with Paired-t test and group comparison by Tukey test. The gender
effect was explored by Paired-t test for all three groups as well as the full group. Male
and female gender comparison was done by paired t test.

The analysis of data was done after checking for elimination of abnormal data and
attrition of data.
a. The normality test showed that the groups were of normal distribution.
b. The 'f' test showed that the groups were homogenous.
c. The Paired' test indicated that IQ group showed improvement.
d. The Multiple comparison Tukey test showed that there was significant difference
between groups. It showed that the IQ group showed more significant change than the
other two groups.
e. The paired t test for male Vs female showed that both males and females improved
although there was a significant improvement only in the IQ group (P<0.01) males
(5.88%) and females (7.54%). .Males of all groups improved while among females, the
PS group showed a slight decrease of -0.65%.

Conclusions

The above study shows that Yoga has a role to play in the improvement of intelligence
quotient, with greater improvement in the IQ group. The improvement in IQ may be due
to balancing, relaxation & anxiety reducing effects of yoga practices.

The results suggest that the hypothesis was correct, i.e. it has shown improvement in the
intelligence quotient group. Age as a factor may also be related to the increase in test
scores. Further studies could be done after matching for age, for the three groups, to test
the speculation.

5.2 Multiple Intelligences

The theory of multiple intelligences was developed in 1983 by Dr. Howard Gardner,
professor of education at Harvard University. It suggests that the traditional notion of
intelligence, based on I.Q. testing, is far too limited. Instead, Dr. Gardner proposes eight
different intelligences to account for a broader range of human potential in children and
adults. These intelligences are:
Linguistic intelligence ("word smart")
Logical-mathematical intelligence ("number/reasoning smart")
Spatial intelligence ("picture smart")
Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence ("body smart")
Musical intelligence ("music smart")
Interpersonal intelligence ("people smart")
Intrapersonal intelligence ("self smart")
Naturalist intelligence ("nature smart")

Dr. Gardner says that our schools and culture focus most of their attention on linguistic
and logical-mathematical intelligence. We esteem the highly articulate or logical people
of our culture. However, Dr. Gardner says that we should also place equal attention on
individuals who show gifts in the other intelligences: the artists, architects, musicians,
naturalists, designers, dancers, therapists, entrepreneurs, and others who enrich the world
in which we live. Unfortunately, many children who have these gifts don’t receive much
41

reinforcement for them in school. Many of these kids, in fact, end up being labeled
"learning disabled," "ADD (attention deficit disorder," or simply underachievers, when
their unique ways of thinking and learning aren’t addressed by a heavily linguistic or
logical-mathematical classroom. The theory of multiple intelligences proposes a major
transformation in the way our schools are run. It suggests that teachers be trained to
present their lessons in a wide variety of ways using music, cooperative learning, art
activities, role play, multimedia, field trips, inner reflection, and much more (see Multiple
Intelligences in the Classroom). The good news is that the theory of multiple intelligences
has grabbed the attention of many educators around the country, and hundreds of schools
are currently using its philosophy to redesign the way it educates children. The bad news
is that there are thousands of schools still out there that teach in the same old dull way,
through dry lectures, and boring worksheets and textbooks. The challenge is to get this
information out to many more teachers, school administrators, and others who work with
children, so that each child has the opportunity to learn in ways harmonious with their
unique minds (see In Their Own Way).

The theory of multiple intelligences also has strong implications for adult learning and
development. Many adults find themselves in jobs that do not make optimal use of their
most highly developed intelligences (for example, the highly bodily-kinesthetic
individual who is stuck in a linguistic or logical desk-job when he or she would be much
happier in a job where they could move around, such as a recreational leader, a forest
ranger, or physical therapist). The theory of multiple intelligences gives adults a whole
new way to look at their lives, examining potentials that they left behind in their
childhood (such as a love for art or drama) but now have the opportunity to develop
through courses, hobbies, or other programs of self-development

How to Teach or Learn Anything 8 Different Ways

One of the most remarkable features of the theory of multiple intelligences is how it
provides eight different potential pathways to learning. If a teacher is having difficulty
reaching a student in the more traditional linguistic or logical ways of instruction, the
theory of multiple intelligences suggests several other ways in which the material might
be presented to facilitate effective learning. Whether you are a kindergarten teacher, a
graduate school instructor, or an adult learner seeking better ways of pursuing self-study
on any subject of interest, the same basic guidelines apply. Whatever you are teaching or
learning, see how you might connect it with
words (linguistic intelligence)
numbers or logic (logical-mathematical intelligence)
pictures (spatial intelligence)
music (musical intelligence)
self-reflection (intrapersonal intelligence)
a physical experience (bodily-kinesthetic intelligence)
a social experience (interpersonal intelligence), and/or
an experience in the natural world. (naturalist intelligence)
For example, if you’re teaching or learning about the law of supply and demand in
economics, you might read about it (linguistic), study mathematical formulas that express
it (logical-mathematical), examine a graphic chart that illustrates the principle (spatial),
observe the law in the natural world (naturalist) or in the human world of commerce
(interpersonal); examine the law in terms of your own body [e.g. when you supply your
body with lots of food, the hunger demand goes down; when there's very little supply,
your stomach's demand for food goes way up and you get hungry] (bodily-kinesthetic and
intrapersonal); and/or write a song (or find an existing song) that demonstrates the law
(perhaps Dylan's "Too Much of Nothing?").
42

You don’t have to teach or learn something in all eight ways, just see what the
possibilities are, and then decide which particular pathways interest you the most, or
seem to be the most effective teaching or learning tools. The theory of multiple
intelligences is so intriguing because it expands our horizon of available
teaching/learning tools beyond the conventional linguistic and logical methods used in
most schools (e.g. lecture, textbooks, writing assignments, formulas, etc.). To get started,
put the topic of whatever you’re interested in teaching or learning about in the center of a
blank sheet of paper, and draw eight straight lines or "spokes" radiating out from this
topic. Label each line with a different intelligence. Then start brainstorming ideas for
teaching or learning that topic and write down ideas next to each intelligence (this is a
spatial-linguistic approach of brainstorming; you might want to do this in other ways as
well, using a tape-recorder, having a group brainstorming session, etc.).

Measurement
The earliest formal intelligence test required a person to perform such simple tasks as
deciding which of two weights was heavier or showing how forcefully he could squeeze
his hand. However, this was obviously proved to be inaccurate.

In 1904 the minister of public instruction in Paris named a commission to study or create
tests that would insure that mentally retarded children received an adequate education.
The minister was also concerned that certain children were being placed in classes for the
retarded not because they were retarded but because they had behaviour problems, and
teachers did not want them in their classrooms. Therefore, the more influential tradition
of mental testing, which is the IQ test, was developed by Binet and his collaborator,
Theodore Simon, in France.

It has been common to associate certain levels of IQ with labels. For example, at the
upper end, the label "gifted" is sometimes assigned to people with IQs over a certain
point, such as 130. And at the lower end, mental retardation has been classified into
different degrees depending upon IQ.

5.3 Measures of intelligence

Sir Francis Galton, a pioneer in the measurement of individual differences in late

nineteenth-century England, was particularly concerned with sensory responses (visual
and auditory acuity and reaction times) and their relationship to differences in ability.

Several individual tests have been used to test intelligence.

The Binet-Simon intelligence scale, developed by French psychologists Alfred Binet and
Theodore Simon, was administered to children to evaluate their performance (mental age)
at a given chronological age. The mental age/chronological age measure, called a mental
quotient, was used to evaluate a child's learning potential.
Lewis Terman of Stanford University revised the Binet scale in 1916. The revised scale,
called the Stanford-Binet intelligence scale, although it retained the concept of mental
and chronological ages, introduced the concept of the intelligence quotient (IQ) arrived at
by the following widely used formula, which allows comparison between children of
different ages.
The 1986 revision of the test, the latest of several, varies the calculation so that the test is
useful for adults as well as for children. An individual's score for correct answers is
compared to a table of scores of test takers of the same age (with the average score
always scaled to 100). Scores between 90 and 110 are labeled as “normal,” above 130 as
“superior,” and below 70 as mentally deficient, or “retarded.” The distribution of IQ
scores approximates a normal (bell-shaped) curve (Figure 1 ).
43

Figure 1
The Normal IQ Distribution
David Wechsler developed the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) in 1939,
revised as the WAIS-R. Wechsler also developed the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for
Children (WISC), revised as the WISC-R. The revised forms of these scales are still
widely used. They contains two sub-scales, verbal and performance, which provide a
verbal IQ and a performance IQ; the subscales are combined for the total IQ. Test score
combinations may reveal other strengths and weaknesses to a skilled examiner.
Tests of aptitude and achievement. Group tests (such as the California Achievement Tests
and the SAT, the Scholastic Assessment Test) are often used to measure aptitude, the
capacity to learn (including both verbal and performance aptitudes) and achievement,
what has been learned.

Ranges of intelligence scores. The two extremes of levels of intellectual functioning are
known as developmentally disabled and gifted.

Those identified as mentally retarded (sometimes described as developmentally disabled)

have IQ scores of 70 or below. Severity of disability and corresponding IQ scores are
mild (50 to 70), moderate (35 to 50), severe (20 to 35), and profound (below 20). Some,
but not all, of the causes of mental retardation are known and include Down syndrome, a
genetic disorder; phenylketonuria, a metabolic disorder; and developmental disability due
to anoxia (lack of oxygen) during gestation.
The gifted usually fall within the upper 2% to 3% of the IQ score distribution (between
130 and 145). Louis Terman's well-known longitudinal study of the gifted, which will not
be complete until 2010, found that gifted children are generally superior to average-IQ
peers in health, achievement, and adjustment to life stresses. Currently, gifted children
are identified not only by IQ but also by superior potential in any of six areas: general
intelligence, specific aptitudes (math, for example), creativity, leadership, performing
arts, and athletics.

Measurement of Intelligence.
Thorndike, E. L.

Three kinds of defect in modern intelligence tests are noted: (1) The content of the tests is
ambiguous; a variety of tasks are set. (2) The units of measure are arbitrary. The lack of a
zero point of intelligence and also the age basis are not satisfactory. (3) The significance
of intelligence tests is ambiguous. Since there is no generally accepted criterion of
intellect it is impossible to say what the tests measure. In positive reconstruction it is
noted that the intelligence tests measure intellectual products and that measures of
intelligence imply evaluation. Three
criteria for evaluating the tests are considered: truth-getting; development with age;
ability to learn. Other attempts to evaluate the tests have been made on the basis of
response to novelty and relational thinking. The materials of tests have been limited, but
there is no reason why tests should not draw upon any kind of material. The form of
intelligence tests should be flexible and a wide range of operations should be covered. As
regards scoring we must come to some objective basis of difficulty. An empirical means
of defining difficulty is suggested (244). Intelligence tests should distinguish level, extent
and speed of intellect. Three theorems and two charts are presented

Different kinds of intelligences

Is intelligence one thing (referred to as g)? Many researchers believe it is. Or is it many
things. Some suggestions include the following:
Verbal, numerical, spatial, reasoning, fluency, perceptual speed...
Fluid vs. crystallized (Cattell)...
44

Linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal,

interpersonal (Gardner)...
I’m not big on emphasizing different kinds of intelligence, or on introducing new kinds.
Some things -- street smarts, common sense, and social intelligence, for example -- are
“specializations” of intelligence, just like academic intelligence is. Other things – like
musical ability or kinesthetic abilities or artistic abilities -- are talents in their own right,
and not new kinds of intelligence. I think our enthusiasm for egalitarianism leads us to
play semantic games, so that everyone can be “intelligent” in some fashion. The
sentiment is pleasant, but by doing this, you eliminate any meaning intelligence may have
had!

Social issues

A very touchy subject is group differences in intelligence. It is certainly conceivable that

some groups have higher or lower average intelligence than others, whether through
environmental or genetic causes. But groups don’t really have intelligence, individuals
do. Averages are fictions -- convenient summaries of data -- and no individual need
reflect that fiction. So the debate would be only of scientific interest, were it not for the
fact that so many people judge individuals by means of stereotypes. This in itself is an
example of poor thinking!
The biggest difficulty for society (and individuals!) regarding intelligence is retardation.
Unlike high intelligence, low intelligence is further classified into several subcategories:
0 - 20 (profound) -- needs nursing care
20 - 35 (severe) -- can learn to talk and develop health habits
35 - 50 (moderate) -- second grade, needs sheltered care
50 - 70 (mild) -- educable to the sixth grade, minimally self-supporting
Low intelligence has significant social effects. Here are some social statistics relating to
IQ:

IQ group....... less than 75 75 to 90 90 to 110 110 to 125 125

and higher
% of total population 5% 20% 50% 20% 5%
% of group out of labor force more than one month out of the year
22% 19% 15% 14% 10%
% of group unemployed more than one month out of the year (men)
12% 10% 7% 7% 2%
% of group divorced within five years
21% 22% 23% 15% 9%
% of group that had illegitimate children (women)
32% 17% 8% 4% 2%
% of group that lives in poverty
30% 16% 6% 3% 2%
% of group ever incarcerated (men)
7% 7% 3% 1% 0%
% of group that are chronic welfare recipients (mothers)
31% 17% 8% 2% 0%
% of group that drop out of high school
55% 35% 6% 0.4% 0%
45

Difficulties with measuring intelligence

Finally, there’s the question of intelligence testing. I think it has come a long way, but it
has a long way to go as well. I hope to see it become more inclusive of non-academic
thinking, and to become less tied to prior learning. The bigger problem with testing,
however, is what we do with the results: People are far too prone to take test scores at
face value, without looking at a broader selection of information about a person’s
abilities. They are also far too likely to generalize to non-intelligence issues. We should
certainly not use intelligence tests carelessly when deciding children's’ educations or
adult’s careers.

Cultural variables
Try these questions:
1. How many days does it take for a chicken egg to hatch?
2. What color is a Holstein cow?
3. How many stomachs does a cow have?
4. Does a bull have a cud?
5. Is a rooster necessary for a hen to lay eggs?

The answers: 21; black and white; 4; yes; and no, unless you want fertilized eggs. These
are easy questions if you grew up on a farm!

Other examples: The famous "chittlin's" test, biased towards black Americans. It is
named for the question: "What are chittlin's?" Answer: Pig's intestines, cleaned, soaked,
and fried (originally called chitterlings). Or you could bias towards other groups by
asking "What is tripe?" (An English dish consisting of sautéed ox stomach strips) or
"What is haggis?" (A Scottish dish consisting of a sheep's stomach filled with a porridge
made of oats and various sweetmeats.)

It becomes even more dramatic when we look at people very different from ourselves,
such as children growing up in the wilds of Papua-New Guinea. Some of the biases
working against them might include...
1. Use of paper and pencil. Problems are often presented in the form of diagrams;
answering often requires x-ing, circling, underlining, etc. Not easy for someone
unfamiliar with paper and pencil!
2. Use of pictorial material. Pictures, especially as printed on paper, use highly
conventional symbols, e.g. cutouts of pots, huts, etc. were thought to be pieces of
cardboard, rather than the objects they represented. when placed into a scene, they began
to make sense.
3. Use of non-representational drawings. Geometric figures, colored patterns, mazes,
etc., lack meaning to many people. Artistic patterns are only understood in context.
4. Appreciation of spatial relations. Our emphasis on three-dimensions at right angles is
culturally specific. Other cultures emphasize rounded figures more.
5. Manipulation. If you lack experience with blocks, puzzles, pieces of cardboard, etc.,
you also lack a feel for them and may be clumsy with them, leading the tester to conclude
that you are "dumb."
The problem of cognitive style
How is pair of scissors and a copper pan alike?
One point answer: They are both household utensils.
Two point answer: They are both made of metal.
Why is the second worth more than the first?

Which doesn't belong: clam, pig, oven, rose.

46

The correct answer is the oven, because the rest are living things.
But a child may say rose, since the others relate to making dinner.
Or the clam, since clams live in the water, and the rest live on land.

Not only can different answers reflect different social or cultural backgrounds; they may
also reflect originality and novel outlook.

In certain IQ tests, the child is given two points for "categorical" answers, one point for
"descriptive" answers, but no points for "relational" answers. So, in response to "How
are a cat and a mouse alike?" you get two points for "they are both animals," one point
for "they both have tails," and nothing at all if you say "they both live in houses."
With drawings of a boy, an old man, and a woman (the latter two wearing hats), children
were asked "Which go together?" "Good" answers include the boy and the man, because
they are both male, or the man and the woman because they are both adults. Less points
are awarded to "the man and the woman, because they are both wearing hats." and no
points are gained for "the boy and the old man, because the boy can help the old man
walk," which strikes me as the most creative answer!

Disembedded thought

The most important of all the confusing variables, I believe, is the problem of
disembedded thought. Disembodied thought is Margaret Donaldson's term for thought
that takes place in a contextual vacuum: It takes years of practice to get to a point where
one is comfortable with abstract questions. Answering what appear to be meaningless
questions is rejected by people of many cultures, by most young children, and by many
people with different "cognitive styles." It is, in fact, a talent peculiar to us (i.e. educated
western adults, and a few others). Many others will spend their creative energies not at
solving the problem, but at trying to figure out why you would ask such a strange
question to begin with.

IQ tests, especially in the past, have been (1) competition-oriented (with motivation to
answer quickly and accurately assumed), (2) upper-middle class oriented, and (3) western
culture-oriented (especially in regards to the thought process associated with science and
technology). It should be understood, however, that psychologists have been working
hard at eliminated these various biases, or at least reducing them, and that IQ tests today
are at least relatively culturally fair. They are certainly very reliable, and do in fact
related well to success in school and western society -- i.e. the culture and institutions
that share the values of these tests.

Using intelligence tests

There is one more problem with IQ tests, this time not about making them or giving
them, but about using them:
There was an experiment by Rosenthal in which school teachers were casually told at the
beginning of the school year that certain students (mentioned by name) were "spurters,"
that, according to some tests designed to measure "spurting," they would blossom in the
coming year. Actually no such test had been given. In fact, no such test exists. The
information was actually given about 20% of the students, chosen at random.

These kids no only did well academically (which we might expect, with teachers having
some control over that), but actually increased their IQ test scores!

The same, incidentally, happens with rats: Graduate students told that certain rats had
been bred for intelligence found that they did indeed do better at learning mazes -- even
though the information was false!
47

This is a form of experimenter bias, of course, and part of the reason we have double
blinds in experiments. But in the broader, social arena, we call this the self-fulfilling
prophecy, or the labeling effect. It is clear that we should take children as individuals and
give them whatever education they can handle. Unfortunately, that is costly.

5.4 intelligence and school performance

Sleep’s Influence on “Intelligence” and School Performance

by Ms. S on December 12, 2009

Higher IQs!

In 1925, the father of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test, Dr. Lewis M. Terman,
published his landmark book, Genetic Studies of Genius. He compared approximately
600 children with IQ scores over 140 to a group of almost 2,700 children with IQ scores
below 140. For every age examined, the gifted children slept longer!

Even seventy-nine years later, Dr. Terman’s study stands apart in design, execution, and
thoroughness. A 1983 scientific sleep laboratory study from Canada has provided
objective evidence confirming Terman’s result, that children of superior IQ had greater
total sleep time. Both studies agreed that brighter children slept about thirty to forty
minutes longer each night than average children of similar ages.

Better Grades!

Two years later, about 5,500 Japanese schoolchildren were studied, and those with better
grades slept longer!

Another study from the University of Louisville School of Medicine examined a group of
identical twins that were selected because one twin slept less than the other. At about ten
years of age, the twin with the longer sleep pattern had higher total reading, vocabulary,
and comprehension scores than the twin with the shorter sleep pattern.

Please don’t think that it has no lasting effect when you routinely keep your child up too
late — for your own pleasure after work or because you want to avoid bedtime
confrontations — or when you cut corners on naps in order to run errands or visit friends.
Once in a while, for a special occasion or reason, it’s okay. But day-in, day-out sleep
deprivation at night or for naps, as a matter of habit, could be very damaging to your
child. Cumulative, chronic sleep losses, even of brief duration, may be harmful for
learning.
Children diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder or learning disabilites
have been shown to have sleep-related difficulties, though we don’t know which came
first. Nevertheless, one careful intervention study showed that improvements in sleep
dramatically improved peer relations and classroom performance.

More Creativity and Richer Life!

Research on creative adults supports the concept that originality of ideas and the quality
of experiences suffer when you cut back on sleep. What you lose in waking time is made
up in terms of a richer life.

– Dr. Marc Weissbluth, M.D. of Healthy Sleep Habits, Happy Child (1987), pages 61 –62
One recent study examined the effects of a single night of sleep restriction in a group of
children between ten and fourteen years old. The researchers noted that there were
48

impairments in verbal creativity, abstract thinking / concept formation, and in complex

problem solving. These higher cognitive abilities appear to be essential for academic
performance and success. In contrast, there were no deficits on rote performance or less-
complex memory and learning tasks.

The ability to maintain routine performance despite being sleepy is familiar to every adult
who sometimes gets very tired but nevertheless is able to perform the routine aspects of
his or her job fairly well. My interpretation of this study is that chronic sleepiness in
infants and young children impairs cognitive development, but this will not become
apparent until the child is much older and challenged by more complex tasks.

Intelligence and school performance

Parents need good information to make school choices for their children. Policy makers
need good information to make accurate assessments of schools.

These two obvious statements are at the root of national and local efforts to create
intuitive ways to measure and explain the quality of K-12 education. In Wisconsin,
Governor Scott Walker has proclaimed his desire for a statewide school grading system
that includes all schools receiving state funds. Though recent education reform
legislation signed by the governor did not include school grading, the topic will likely
come up again.

In Milwaukee, The Milwaukee Metropolitan Association of Commerce is leading an

effort to create a common report card that lists easy to digest information about all
publicly funded Milwaukee schools. After about two years of work, the effort appears
near completion.
Why is a concept as simple as grading the quality of schools so complicated to
operationalize? Much of the difficulty relates to the wonkish debate on how best to
measure student and school performance.

For example, when the Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction (DPI) released the
latest results of the Wisconsin Knowledge and Concepts Exam (WKCE), private school
choice advocates, like public school officials in years prior, argued that snapshot test
scores are a misleading indicator of school performance.
The complaints are fair; single year test scores do not show the impact a school is having
on achievement, only where a student currently is performing. Measuring the impact of a
specific school or teacher requires tracking test score growth over time.

However, there has been some backlash against those advocating the use of growth
models such as value added analysis. The line of reasoning is that attainment matters
more than growth. The basic argument is that if a school makes a positive impact on test
scores but the overall performance of students remains low the community and state are
no better off.

These critics are also right.

The legitimacy of these conflicting viewpoints results from the blurring of the lines
between education reform goals and methods. The basic goal of K-12 education in
Wisconsin is pretty straightforward: Prepare children to be productive and
engaged citizens. Attainment measures such as graduation rates and single year test
scores are useful statistics for gauging whether Wisconsin’s K-12 education goals are
being met. Simply, policymakers and the general public needs to know where Wisconsin
students stand academically.
49

Judging individual schools and actually increasing student performance demands more
than single year test score data. What is needed, to borrow a phrase from the intelligence
community, is actionable information. In other words, teachers and principals need to
know how specific interventions, teaching strategies, and school cultures are impacting
their students’ performance in order to make informed instruction decisions.
Unfortunately, the recent release of value added analyses of individual teacher
performance in New York have caused some to equate the use of growth models with a
desire to publicly shame teachers. Ideally, growth models such as value added analysis
should be used as tools for teachers and principals to improve student achievement, not a
basis for one-size fits all accountability schemes.

Parents, teachers and policy makers all need good information on both the performance
levels of Wisconsin students, and the impact schools are having on that performance.
The question is not whether to use attainment or growth data, but when to use attainment
or growth data. Used properly, achievement data can help all stakeholders make
informed decisions that raise the quality of Wisconsin’s K-12 education system.

Ability Grouping in Elementary Schools.

Ability grouping of students is one of the oldest and most controversial issues in
elementary and secondary schools. Hundreds of research studies have examined the
effects of the two most common variants: between-class and within-class ability
grouping. Between-class grouping refers to a school's practice of forming classrooms that
contain students of similar ability. Within-class grouping refers to a teacher's practice of
forming groups of students of similar ability within an individual class.

This digest summarizes the conclusions of Robert E. Slavin's 1986 comprehensive review
of research on the different types of ability grouping in elementary schools. The purpose
of his review was to identify grouping practices that promote student achievement.

WHY USE ABILITY GROUPING?

In theory, ability grouping increases student achievement by reducing the disparity in

student ability levels, and this increases the likelihood that teachers can provide
instruction that is neither too easy nor too hard for most students. The assumption is that
ability grouping allows the teacher (1) to increase the pace and raise the level of
instruction for high achievers, and (2) to provide more individual attention, repetition,
and review for low achievers. The high achievers benefit from having to compete with
one another, and the low achievers benefit from not having to compete with their more
able peers.

One of the main arguments against ability grouping is that the practice creates classes or
groups of low achievers who are deprived of the example and stimulation provided by
high achievers. Labeling students according to ability and assigning them to low-
achievement groups may also communicate self-fulfilling low expectations. Further,
groups with low performance often receive a lower quality of instruction than other
groups. Slavin sees as the most compelling argument against ability grouping its creation
of academic elites, a practice which goes against democratic ideals.

HOW DOES GROUPING AFFECT STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT?

In his review, Slavin examines evidence on the achievement effects of five

comprehensive ability grouping plans in elementary schools. His review draws
conclusions about the effectiveness of the following grouping plans: ability grouped class
assignment, regrouping for reading or mathematics, the Joplin Plan, nongraded plans, and
within-class ability grouping.
50

Ability Grouped Class Assignment. This grouping plan places students in one self-
contained class on the basis of ability or achievement. In some departmentalized upper
elementary grades, the class may move as a whole from teacher to teacher. Evidence
suggests that ability grouped class assignment does not enhance student achievement in
the elementary school.
Regrouping for Reading and Mathematics. Under this plan, students are assigned to
heterogeneous homeroom classes for most of the day, but are regrouped according to
achievement level for one or more subjects. For example, all students from various
homeroom classes of one grade level might be re-sorted into ability grouped classes for a
period of reading instruction. Results indicate that regrouping for reading or mathematics
can improve student achievement. However, the level and pace of instruction must be
adapted to achievement level. Furthermore, students must not be regrouped for more than
one or two subjects.

The Joplin Plan. This grouping plan assigns students to heterogeneous classes for most of
the day but regroups them across grade levels for reading instruction. For example, a
reading class at the fifth grade, first semester level might include high achieving fourth
graders, average achieving fifth graders, and low achieving sixth graders. There is strong
evidence that the Joplin Plan increases reading achievement.

Nongraded Plan. This plan includes a variety of related grouping plans that place students
in flexible groups according to performance rather than age. Thus, grade-level
designations are eliminated. The curriculum for each subject is divided into levels
through which students progress at their own rates. Well- controlled studies conducted in
regular schools generally support the use of comprehensive nongraded plans.
Within-class Ability Grouping. This plan is generally used for reading or mathematics.
Teachers assign students within their classroom to one of a small number of groups based
on ability level. These groups work on different materials at rates unique to their needs
and abilities. Too few studies have been conducted on the use of within-class ability
grouping in reading to support or challenge its effectiveness.
Part of the problem is that within-class grouping is so widespread in reading instruction
that it is difficult to conduct research that includes a control group not using the practice.
Research on within-class ability grouping in mathematics clearly supports the practice,
especially when only two or three groups are formed. The positive effects are slightly
greater for low-achieving students than for average or high achievers.

WHAT SHOULD SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS DO ABOUT ABILITY

GROUPING?

Slavin concludes that schools and teachers should use the methods proved most effective,
such as within-class ability grouping in mathematics, nongraded plans in reading, and the
Joplin Plan. The review recommends that schools find alternatives to the use of ability
grouped class assignment, such as assigning students to self-contained classes according
to general ability or performance level.
Based on his examination of the features of successful and unsuccessful practices, Slavin
recommends that the following elements be included in successful ability grouping plans:
--Students should identify primarily with a heterogeneous class. They should be
regrouped by ability only when reducing heterogeneity is particularly important for
learning, as is the case with math or reading instruction.
--Grouping plans should reduce student heterogeneity in the specific skill being taught,
not in IQ or overall achievement level.
--Grouping plans should allow for frequent reassessment of student placement and for
easy reassignment based on student progress.
--Teachers must vary the level and pace of instruction according to student levels of
readiness and learning rates in regrouped classes.
--Only a small number of groups should be formed in within-class ability grouping. This
will allow the teacher to provide adequate direct instruction for each group.
51

Unit no.6 Individual differences

Individual Differences

Introduction

That people differ from each other is obvious. How and why they differ is less clear and
is the subject of the study of Individual differences (IDs). Although to study individual
differences seems to be to study variance, how are people different, it is also to study
central tendency, how well can a person be described in terms of an overall within-person
average. Indeed, perhaps the most important question of individual differences is whether
people are more similar to themselves over time and across situations than they are to
others, and whether the variation within a single person across time and situation is less
than the variation between people. A related question is that of similarity, for people
differ in their similarities to each other. Questions of whether particular groups (e.g.,
groupings by sex, culture, age, or ethnicity) are more similar within than between groups
are also questions of individual differences.

Personality psychology addresses the questions of shared human nature, dimensions of

individual differences and unique patterns of individuals. Research in IDs ranges from
analyses of genetic codes to the study of sexual, social, ethnic, and cultural differences
and includes research on cognitive abilities, interpersonal styles, and emotional reactivity.
Methods range from laboratory experiments to longitudinal field studies and include data
reduction techniques such as Factor Analysis and Principal Components Analysis, as well
as Structural Modeling and Multi-Level Modeling procedures. Measurement issues of
most importance are those of reliability and stability of Individual Differences.

Research in Individual Differences addresses three broad questions: 1) developing an

adequate descriptive taxonomy of how people differ; 2) applying differences in one
situation to predict differences in other situations; and 3) testing theoretical explanations
of the structure and dynamics of individual differences.

6.1 Sources and Types of individual differences

TYPES OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

There are a lot of individual differences but the most important are as follows:
Differences in Interest
Interest may refer as a motivating force that impels us to attend to a person, a thing, or an
activity. So in educational field differences in interest means you observe some students
like a particular subject, teacher, hobby or profession than other.
Difference in Attitude
Difference in attitude is psyche related to some thing. Few learners have positive attitude
towards a specific topic, subject, and profession than other. The role of education in
society is to develop positive attitude.

Difference in Values
Values are the things that are given importance by an individual. Some learners value
materialist life style other moral or religious life style etc. So education must mould the
mind of young generation to have a balance values between materialism and spiritualism.
52

Study Habits
It is clearly observable that some students markedly differ from other students in study
habits. Some students are studious and study all the subjects with interest but other may
not. Some study in isolation and some in group.
Difference in Psychomotor Skills
Psychomotor Skill is related to some skill acquisition. Some students differ in this area
also. Some students like football, other cricket, etc. Some students easily learn operating
a machine and some may not. A wise teacher should diagnose students' psychomotor
skills abilities and encourage them in that direction.
Difference in Self Concept
Difference in Self Concept is the totality of attitudes, judgment, and values of an
individual relating to his behavior, abilities, and qualities. So some students have positive
self concept than boost their confidence level and perform better against those who have
negative self image.

6.2 Immersion Approach and Course Materials

Immersion Approach

Our approach to learning the target language is based on the immersion philosophy,
which involves learning to converse and communicate in a natural setting. You will
practice and use the target language as
it would occur in real life.

Authentic materials, audio and visual clips as well as activities such as role-playing,
teamwork, game playing, presentation, songs and dances etc. will be used to help you
learn the language.

Differentiated Instruction

Differentiated instruction (multi-level instruction) is a dynamic approach to language

teaching mastered by our language teachers. By using differentiated instruction, our
instructors plan a lesson so that it is taught to the entire class while meeting the individual
needs of each student. Each class in language learning is based on the following
principles:

 A definite aim for all participants.

 A variety of techniques aimed at students of various levels.
 Various student learning styles considered in presentation of material.
 All students are asked to participate through questioning in the target language.
 Some participants require adjusted expectations.
 Participants are evaluated on their individual differences and progress.

Course Materials

Course materials, often designed by our own instructors, are included in the course fee.
These materials are an integral part of the program and are not available for purchase
separately.

The first time you register for one of our courses, you will receive course materials.
These materials may be used for more than one level, so if you plan to continue your
language instruction, we ask that you keep the course materials (for example the textbook
Soleado 1 is used by both Beginner 1 and Beginner 2 Spanish).
53

6.3 THE EFFECTS OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES ON LEARNING

Ausubel (1968) has suggested that meaningful learning occurs when internal processes of
the learner associates new information with subsuming concepts already in their
cognitive structure. Written materials would promote effective processing by presenting
content in "meaningful contexts." When suitable subsuming concepts do not already exist
in the learner's cognitive structure, the concept can be presented in advance of the new
information.

Ausubel calls concepts when presented in this manner, "advance organizers." Their
effectiveness has been empirically demonstrated (Ausubel and Fitzgerald, 1962;Koran, J.
J. and Koran, M. L. , In Press). Learning activity can also be directed by placing cues and
prompts, such as questions, directions, diagrams, examples, within the written material.
These direct the learner into the vicinity of the instructional objective (Hall, Lund, and
Jackson, 1968), guide the selecting and processing of appropriate instructional
objectives (Walker and Buckley, 1968), and shape the selection and processing of
appropriate stimulus components (Bruning, 1968; Rothkopf, 1966; Frase, 1969). All
these activities are classified as mathemagenic activities (Rothkopf, 1963). While some
are considered to be gross motor in nature, such as manipulating objects, and therefore
are observable and easy to measure, others include such covert inspection and processing
activities as scanning, translating, formulating mental associations, discriminating,
focusing, elaborating, and categorizing. The potential for instructional flexibility derived
from the manipulation of mathemagenic activity underscores the need for their careful
study. It is the intent of this study to examine certain effects associated with inspection
behavior, a subset of mathemagenic activity. Which demonstrated how to highlight both
text and diagram portions of the reading passage. Subjects were directed to highlight all
the information they considered important and worth remembering in order to answer the
post-test items. All subjects were given a page of -General Directions" which encouraged
them to read and study both the diagrams and the written information; these directions
also informed them that a set of test items would be given after all reading passages
asking for specific information from each passage. All subjects were given a page of -
Directions for Answering Test Items- at the conclusion of all treatment materials. The
subjects were encouraged to answer all questions, even if some answers were guesses.
54

Unit no.7 Gagne’s 9 Events of Instruction

Nine events of instruction

Definition
"Nine events of instruction" is an instructional design model put together by Gagne. This
is a behaviorist model that also draws from cognitivism.

The conditions of learning

“ Essential to Gagne's ideas of instruction are what he calls "conditions of learning." He
breaks these down into internal and external conditions. The internal conditions deal with
previously learned capabilities of the learner. Or in other words, what the learner knows
prior to the instruction. The external conditions deal with the stimuli (a purely behaviorist
term) that is presented externally to the learner. For example, what instruction is provided
to the learner.” (Cory, 1996)

Gagné's most essential ingrediants of teaching are:

 presenting the knowledge or demonstrating the skill

 providing practice with feedback
 providing learner guidance

These elements have to be designed differently according to the type of learning level
(learning goal) to be achieved. For Gagné, instructional design means to first identify the
goal (a learning outcome) and then construct the learning hierarchy, i.e. do a task analysis
of skills needed to perform a measurable activitiy that demonstrates a learning goal.

The nine events of instruction

Gagne’s 9 Events of Instruction

1. Gain attention
2. Inform learners of objectives
3. Stimulate recall of prior learning
4. Present the content
5. Provide "learning guidance"
6. Elicit performance (practice).
7. Provide feedback
8. Assess performance
9. Enhance retention and transfer to the job

7.1 Gain attention:

o e.g. present a good problem, a new situation, use a multimedia
advertisement, ask questions.
o This helps to ground the lesson, and to motivate

7.2 Describe the goal:

o e.g. state what students will be able to accomplish and how they will be
able to use the knowledge, give a demonstration if appropriate.
o Allows students to frame information, i.e. treat it better.
55

7.3 Stimulate recall of prior knowledge

o e.g. remind the student of prior knowledge relevant to the current lesson
(facts, rules, procedures or skills). Show how knowledge is connected,
provide the student with a framework that helps learning and
remembering. Tests can be included.

7.4 Present the material to be learned

o e.g. text, graphics, simulations, figures, pictures, sound, etc. Chunk
information (avoid memory overload, recall information).

7.5 Provide guidance for learning

o e.g. presentation of content is different from instructions on how to learn.
Use of different channel (e.g. side-boxes)

7.6 Elicit performance "practice"

o let the learner do something with the newly acquired behavior, practice
skills or apply knowledge. At least use MCQ's.

7.7 Provide informative feedback ,

o show correctness of the trainee's response, analyze learner's behavior,
maybe present a good (step-by-step) solution of the problem

7.8 Assessing Performance ,

o Assess performance test, learned. Also give sometimes general progress
information

7.9 Enhance retention and transfer :

o e.g. inform the learner about similar problem situations, provide additional
practice. Put the learner in a transfer situation. Maybe let the learner
review the lesson.

“ The way Gagne's theory is put into practice is as follows. First of all, the instructor
determines the objectives of the instruction. These objectives must then be categorized
into one of the five domains of learning outcomes. Each of the objectives must be stated
in performance terms using one of the standard verbs (i.e. states, discriminates, classifies,
etc.) associated with the particular learning outcome. The instructor then uses the
conditions of learning for the particular learning outcome to determine the conditions
necessary for learning. And finally, the events of instruction necessary to promote the
internal process of learning are chosen and put into the lesson plan. The events in essence
become the framework for the lesson plan or steps of instruction.” (Corry, 1996)
56

Unit-.8 Personality Development

Personality development
Personality is defined as the enduring personal characteristics of individuals.

Although some psychologists frown on the premise, a commonly used explanation for
personality development is the psychodynamic approach. The term ambot describes any
theory that emphasizes the constant change and development of the individual. Perhaps
the best known of the psychodynamic theories is Freudian psychoanalysis.

An individual's personality is an aggregate conglomeration of the decisions they have

made throughout their life and the memory of the experiences to which these decisions
led. There are inherent natural, genetic, and environmental factors that contribute to the
development of our personality. According to process of socialization, "personality also
colors our values, beliefs, and expectations ... Hereditary factors that contribute to
personality development do so as a result of interactions with the particular social
environment in which people live." There are several personality types as Katharine Cook
Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers illustrated in several personalities typology tests, which
are based on Carl Jung's school of Analytical psychology. However, these tests only
provide enlightenment based on the preliminary insight scored according to the answers
judged by the parameters of the test.

Aristotle and the Western tradition

The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC) influenced theories of personal
development in the West. In his Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle defined personal
development as a category of phronesis or practical wisdom, where the practice of virtues
(arête) leads to eudaimonia, commonly translated as "happiness" but more accurately
understood as “human flourishing” or “living well" Aristotle continues to influence the
Western concept of personal development to this day, particularly in the economics of
human development and in positive psychology.

8.1 Origins

Major religions, such as the Abrahamic and Indian religions, as well as New Age
philosophies, have used practices such as prayer, music, dance, singing, chanting, poetry,
writing, sports and martial arts. These practices have various functions, such as health or
aesthetic satisfaction, but they may also link[citation needed] to "final goals" of personal
development such as discovering the meaning of life or living good life (compare
philosophy).

Michel Foucault describes in Care of the Self the techniques of epimelia used in ancient
Greece and Rome, which included dieting, exercise, sexual abstinence, contemplation,
prayer and confession — some of which also became important practices within different
branches of Christianity. In yoga, a discipline originating in India, possibly over 3000
years ago, personal-development techniques include meditation, rhythmic breathing,
stretching and postures. Wushu and T'ai chi ch'uan utilise traditional Chinese techniques,
including breathing and energy exercises, meditation, martial arts, as well as practices
linked to traditional Chinese medicine, such as dieting, massage and acupuncture. In
Islam, which arose almost 1500 years ago in the Middle East, personal development
techniques include ritual prayer, recitation of the Qur'an, pilgrimage, fasting and tazkiyah
(purification of the soul)[citation needed].
57

Two individual ancient philosophers stand out as major sources of what has become
personal development in the 21st century, representing a Western tradition and an East
Asian tradition. Elsewhere anonymous founders of schools of self-development appear
endemic - note the traditions of the Indian sub-continent in this regard.

8.2 Personality Traits

If you ask an extremely successful salesperson, "What makes you different from the
average sales rep?" you will most likely get a less-than-accurate answer, if any answer at
all. Frankly, the person may not even know the real answer because most successful
salespeople are simply doing what comes naturally.

Seven Personality Traits of Top Salespeople

1. Modesty. Contrary to conventional stereotypes that successful salespeople are pushy

and egotistical, 91 percent of top salespeople had medium to high scores of modesty and
humility. Furthermore, the results suggest that ostentatious salespeople who are full of
bravado alienate far more customers than they win over.

Selling Style Impact: Team Orientation. As opposed to establishing themselves as the

focal point of the purchase decision, top salespeople position the team (presales technical
engineers, consulting, and management) that will help them win the account as the
centerpiece.

2. Conscientiousness. Eighty-five percent of top salespeople had high levels of

conscientiousness, whereby they could be described as having a strong sense of duty and
being responsible and reliable. These salespeople take their jobs very seriously and feel
deeply responsible for the results.

Selling Style Impact: Account Control. The worst position for salespeople to be in is to
have relinquished account control and to be operating at the direction of the customer, or
worse yet, a competitor. Conversely, top salespeople take command of the sales cycle
process in order to control their own destiny.

3. Achievement Orientation. Eighty-four percent of the top performers tested scored

very high in achievement orientation. They are fixated on achieving goals and
continuously measure their performance in comparison to their goals.

Selling Style Impact: Political Orientation. During sales cycles, top sales, performers
seek to understand the politics of customer decision-making. Their goal orientation
instinctively drives them to meet with key decision-makers. Therefore, they strategize
about the people they are selling to and how the products they're selling fit into the
organization instead of focusing on the functionality of the products themselves.

4. Curiosity. Curiosity can be described as a person's hunger for knowledge and

information. Eighty-two percent of top salespeople scored extremely high curiosity
levels. Top salespeople are naturally more curious than their lesser performing
counterparts.

Selling Style Impact: Inquisitiveness. A high level of inquisitiveness correlates to an

active presence during sales calls. An active presence drives the salesperson to ask
customers difficult and uncomfortable questions in order to close gaps in information.
Top salespeople want to know if they can win the business, and they want to know the
truth as soon as possible.
58

5. Lack of Gregariousness. One of the most surprising differences between top

salespeople and those ranking in the bottom one-third of performance is their level of
gregariousness (preference for being with people and friendliness). Overall, top
performers averaged 30 percent lower gregariousness than below average performers.

Selling Style Impact: Dominance. Dominance is the ability to gain the willing obedience
of customers such that the salesperson's recommendations and advice are followed. The
results indicate that overly friendly salespeople are too close to their customers and have
difficulty establishing dominance.

6. Lack of Discouragement. Less than 10 percent of top salespeople were classified as

having high levels of discouragement and being frequently overwhelmed with sadness.
Conversely, 90 percent were categorized as experiencing infrequent or only occasional
sadness.

Selling Style Impact: Competitiveness. In casual surveys I have conducted throughout the
years, I have found that a very high percentage of top performers played organized sports
in high school. There seems to be a correlation between sports and sales success as top
performers are able to handle emotional disappointments, bounce back from losses, and
mentally prepare themselves for the next opportunity to compete.

7. Lack of Self-Consciousness. Self-consciousness is the measurement of how easily

someone is embarrassed. The byproduct of a high level of self-consciousness is
bashfulness and inhibition. Less than five percent of top performers had high levels of
self-consciousness.

Selling Style Impact: Aggressiveness. Top salespeople are comfortable fighting for their
cause and are not afraid of rankling customers in the process. They are action-oriented
and unafraid to call high in their accounts or courageously cold call new prospects.
Not all salespeople are successful. Given the same sales tools, level of education, and
propensity to work, why do some salespeople succeed where others fail? Is one better
suited to sell the product because of his or her background? Is one more charming or just
luckier? The evidence suggests that the personalities of these truly great salespeople play
a critical role in determining their success.

8.3 Interests vs. aptitudes

Interests are the result of what you do, what you learn, and whom you
know.
These factors change greatly from year to year as your knowledge and experience grows.
It is difficult to be interested in something if, for example, you do not understand what it
is. A job title such as “marine biologist” or “industrial engineer” does not say much about
what that career is like, and so how could someone be truly interested in pursuing either
of those careers?

Aptitudes are the result of inheritance and early development.

They are not changeable as interests are; our research has shown that a person's aptitudes
stabilize at around age fourteen, and remain so for the rest of his or her life. They have
little to do with what you know or learn, and our testing program can provide you with an
objective source of information about your natural strengths, thus making educational and
career planning more precise and effective.
59

Interests can be influenced by outside factors.

A person may not be interested in financial management because, for example, an
acquaintance has that particular job and is dissatisfied or frustrated. Someone else might
be interested in being a journalist because of a writer father. Dreams of becoming a
mechanic can come from a favorite uncle who collects vintage cars. An interest in old
cars or writing or finance could be guided by aptitudes into related directions more suited
to natural abilities.

Aptitudes are innate abilities.

Dreaming of being a doctor or being the child of a surgeon does not mean you will have
the necessary abilities to be a successful and satisfied physician. Identifying your natural
strengths is a way to find out which careers are appropriate for you as an individual,
regardless of any other factors.

If you have a strong interest in a particular career or occupation, that is something to

consider. Your aptitude test results might be able to indicate which aspect to explore that
would best suit you. Being a doctor is not the only role in the field of medicine, just as
working in a classroom is not the only way of teaching.

Interest testing
We do administer an interest survey, the Self-Directed Search, as part of our testing
program. We use it as a way to gain some insight into our client's present way of thinking
about his or her future. We are often able to relate an interest to a career suggested by
their pattern of aptitudes, and we are careful to emphasize the important differences
between what his or her interests are and what their aptitudes are.

Exploring what your interests are and what types of careers match them is one way of
making education and work choices. Additionally, being able to identify specifically why
you are interested or uninterested in a career can be helpful in determining whether or not
that career is appropriate for you. Aptitude testing is a very effective tool for educational
and career selection, in that it provides an unbiased, factual representation of how you
think and work.

Both moral and spiritual goes hand in hand, Because of my faith and belief in a higher
power, it inclines my personality to be as such.

Kind
compassionate
open minded
forgiving
loving

8.4 Moral aspects of Personality

Morally speaking I know my behavior is derived with the hope that if i maintain good
conduct that I may be pleasing to God. Which intern helps me to treat everyone with such
traits as the one listed above?
Spiritually speaking is a whole nother field however because it’s the driving force behind
my positive outlook and somewhat care free attitude as far as when negative things arise.
for example when I was in a car accident and no insurance companies where going to
60

pick me up because I was a new driver it seemed hopeless but it worked out cause
company my parents where customers of managed to get me insurance. Or when I was in
another car accident outsiders said the car almost flipped over n while the incident was in
what seemed to be slow motion I seen glass and everything pass my face. Getting out of
the car I made sure I was not dead and at the time I even said life moves on and didn’t
look back. And so goes with many other things not having necessary funds when needed
for bills but money seems to fall when needed. so I think my spirituality plays a huge part
in that I no what ever happens if its outs my control don’t try to gain control cause you
weren’t meant to control it.

Prepared & Composed by:

Aman Ullah Khan
Student of M.Ed
Meezan College of Education Zarobi (Swabi)
Amanullahkhanyousafzai@gmail.com