CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

A bridge is a structure built to span physical obstacles without closing the way underneath such

as a body of water, valley, or road, for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle

(Ponnuswamy, 2009). For the first time the primitive man uses an accidental fallen log of tree

across a stream as a bridge to search for food and shelter. It is therefore, on this form that an idea

of bridge took on. Nowadays many people encountered obstacles to transportation such as

watercourses, ravines and other natural features. Fords served for crossing most streams and

rivers, while wet or marshy places were sometimes traversed by causeways (raised roads or

pathways on a base of stones, logs, timbers and earth, capped with clay for weather proofing).

For larger rivers, boats and ferries were used to transport people and goods across rivers.

Gradually, people who needed to cross streams and rivers for commercial or personal endeavors

began to devise bridges using the materials and skills at hand. The materials used for the early

bridges were locally available, such as wood or stone gathered or quarried near the bridge site.

People generally used the narrowest and the shallowest creek location at which a crossing could

be made, such as the head of the waterways. The earliest bridges were probably crude and simple

spans, most likely trees cut to fall across streams or stone or wood slabs laid across piles of rock.

Where skills existed to build a structure, simple timber bridges were commonly used. These

timber bridges were either basic beam bridges or rudimentary wooden trusses. Stone bridges

were expensive and time-consuming to build, but some were erected during Colonial times.

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Because the early bridge builders lacked engineering knowledge and adequate financial

resources were not available, the bridges built were all of a temporary nature. Despite their

impermanence, however, according to Wanikram (2005) these early bridges “represented logical

engineering solutions to the problem at hand: they did not require extensive amounts of labor to

build, they used local materials, and they could be quickly rebuilt if destroyed. They also

required only rudimentary design and construction skills”. There are many different designs that

each serve a particular purpose and apply to different situations. Designs of bridges vary

depending on the function of the bridge, the nature of the terrain where the bridge is constructed

and anchored, the material used to make it, and the funds available to build it.

1.2 Statement of the problem

River Guma is situated along Makurdi Uniagric Gbajimba road in Guma Local Government of

Benue state. The people of Imande Akpu community who are predominantly farmers settled

within the catchment area of this river. This road links Makurdi to Gbajimba through unigric. At

present the bridge used by the community has failed and there is a need to build a new bridge

that will connect the Imande Akpu with their neighboring community and also the Guma Local

Government headquarters Gbajimba. An investigation and closed interview was reviewed that at

every season of the year, the people who had to convey their goods to Gbajimba, the Local

Government Headquarter finds it difficult to transport their product for sale. It is against this ugly

situation that the need for a bridge to link these communities arises.

1.3 Aim and Objectives

The aim of this study is to design a reinforce bridge across River Guma

The specific objectives include:

i. To design the most durable and economical bridge.

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 ii. To develop and solve the surrounding communities problem.

1.4 Significance of Study

The study will help contractors, clients, consultants and all parties involved in the bridge design.

The study would be of use for other student researchers who may want to venture into the same

subject matter.

1.5 Scope and Limitation

This project work is limited to design of Reinforced Concrete Bridge at River Guma.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 History of Bridges

The history of bridges is probably as old as the human civilization. The idea to build bridges is

inspired by the nature itself they are part of the environment Bridges are one of the most

important and possibly difficult structures in civil engineering. It is no coincidence that they

form a special branch of structural engineering and most consultancies have departments

working solely on bridge design. In the modern era, bridge engineering has improved

tremendously and various factors are taken into account while developing the concept of a new

bridge. When society puts increasing demands and requirements on bridges it is the engineer’s

task and goal to satisfy all of them as much as possible. These factors not only involve the safety

of the structure but also the economy, constructability, inspect ability, durability, sustainability,

aesthetics and how to achieve the best fit in the landscape and environment. That is why a

holistic approach is needed to meet all the requirements and their interdependence. Engineers

operate at the interface between science and society.

People have always been interested in transporting themselves and their goods from one place to

another. So the rivers, mountains and valley are considered as a basic problem facing the people

in their transportation and movement from one place to another. So in the beginning they thought

to pass that obstruction and move away. First they used a rope or swimming and finally they

reached to use a bridge that was mode of simple materials like rock, stone, timber and other

materials was available at that time (winter and others, 1979).

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The history of development of bridge construction is closely linked with the history of human

civilization. The first bridges were simple beam span of stone slabs or tree trunks, and for longer

spans, single strands of bamboo or vine were stretched across the chasm or oops or baskets

containing the traveler were pulled across the stretched rope. The bridges in which timber

cantilever beam extended out from piers on both sides of the stream where built in china. In 4000

B.C. arch structures have been found in Egypt. From the 9th century B.C. early Romans used the

stone arch in bridges (winter and others, 1979)

2.2 Ancient Structures

It will never be known who built the first actual bridge structure. Our knowledge of past days

fades the further we look back into time. We can but assume that man, in his search for food and

shelter from the elements and with his given curiosity, began exploring his natural environment.

Crossing creeks and crevices with technical means thus was a matter of survival and progress,

and bridges belong to the oldest structures ever built. The earliest bridges will have consisted of

the natural materials available, namely wood and stone, and simple handmade ropes. In fact,

there is only a handful of surviving structures that might even be considered prehistoric, e.g. the

so-called Clapper bridges in the southern part of England (Brown, 1993).

2.2.1. Ancient Structural Principles

The earliest cultures already used a variety of structural principles. The simplest form of a

bridge, a beam supported at its two ends, may have been the predecessor of any other kind of

bridges; perhaps turned into reality through use of a tree that was cut down or some flat stone

plates used as lintels. Arches and cantilevers can be constructed of smaller pieces of material,

held together by the compressive force of their own gravity or by ropes. These developments

5
made larger spans possible as the superstructure would not have to be transported to the site in

one complete piece anymore (Chen, 1999).

Probably the oldest stone arch bridge can be found crossing the River Meles with a single span at

Smyrna in Turkey and dates back to the ninth century BC (Barker and Puckett 1997). Even

suspension bridges are no new inventions of modern times but have already been in use for

hundreds of years. Early examples are mentioned from many different places, such as India and

the Himalaya, China, and from an expedition to Belgian Congo in the early years of this century

(Brown 1993). Native tribes in Mexico, Peru, and other parts of South America, as Troitsky

(1994) reports, also used them. He also mentions that cantilevering bridges were in use in China

and also in ancient Greece as early as 1100 BC.

2.2.2 Trial and Error

Most of books on the history of bridges use terms such as primitive, probably as opposed to the

modernstate-of-the-art engineering achievements. It is spoken of a lack of proper understanding,

and of empirical methods. From today’s point of view it is easy to come to such a judgment, but

one should be careful not to diminish the outstanding achievements of the early builders. In our

technical age with a well-developed infrastructure, computer communication, and heavy

equipment readily available it is easy to forget about the real circumstances under which these

structures were built. Since mathematics and the natural sciences had yet even begun being

developed it is not astonishing that no engineering calculations and material testing as adhering

to our modern understanding were performed. But a feeling for structures and materials was

present in the minds of this ancient master builders. With this and much trial and error they built

6
beautiful structures so solid and well-engineered that many have survived the centuries until our

days (Podolny and Muller, 1982).

2.3 Timber Bridges

Timber bridges and timber superstructures on stone piers will probably have been prevailing in

many parts of the Roman Empire at that time. Wood was a cheap construction material and

abundantly available on the European continent. Furthermore it can be readily cut to shape and

transported with much less effort than stone. The Romans already knew nails as means of

connecting timber (O’Connor 1993).

2.4 Stone Bridges

Apart from timber bridges, stone masonry arch structures are examples of the outstanding skills

of the ancient Romans. The Roman stone arches where built on wooden falsework or centering

which could be reused for the next arch once one had been completed. These micircular spans

rested on strong piers on foundations dug deeply into the riverbed. Brown (1993) points out that

due to the width of these piers between the solid abutments the overall cross section of the river

was reduced, thus increasing the speed of the current. To deal with this problem the Romans

built pointed cut waters at the piers. A very comprehensive study on Roman arches can be found

in O’Connor (1993).

2.5 Contributions of Ancient Bridge Building

The main bridge construction principles were already known and used to some extent in ancient

times. Due to lack of surviving timber structures one can only rely on historical reports and

depictions of these. Prevailing structures in ancient times were these micircular stone arch

bridges, many of which have survived until the present day. Roman builders left a legacy of

impressive structures in all parts of former Roman Empire. Arch structures were intelligently

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used both for heavy traffic and elaborate water supply systems; temporary timber structures also

served military purposes. These systems were developed to the full extent that was technically

possible and were not to be surpassed in mastery until many centuries later. Engineering

knowledge was already documented systematically by authors such as Vitruvius, whose work

influenced the builders of later centuries considerably. Great builders and artists, such as

Bramante, Michelangelo, and Palladio were careful students of his works (Wanikram., 2005).

2.6 The Era of Concrete Bridges and Beyond

Concrete had already been commonly in use in Roman times, as described in early this section.

Simple mortars had already been used much earlier. Strong and waterproof mortars as the

Romans had used, however, were only rediscovered around the late eighteenth century. Concrete

is an artificial stone-like in homogeneous material that is produced by mixing specified amounts

of cement, water, and aggregates. The first two ingredients react chemically to a hard matrix,

which acts as a binder. Most of the volume of the concrete is taken by aggregates, which is the

fill material. In modern concrete design mixtures special mineral additives or chemical

admixtures are added to influence certain properties of the concrete. Strength can be increased

through use of special types of cement and a low water-cement ratio (Brown (1993).

Workability can be improved with retarders and super plasticizers; and durability depends on the

volume of air enclosed within the concrete. Proportions and chemistry of the ingredients as well

as the manner of placement and curing determine the final concrete properties. Concrete is the

universal construction material of modern times due to several advantages. It is formable into

virtually any shape with formwork, its ingredients are relatively cheap and can be found

ubiquitously, it has a high compressive strength and, provided good quality of workmanship is

8
very durable at little maintenance cost. Reinforced concrete is a composite material that is

composed of concrete and steel members that are embedded and bonded to it. These steel bars or

mats fulfill the purpose of enhancing the resistance of a reinforced concrete member to tensile

stresses, as concrete alone is strong in compression but has less resistance to tension that is

applied. The amount and location of the reinforcement needed for a certain structure is

determined during its design. In sound concrete the steel reinforcement is protected by the

natural alkalinity of the concrete that creates a pacifying layer on the steel surface (ponnuswamy,

2009).

2.6.1 Contributions of Modern Concrete Bridge Construction

The introduction of concrete into bridge construction opened almost unlimited new possibilities

for the profession. The several advantages of concrete, such as free formability, strength, and

durability came to full use in bridge construction and contributed much too successful use of

concrete in other branches. Through use of steel reinforcement to bear the tensile stresses in the

members a composite material was created that combined positive characteristics of both

concrete and steel and could be strengthened exactly as needed for a certain structure.

Prestressing concrete by means of tendons that are installed in the bridge superstructure made

extremely long, yet economical spans possible (Chen, 1999).

2.7 Importance of Bridge

Bridges have always been an important part of our environment. They have been major subjects

of literature and art, both ancient and modern. Wars have been fought over bridges and in many

cases the capture of strategic structure has had a pronounced effect on the final outcome of the

war, bridges have been the center of village or city life. Today the structural engineer has at his

disposal the most powerful analytical tool ever imagined, the digital computer; this instrument

9
can perform in a matter of minutes a volume of calculations that would have previously taken

years (Association, 2006).

2.8 Components of Bridge

In general, all bridges are separated into a superstructure and a substructure. The superstructure is

defined as all portions of the bridge above the substructure (Tonias, 1995). The function of the

super structure is to collect the live loads and concentrate them into the substructure. The main

components of the superstructure are the wearing surface, the deck, the primary members, and

the secondary members. This is the most visible portion of the bridge. The substructure acts as a

foundation to the bridge. It is comprised of the abutments, piers, bearings, pedestals, and

retaining walls (Chen, 1999).

2.8.1 Superstructure

The superstructure is defined as all portions of the bridge above the substructure. This bears the

load passing over it and transmits the forces caused by the same to the substructures.

2.8.1.1 Wearing Surface

The wearing surface is generally made of bituminous concrete or asphalt. It is exposed to all

traffic travelling across the bridge. It is also exposed to the weather. Over time, the wearing

surface becomes increasingly damaged by the elements and has to be repaired or completely

resurfaced. Generally, this layer of bituminous concrete is between 2 and 4 inches thick. Due to

the constant repair and resurfacing, this thickness generally increases over time. (Tobias, 1995)

2.8.1.2 Bridge Deck

The bridge deck sits directly below the wearing surface. It is what supports the wearing surface.

The bridge deck is generally made of a reinforced concrete slab or a large steel plate. The

purpose of the bridge deck is to distribute the loads transversely. It distributes the loads along the

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bridge to the underlying structural elements, such as the girders and stringers. The deck is

generally directly connected to the supporting girders/stringers, or is separated by a steel plate

which connects the two together. (Tonias, 1995)

2.8.1.3 Primary Members

The primary members of the bridge are responsible for distributing the loads from the bridge

deck longitudinally. The primary members are the girders that run below the bridge deck. These

girders are typically made of structural steel or concrete. The most common types of steel girder

are the rolled beam and the rolled beam with cover plates. (Tonias, 1995)

2.8.1.4 Rolled Beam

This type of steel is steel that is rolled to its size while still very hot, over 1700 °F. Because of

this, the size of the steel isn’t always as precise as with cold rolled steel. However, it is still very

commonly used in highway bridge design. This is because it is much less expensive than cold

rolled steel. Along with this, it has many other positive attributes, such as: it comes in many

different sizes and shapes, is easy to assemble on site by welding or bolting, allows for a lot of

offsite fabrication, is possible to recycle and use recycled steel, and is very strong in tension.

However, hot rolled steel also has some negative characteristics. One major drawback is that hot

rolled steel, like all steel beams can rust. This can be prevented with rust proof coatings, but this

has to be maintained otherwise the life-span of the bridge will shorten. Another drawback of

using steel girders is site design and storage. The steel girders have to be shipped to the site from

a fabrication plant. At the site there has to be an ability to work with them before they are able to

be put in place. This would entail a space to move girders close to the site and an area for a crane

to move them (Association, 2006).

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2.8.1.5 Pre-stressed Concrete Girders

Over the past fifty years, pre-stressed concrete bridges have become the most popular structural

system for bridge design, because of their high strength, low life-cycle cost, and efficient

assembly. There are two main types of pre-stressing systems. The first is a pre-tensioning system

where the steel strands are tensioned before the concrete is placed. The second type of pre-

stressing system is a post-tensioning system. In this case, the steel is not tensioned until after the

concrete has been placed and has gained sufficient strength. Due to the fact that it is a

combination of both concrete and steel, pre-stressed concrete has both high tensile and

compressive strengths (Chen, 1999).

2.8.1.6 Steel-Concrete Composite Box Girders

Another construction system that is often used in highway bridge design is steel concrete

composite box girders. These primary members have many advantages ranging from their

flexural capacity to torsion resistance. Also, they provide a closed system which limits the

exposure of the primary members to the elements. In turn, this limits the life-cycle costs by

reducing corrosion. Finally, they are aesthetically pleasing and have the capacity for

longer/wider spans. There are two design methods when using box girders. The first is to have

one large box girder running along the entire span. This box girder can either have a single cell

or multiple cells within its cross section. The single box girder consists of two webs, a bottom

flange and two top flanges. The multiple webs share shear forces and reduce shear lag (Duan,

1995). The other design is to have two or more box girders extending the length of the span. In a

multi-box design, the boxes are generally smaller and closer together then a single box system.

This causes both the torsion and flexural stiffness to be greater than a single box system.

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2.8.2 Substructures (Secondary Members)

The secondary members act as bracing for the primary members. They run perpendicular to the

primary members. This prevents lateral movement and they can prevent tensional forces (Tonias,

1995).

2.8.2.1 Abutments

The abutments are a part of the substructure or foundation of the bridge. They act as end

supports. Abutments provide vertical support to the bridge and lateral support to the soil at the

ends of the roadway. (Tonias, 1995) There are ten types of abutments. There is a Stub Abutment,

a Full-Height Abutment, a Gravity Abutment, a U Abutment, a Cantilever Abutment, a Semi-

Stub Abutment, a Counterfort Abutment, a Spill-through Abutment, a Pile Bent Abutment, and

Reinforced Earth Systems. The bridge being analyzed has Full-Height Abutments.

A Stub Abutment is found at the top of an embankment. Due to this fact, they are usually

supported by piles that are driven into the ground (AASHTO, 1987). Although they can also be

found lying on gravel or even the ground itself, stub abutments generally need the extra support

of the piles.

The second type of abutment is known as the Full-Height Abutment. This type is much larger

than a stub abutment. The Full-Height Abutment is a cantilever abutment that runs from the

roadway below all the way up to the roadway surface overhead. It is basically a giant wall that

supports the overlying roadway at its ends.

Gravity Abutments are very common and are typically made out of concrete or stone masonry.

They consist of a backwall and flaring wingwalls, all of which sit on top of a footing. This type

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of abutment uses its weight in order to resist the horizontal earth forces. The fact that this type of

abutment is so heavy is the reason for the necessity of the footings.

(Tonias, 1995)

The fourth type of abutment is the U Abutment. The U Abutment is very similar to the Gravity

Abutment. It too is made of a backwall and two wingwalls. The main difference between the two

is that the wingwalls on the U Abutment are attached to the backwall at right angles. Finally, the

wingwalls of a U Abutment can vary in thickness. For example, the thickest section of the

wingwall is generally found where it is attached to the backwall. The thinnest section is typically

found on the free end of the wingwall. (Tonias, 1995)

Cantilever Abutments are abutments that are attached to footings and extend upward. A

Cantilever Abutment has a bridge seat and is able to resist large vertical loadings. Much like the

Gravity Abutment, the dead weight of the Cantilever Abutment is used, along with the footings,

to resist the horizontal earth loads. Typically, this type of abutment is used for heights up to 21

feet. For any heights greater than this, a Counterfort Abutment would be used. (Tobias, 1995)

A Counterfort Abutment uses a stem and a footing, which are braced by slabs known as

counterforts. This allows the abutment to act as a horizontal beam between each counterfort

(spaced along the footing). This is unlike the Cantilever Abutment which is only attached to the

footings and acts as a cantilever stem. This fact allows the Counterfort Abutment to be used for

large heights that extend upwards of 21 feet. (Tonias, 1995)

Another type of abutment is known as a Spill-through Abutment. Unlike the other abutments

mentioned, the Spill-through Abutment is not a wall, but rather two columns with a cap beam

resting on top. The cap beam is responsible for supporting the bridge seat, which in turn supports

14
the superstructure of the bridge. Due to the fact that there is a gap between the two columns, only

a fraction of the embankment is supported by the abutment. Soil from the embankment is able to

spill through the gap between the two columns. A Pile Bent Abutment is identical to a spill-

through abutment; it is distinguished by the fact that it is supported by one or two piles rather

than columns (Association, 2006).

2.8.2.2 Piers

The existing bridge is comprised of two equal spans with a six foot wide pier in the middle.

Although the objective is to remove the center pier in order to reach project goals, there is a

chance that this may not be possible. “A pier is a structure located at the end of a bridge span

which provides the basic function of supporting spans at intermediate points between end

supports (abutments)”. (Tonias, 1995) Piers have three main functions which are to carry their

own weight, support the dead and live loads provided by the superstructure, and to transmit all

loads to the foundation of the bridge or overpass.

Like abutments, there are a number of different types of piers. Selection of which type of

pier/column to use is based on aesthetics, shape of the superstructure, and the fact that the

pier/column should provide limited interference to passing traffic. There are six different types of

piers. They include hammerhead, column bent, pile bent, solid wall, integral, and single column.

As previously stated, the use of each type of pier is used based on different criteria (Tonias,

1995).

2.8.2.3 Bearings

The bearings transmit the load received from the decking on to the substructure and are provided

for distribution of the load evenly over the substructure material which may not have sufficient

15
bearing strength to bear the superstructure load directly. Bearings may be a small portion of any

bridge or overpass, but their importance cannot be overlooked. The main function of a bearing is

to transmit loads from the superstructure to the substructure. There are two main categories of

bearings, fixed bearings and expansion bearings. Fixed bearings allow for rotation at the

member’s end and resist translation. On the other hand, expansion bearings allow both rotation

and translation. These types of movements occur due to creep, shrinkage, settlement, uplift,

loading, and thermal forces. These bearings are also exposed to various types of loading which

include the dead load of the superstructure, traffic live loads, wind loads, and seismic loads.

Bridge bearings are devices for transferring loads and movements from the deck to the

substructure and foundations. In Highway Bridge bearings movements are accommodated by the

basic mechanisms of internal deformation (elastomeric), sliding, or rolling. A large variety of

bearings have evolved using various combinations of these mechanisms (Ponnuswamy, 2009)..

The functions of each bearing type are:

i. Elastomeric: The elastomeric bearing allows the deck to translate and rotate, but also

resists loads in the longitudinal, transverse and vertical directions. Loads are developed,

and movement is accommodated by distorting the elastomeric pad.

ii. Plane Sliding: Sliding bearings usually consist of a low friction polymer,

polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), sliding against a metal plate. This bearing does not

accommodate rotational movement in the longitudinal or transverse directions and only

resists loads in the vertical direction. Longitudinal or transverse loads can be

accommodated by providing mechanical keys. The keys resist movement, and loads in a

direction perpendicular to the keyway.

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 iii. Roller: Large longitudinal movements can be accommodated by these bearings, but

vertical loads only can generally be resisted. The designer has to assess the maximum and

minimum loads that the deck will exert on the bearing together with the anticipated

movements (translation and rotation).

Bearings are arranged to allow the deck to expand and contract, but retain the deck in its correct

position on the substructure. A 'Fixed' Bearing does not allow translational movement. 'Sliding

Guided' Bearings are provided to restrain the deck in all translational directions except in a radial

direction from the fixed bearing. This allows the deck to expand and contract freely. 'Sliding'

Bearings are provided for vertical support to the deck only (Association, 2006).

2.8.2.4 Foundation

This is provided to transmit the load from the piers or abutments and wings or returns to and

evenly distribute the load on to the strata. This is to be provided sufficiently deep so that it is not

affected by the scourcaused by the flow in the river and does not get undermined. While

theabove mentioned are structurally operational parts, for safety hand rails or parapets, guard

rails or curbs are provided over the decking in order (Chen, 1999)

2.9 Classification of Bridge

Bridge may be classified in many ways, as below: (Association, 2006).

i. According to function as aqueduct (canal over a river), viaduct (road or railway over a

valley), pedestrian, highway, railway, road-cum-rail or pipe line bridge.

ii. According to the material of construction of superstructure as timber, masonry, iron,

steel, reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete, composite or Aluminum Bridge.

iii. According to the form or type of superstructure as slab, beam, truss, arch or suspension

bridge. According to the inter span relations as simple, continuous or cantilever bridge.

17
 iv. According to the position of the bridge floor relative to the superstructure, as deck,

though, half-through or suspended bridge.

v. According to the method of connections of the different parts of the superstructure,

particularly for steel construction, as pin connection, riveted or welded bridge.

vi. According to the road level relative to the highest flood level of the river below,

particularly for a highway bridge, as high-level or submersible bridge.

vii. According to the method of clearance for navigation as high-level, movable-bascule,

movable-swing or transporter bridge.

viii. According to span length as culvert (less then 8m), Miner Bridge (8 to 30m), major

bridge (above 30m) or long span bridge (above 120m).

ix. According to degree of redundancy as determinate or in determinate bridge.

x. According to the anticipated type of service and duration of use as, permanent,

temporary, military (pontoon, Bailey) bridge.

2.10 Loads on Bridge

Bridge designed to carry the following loads and forces:

2.10.1 Dead Load

Dead loads are loads that constant in magnitude and fixed in location through the life line of

structure. And the load of a bridge consists of the weight of structure plus any equipment

attached. Some bridge carry water or utility lines that may add appreciable weight; it is necessary

to make a preliminary estimate of the dead load on which to base the initial design

(Ponnuswamy, 2009).

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2.10.2 Live Load

Consist chiefly of occupancy loads in building and traffic loads on bridges. They may be either

fully or partially in place or not present at all and may also change in location; there magnitude

and distribution at any given time are in certain and even there max intensities throughout the life

time of structure not known with precision.

2.10.3 Wind Load

All bridges structure should be designed to against the wind forces; there forces are considered to

act horizontally and in a such a direction as to cause the maximum stresses in the member under

consideration.

2.10.4 Centrifugal Forces

Where a road bridge is located on a curve, the effects of centrifugal forces due to movement of

vehicles should be taken into account.

The centrifugal force is given by equation:

𝑊𝑉 2
𝐶 = 127𝑅 2.1

Where:

C = centrifugal force in tons.

W = live load (1) in tones for wheel loads (2) in (ton/m) for uniformly distributed live load.

V = design speed in (Km/hr)

R = the radius of the curvature in (m)

2.10.5 Longitudinal forces

When a vehicle brakes or accelerates longitudinal forces are transmitted from its wheels to the

deck of the bridge. The magnitude of the longitudinal forces depends on the amount of

acceleration or deceleration. The maximum longitudinal force results from sudden braking of the

19
vehicle, the magnitude of which is dependent on its weight, its velocity at the instant of braking,

and the time it takes to come to a complete stop.

2.10.6 Impact Load

When the vehicle moving across of a bridge, a normal rate of speed produces greater stress than

if the vehicle is in static condition, and for the computing the dynamic effect the AASHTO

specification gives the equation for determining the impact factor:

𝟏𝟓.𝟐𝟒
𝑰= 2.2
𝑳+𝟑𝟖

For finding out the impact factor, formulae suggested by Indian Road Congress are given below

Road bridges

 For I.R.C. class A or B loading

For concrete bridge I = 15/20+3.28L

It should not be greater than 50%

Where:

I=impact factor

L=Span in meters

2.11 Types of Bridge

There are many types of bridge of which the selection of a particular type depend on the

dimension of the water way and the site condition. Another important factor is the rough estimate

of cost of construction and maintenance. Some types include;

a) Arch bridges

b) Beam bridge

c) Cable- stayed bridges

d) Suspension bridges

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 e) Girder bridge

f) Truss bridge

g) Presstresed concrete bridge

2.11.1 Arch bridges

Arch bridges are one of the oldest types of bridges and have great natural strength. Instead of

pushing straight down, the weight of an arch bridge is carried outward along the curve of the

arch to the supports at each end. These supports, called the abutments, carry the load and keep

the ends of the bridge from spreading out. When supporting its own weight and the weight of

crossing traffic, every part of the arch is under compression. For this reason, arch bridges must

be made of materials that are strong under compression.

2.11.2 Beam bridges

Beam bridges are horizontal beams supported at each end by substructure units and can be either

simply supported when the beams only connect across a single span, or continuous when the

beams are connected across two or more spans. When there are multiple spans, the intermediate

supports are known as piers. The earliest beam bridges were simple logs that sat across streams

and similar simple structures. In modern times, beam bridges can range from small, wooden

beams to large, steel boxes. The vertical force on the bridge becomes a shear and flexural load on

the beam which is transferred down its length to the substructures on either side. They are

typically made of steel, concrete or wood. Beam bridge spans rarely exceed 250 feet (76 m) long,

as the flexural stresses increase proportional to the square of the length (and deflection increases

proportional to the 4th power of the length).

21
2.11.3 Cable- stayed bridges

Cable-stayed bridges may look similar to suspensions bridges -- both have roadways that hang

from cables and both have towers. But the two bridges support the load of the roadway in very

different ways. The difference lies in how the cables are connected to the towers. In suspension

bridges, the cables ride freely across the towers, transmitting the load to the anchorages at either

end. In cable-stayed bridges, the cables are attached to the towers, which alone bear the load.

The cables can be attached to the roadway in a variety of ways. In a radial pattern, cables extend

from several points on the road to a single point at the top of the tower. In a parallel pattern,

cables are attached at different heights along the tower, running parallel to one other. For

medium length spans (those between 500 and 2,800 feet), cable-stayed are fast becoming the

bridge of choice. Compared to suspension bridges, cable-stayed require less cable, can be

constructed out of identical pre-cast concrete sections, and are faster to build. The result is a cost-

effective bridge that is undeniably beautiful (Ponnuswamy, 2009).

2.11.4 Suspension Bridges

Aesthetic, light and strong, suspension bridges can span distances from 2,000 to 7,000 feet -- far

longer than any other kind of bridge. They also tend to be the most expensive to build. True to its

name, a suspension bridge suspends the roadway from huge main cables, which extend from one

end of the bridge to the other. These cables rest on top of high towers and are secured at each end

by anchorages. The towers enable the main cables to be draped over long distances. Most of the

weight of the bridge is carried by the cables to the anchorages, which are imbedded in either

solid rock or massive concrete blocks. Inside the anchorages, the cables are spread over a large

area to evenly distribute the load and to prevent the cables from breaking free.

22
2.11.5 Girder Bridge

A girder bridge is perhaps the most common and most basic bridge. A log across a creek is an

example of a girder bridge in its simplest form. In modern steel girder bridges, the two most

common girders are I-beam girders and box-girders.

An I-beam is very simple to design and build and works very well in most cases. However, if the

bridge contains any curves, the beams become subject to twisting forces, also known as torque.

The added second web in a box girder adds stability and increases resistance to twisting forces.

This makes the box girder the ideal choice for bridges with any significant curve in them. Box

girders, being more stable are also able to span greater distances and are often used for longer

spans, where I-beams would not be sufficiently strong or stable. However, the design and

fabrication of box girders is more difficult than that of I beam (Association, 2006).

2.11.8 Truss Bridge

The truss is a simple skeletal structure. In design theory, the individual members of a simple

truss are only subject to tension and compression forces and not bending forces. Thus, for the

most part, all beams in a truss bridge are straight. Trusses are comprised of many small beams

that together can support a large amount of weight and span great distances. In most cases the

design, fabrication, and erection of trusses is relatively simple. However, once assembled trusses

take up a greater amount of space and, in more complex structures, can serve as a distraction to

drivers (Ponnuswamy, 2009).

2.11.9. Presstresed Concrete Bridge

In this type of bridge, artificial compressive stresses are induced in the bridge before it is loaded

so that any tensile stresses which caused due to external dead load and live load are

automatically cancelled and cracks are eliminated.

23
2.12 Hydrological Study of the Bridge Site

2.12.1 Estimation of discharge

For safe design and stability of a bridge, the correct estimation of discharge passing through the

bridge is very important. Generally, two methods may be adopted for calculating the maximum

flood discharge of a river, these include;

1. Direct method

2. Indirect method

Direct method: in this method, the area is obtained by direct measurement and the velocity can

be obtained by any of the formula

1. Chezy Formula

V =C√RS

Where C = Chezy’s resistance coefficient

R= hydraulic radius

S = slope

V = velocity

2. Manning Formula:

1
Velocity V = 𝑅2/3 S1/2
N

1
Discharge Q = Av = 𝐴𝑅2/3 S1/2
N

Where A= cross sectional area m2

N= manning’s resistant coefficient

R= hydraulic mean radius

S= longitudinal slope per km length

Determination of area of maximum flood section

24
The height of maximum flood ever known is determined either by observing high flood marks or

local enquiry or old records. These section are selected, one at the proposed site of the bridge,

second at a distance of one kilometer upstream and third at a distance of one kilometer

downstream.

Indirect Method

For estimating maximum flood discharge, the empirical formula many be used, many empirical

formula have been developed, only a few are given below;

A. Dicken’s formula

3
Q = CA4

B. Ryre’s formula

2
Q = CA3

Where Q = maximum flood discharge in M3/S

A = area of catchment in m2

C = a constant which is different for Dicken and Ryre formula. Kemasuode (2008).

25
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Introduction

This chapter is basically concerned with the materials used for this research work, the methods or

the procedure taken to achieve the research goals. Also the activities involved and the

maintenance will be discussed.

3.2 Materials

The design data for the Bridge was obtained from Ministry of Works And Power Makurdi. The

data were obtained from River Guma along Imande Akpu, Gbajimba Road in Guma Local

Government Area of Benue State.

3.3 Method

3.3.1 Analysis and Design of River Guma Bridge

Analysis is the determination of effects of loads on physical structure and their components. It is

used to determine the forces acting on the structure so as to estimate the entire loading of the

bridge structure whereas Design involves a detailed consideration of the alternative solutions and

results in the determination of the most suitable proportions, dimensions and details of the

structural elements and connections for constructing each alternative structural arrangement

being considered. Structural design is the methodical investigation of the stability, strength and

rigidity of structures. The basic objective in structural analysis and design is to produce a

structure capable of resisting all applied loads without failure during its intended life. The

primary purpose of a structure is to transmit or support loads. If the structure is improperly

designed or fabricated, or if the actual applied loads exceed the design specifications, the device

26
will probably fail to perform its intended function, with possible serious consequences. A well-

engineered structure greatly minimizes the possibility of costly failures (Mass Highway, 2009).

3.4 Design and Detailing of the Superstructure

The superstructure comprises of all component consisting of the bridge above the supports. The

basic superstructure consists of the following.

i. Wearing course: This wearing surface (course) is the portion of the deck cross section,

which resist traffic wear in most instances this is separate layer made of bituminous

materials. For wearing course varies in thickness from 51-100mm,however this thickness

can be sometimes be larger due to resurfacing of the over pass roadway. This occurs

throughout the life cycle of a bridge.

ii. The deck: The deck is the physical extension of the roadway across the obstruction to be

bridge. In this project the deck is a reinforced concrete slab. The main function of the

deck is integrated with a frame or other structural system designed to distribute load

along the length of the bridge or longitudinally.

iii. Primary numbers: These numbers distribute load longitudinally and are usually

designed principally to resist flexure. Steel primary member consist of wide flange

beams. It is also possible for the bridge superstructure to be constructed in a shape of a

box. Box girders bridges can be constructed out of steel or concrete and are used in

situation where large span length is required. Tomias,(1994)

3.5 Choice of Design Data

Span length in continuous Bridge, length of different superstructure influenced by location of

piers and abutments. Where the site permit, it will be economical to provide exterior span shorter

than the interior span because if all spans are made equal, the central bridge moments in end span

27
will be considerably greater as compared with central bridge moment in interior span (Panels,

1978).

3.5.1 Width of the Bridge

For a single lane bridge with of 3.8m is provided, but since the bridge is under considering two

lanes of 7.5m is recommended width as Indian Road Congress class AA. Metallic hand rail of

1m height. Based on the results of recent studies, Mr. P.K. Thomas (2008) has suggested a

simplified new loading standard for the design of highway bridges for the present and likely

future traffic requirements.as per his standards following loading system may be adopted

i. A uniformly distributed lane loading is derived from the following relation. W=10(1/L) 4

Where W is the load per meter of lane in tones and L is the span of bridge in meters.

ii. A knife edge load of 9 tones for computing shear. One tandem axle load of 40 tones at a

spacing of 1.2m placed anywhere in the carriageway in the direction of the traffic with a

minimum clearance of 0.3m from the kerb.

iii. Load (i) and (ii) are to be assumed as acting together while load (iii) is an alternative

loading for which the design is to be checked. Gulpta and Gulpta(2008).

3.5.2 Side Kerbs

The minimum width of Kerbs should be 60 cm. it should be designed for loads mentioned above

in addition to 750 kg/m run –horizontal thrust acting at the top of the Kerbs. If the width of

Kerbs is less than 60 cm then no side thrust loads are to be taken into account. Gulpta and

Gulpta, (2008)

3.5.3 Design information

1. BS 8110 : The structural use of concrete

2. BS 5400; steel, concrete and composite bridges

28
 3. The building regulation 1985 provides passengers and vehicle structure fire Over an

obstacle (river, stream) 2 hours for all element.

Bearing capacity for pier = 200 KN/m2

Bearing capacity for abutment = 140 KN/m2

Concrete grade; fcu= 30N/m2

Reinforcement characteristics strength; fy = 460N/m2

Unit weight of concrete = 24kN/m3

Density of Asphalt (wearing coat) = 23kN/m3

Length of bridge = 45 m

Width of bridge = 11 m

Thickness of wearing surface coat = 0.075m

Main reinforcement bar = 16 mm

Main reinforcement cover = 40 mm

Load combination used; HA UDL of 30 KN/m per lane of loaded Length up to 45 m

Knife edge load of 120 KN per lane ultimate limit state used in design.

Table 3.1 Result for standard penetration test and Rotary core

Abutment A Pier 1 Pier 2 Abutment B

Refusal Point 11 m 10 m 9.5 m 11 m

Final bearing stratum 12 m 12.5 m 11.0 m 12.5 m

29
REFERENCES CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

3.6 DESIGN OF DECK SLAB

Slab Direction

Ly/lx < 2 i.e two way spanning

Ly/lx > 2 i.e one way spanning

Where Ly = length of longer side

Lx = length of shorter side

Ly = 15m, lx = 5m

Ly/lx =15/5 = 3.0 > 2.0

Since 3.0 > 2.0 therefore the deck should be designed as one

way spanning slab

Design Data

Clear span of roadway = 15m

Clear width of roadway =7.3 m (2 lane)

Total width of deck slab = 8m

Thickness of deck slab = 0.25m

Longitudinal beams on the edge and in the middle

of span width of walk way =1.5 m

Width of walkway = 1.5 m

Live load = simplified equivalent loading

Assume 16mm diameter bar

Concrete cover = 40mm

30
Effective depth of slab = 250 – 40 - 16/2 = 202 mm

Estimation for Loadings

(a).Dead load

i. roadway

Self-weight of slab = 0.25 x 24 x 1.0 = 6.0 KN/m

Weight of surfacing = 0.075 x 23 x 1.0 =1.73 KN/m

Total weight of dead load (gk) 7.73 KN/m

Design dead load (n) = 1.4gk = 1.4 x 7.73 = 10.82 KN/m Gk = 10.83KNm

ii. kerb (walk way)

Self-weight of kerb = 0.25 x 24 x 1.0 = 6.0 KN/m

b. Live load

i. Roadway

Loaded length of each span = 3.9 < 30 m

Therefore, uniformity distributed lane loading of 30 KN/m2

will be applied in conjunction with knife-edge load 120 KN

ii. live load on kerb = 4.0 KN/m Qk = 4.0 KN/m

C. Impact Load

For I =50/L+125 where L=15 m

I =50/140 =0.36 > 0.3

Applying I

I = 4.6/6+L = 4.6/6+15 = 4.6/21 = 0.22

That is 22% of live load on road way 22% of 30 KN/m2 =

6.6 KN/m2.

31
(a)Design load

The total design ultimate load per unit area of lab(n)

=1.4gk+1.6(qk+I)

(i)Road way

N=1.4gk + 1.6(qk+I)

Total live load(qk)=30 + 6.6 = 36.6kn/m

Design load (N )=1.4 x 7.73 + 1.6 × 36.6 Design load =

= 69.38 KN/m 69.38 KN/m

ii. Kerb (n)=(1.4x6.0) + (1.6x4.0) =14.80kn/m

Loading Diagram

0.4KN 69.38KN/M 14.8KN/M 0.4KN

1.5m 3.65m 3.65m 1.5m

Initial End Moment

0.4KN 0.4KN
14.8KN/M 69.38KN/M 69.38KN/M 14.8KN/M

A A B B C C

Moment Due to Cantilever

𝑊𝐿2
M = PL + = 0.4 X 1.5 + 14.8 X 1.52/2 = 17.25 KN/m
2
Midspan
Midspan AB = BC
moment =
MAB = MBC = WL2/12 = 69.38 X 3.652/12 = ±73.03 KNm.
±73.03 KNm.
Stiffness Factor (K)

KBA = 3EI/4L = 3EI/14.8 = 0.2EI

Similarly, KBC = 0.20EI

32
Distribution Factor (D.F)

D.F BA = 0.2 EI/O.2EI + 0.2EI = 0.5

Similarly, D.F BC = 0.5

Moment Distribution

SUPPO Aˋ A B C

RT

DF 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

FEM -17.25 77.03 -77.03 17.25

DF 59.78 -59.78
29.89 -29.89

FINAL 17.25 89.67 -89.67 17.25

END
MOME
NT
SHEAR 22.60 106.78 146.46 22.60
FORCE 146.46 106.78
MID 89.53 -89.53
SPAN
MOME
NT

Shear Force

Cantilever Span (A-A)

0.4KN

Shear Force = 0.4 + (+14.8 X 1.5) = 22.60KN

Moment

33
Moment = 0.4 x 1.5 + 14.8 x 1.52/2

= 17.25KNm

68.38KN/M 89.67KNM
A B

3.65m

Moment at Reaction B = 0

ΣMRB = 0

-3.65Rb + (69.38 x 3.652) + 89.67 – 17.25

3.65Rb = 534.68
RB = 146.46 KN
RB = 146.46 KN

ΣMRA = 0

3.65RA - (69.38 x 3.652) + 89.67 – 17.25

3.68RA = -389.74
RA = 106.78 KN
RA = 106.78 KN

Maximum Span Moment

Span A-B = Span BC

Point of Zero shear, n = V/N =146.46/69.38

X= 2.11m

Maximum moment at x = 2.11m

Max = Vx-wx2 – 89.67

=146.46 x 2.11 – 69.38 x 2.112 -89.67

M = -89.53 KNm
= -89.53 KNm

34
 106.67KN 146.46KN 22.60KN

0.4KN
0.4KN

106.78KN
22.6KN 146.46KN

Shear Force (KN)

89.67KNM
0.4KNM 0.4KNM

89.53KNM 89.53KNM

Bending Moment (KNm)

CASE 1

Considering the knife edge loading of 120 KN on the deck

slab

Influence line method

Impact effects 22 %

Live load factor = 1.6

Total design load
Total design load = 1.6(120 + 120 × 22%) = 234.24 KN
= 234.24KN

35
 234.24KN

1.825m 1.825m

Span A-B

Pab 234.24 ×1.825 ×1.825

M= = = 106.87 KNM
2L 2×3.65

Span B-C = 0

Distribution Factor (DF)

DFAB = DFCB = 1

DFBA = DFBC = 0.

Moment Distribution

SUPPOR A B B C

DF 1 0.5 0.5 1

FEM 106.87 -106.87 0

BAL 106.87
CO -106.87 53.44 -53.44
BAL 26.72
FINAL 0 80.16 -80.16
END
MOME
NT
SHEAR 95.18 139.06 21.96 -21.96
FORCE
MID 173.62 -40.08
SPAN
MOME
NT

36
Shear Force

Span A-B

𝑊 (𝑀𝐴𝐵+𝑀𝐵𝐴) 234.24 (0+80.16)

VAB = − = − = 95.18 KN
2 𝐿 2 3.65

VBA = W - VAB

= 234.24 – 95.18

= 139.08 KN

Span B-C

0 (−80.16+0)
=2 − 3.65

= 21.96 KN

VCB = W - VBC

= 0 – 21.9 = 21.96 KN

Span Moment

Span A- B

Mmax = VABL/2 - MAB

= 95.18 × 3.65/2 -0

= 173.62 KNm

Span B – C

Mmax = VBCL/2 - MBC

= 21.96 × 3.65/2 – 80.16

= -40.08 KNm

37
 95.18KN

21.76KN
21.96KN

139.08KN

Shear Force (KN)

80.16KNM

40.08KNM

173.70KNM

Bending Moment (KNm)

CASE 2 Knife edge load at support B

234.24KN

A B

A B C
3.65m 3.65m

CASA 3 Knife edge load carried at the mid span BC

234.24KN

3.65m 1.825m 1.825m

End Moment

38
Span A- B There is no load therefore no moment

Span B- C

Pab 234.24 ×1.825 ×1.825

M=± = = 106.87 KNm
2L 2×3.65

Distribution Factor (DF)

DFAB = DFCB = 1

DFBA = DFBC = 0.5

Moment Distribution Method

Moment Distribution

JOINTS A B B C

DF 0 1 0.5 0.5 1 0
FEM 0 0 -106.87 106.87
0
BAL 0 0 53.44 -106.87
CO 53.44 -53.44
BAL 26.72
FINAL 0 80.16 -80.16 0
END
MOMENT
SHEAR 21.96 21.96 139.06 95.18
FORCE
MID 40.08 173.62
SPAN
MOMENT

Shear Force

𝑊 (𝑀𝐵𝐶+𝑀𝐶𝐵)
VBC = 2 − 𝐿

234.24 (80.16+0)
= −
2 3.65

= 95.18 KN

39
VBA = W – VCB

= 234.24 – 95.18

= 139.06 KN

Span A-B

0 (0+80.16)
VAB = −
2 3.65

= 21.96 KN

VBA = W – VBC

= 0 – 21.96

= 21.96 KN

Span Moment

Span B- C

Mmax = VABL/2 – MAB

= 139.06 × 3.65/2 – 80.16

= 173.62 KNm

Span A – B

Mmax = VBCL/2 – MBC

= 21.96 × 3.65/2 – 0

= 40.08 KNm
21.96KN 95.18KN

139.09KN

Shear Force (KN)

40
 95.18KN

40KN

173.62KN

Bending Moment (KNm)

CASE 4 Knife edge load at external support

234.24KN

A B

A B C
3.65m 3.65m

This condition applicable to case 2 applies to the case 1 or 3

diagram

Calculation for area of reinforcement

Assumed diameter of steel Ø = 16mm

Concrete cover c = 40 mm

Overall depth H = 250mm

D = H – C – Ø/2

= 250- 40 – 16/2 = 202 mm d = 202mm

3.7 Design of Kerb (antilevered)

Moment = 6.0 KNM

41
K = M/bd2fcu

6 ×106
= 1000 × 2022 ×30
K = 0.005
= 0.005˂ 0.156

Lever arm (Z) = 0.95 × 202 = 192 mm

M
AS = 0.95fyZ
Provide Y12 at
6 ×106
= c
1000 × 460×192 250 /c (AS

= 71.51 mm2 Provide

Provide minimum reinforcement 425mm2) and
0.13𝑏ℎ
AS = Top face
100

0.13 ×1000 ×250 reinforcement

= 100

Provide Y10 at
= 325 mm2
250 c/c
Check for Deflection

Basic span ratio

=7
effective depth

M 6 ×106
= = 0.147
bd2 1000 × 2022

Modification factor = 1.21

permissible span ratio

= 7 × 1.21 = 8.47
effective depth

actual span ratio 1000

= = 4.95 ˂ 8.47
effective depth 202

The section is okay since the actual ratio less than the

permissible ratio

Check for Horizontal Knife Edge Load

42
 7.5KN/M

7.5KN

𝑁−0.45𝑓𝑐𝑢𝐴𝐶
ASC = 0.95𝑓𝑦

75 ×103 −0.45 ×30 0.25 ×1000

= 0.95 ×460

= 183.97 ˂ 452 mm

Therefore reinforcement steel provided for bending is

satisfactory.

3.8 Design of Internal Support

Total moment = 89.67 + 80.16 = 169.83 KNm

169.83×106
= 1000 × 2022 ×30

= 0.138 ˂ 0.156
𝑀
AS =
0.95𝑓𝑦𝑍

Z = 0.5 + √0.25 – 0.138/0.9 Provide 8Y20 @

c
= 0.81d 180 /c AS

169.83×106 Provide = 2513

= 0.95 ×460×0.81 ×202

2
mm2
= 2375.18 mm

43
Total moment = 89.53 + 173.62 = 263.15 KNm

M 263.15×106 Therefore
K = bd2 fcu = 1000 × 2022 ×30 = 0.215 ˃ 0.156.
compression
(K−Kˋ)fcubd2
AS = 0.95fy(d−dˋ)
reinforcement is
(0.215−0.156)×30×1000×2022
= required
0.95×460(250−50)

= 826.35 mm2

Z = 0.755d = 0.775 × 202 = 156.6 mm

0.156fcubd2 Provide 12Y20

ASreq= + ASˋ
0.95fyz
c
@ 125 /c A S
0.156×30×1000×2022
= 0.95×460 ×0.775 ×202 + 826.35
Provide =
2
= 3616.81 mm
3768.8mm2
Checks
100𝐴𝑆
0.13 ˂ ˂ 4.0
𝐵ℎ Area of
100×3768.8
0.13 ˂ ˂ 4.0 Reinforcement
1000×250

0.13 ˂ 1.51 ˂ 4.0 provide is

Check for Deflection at Mid Span adequate

Basic span ratio

= 26
effective depth

M 89.53 ×106
= = 2.19
bd2 1000 × 2022

Modification factor

(477−fs)
MF = 0.55 + M ≤ 2.0
120(0.9+
bd2

5fyASreq 1
fs =8 ASprov (ℬb)

where ℬb is redistribution ratio

44
 5×460×3616.81
= 8 ×3769.8

= 275.83 N/mm2

(477−275.83)
MF = 0.55 + 120(0.9+ 2.19)

= 1.09

permissible span ratio

= 26 × 1.09 = 26.41
effective depth The section is
aciitual span ratio 3650
= = 18.06 ˂ 26.41 okay
effective depth 202

Transverse Reinforcement
0.13𝑏ℎ Provide Y10 @
Minimum reinforcement = 100
c
225 /c (AS
0.13×1000×250
= 100
Provide =
2
= 325 mm
349mm2)
Design for shear

Maximum shear force V = 146.46 + 139.06

= 285.52 KN
𝑉
Design for shear stress ѵ = 𝑏𝑑

285.52 ×103
= 1000×202

= 1.41 N/mm2

Check

VC ≤ 0.8√fcu or 5N/mm2 which ever less

0.8√30 = 4.38 N/mm2

Therefore VC ˂ 0.8√30
100𝐴𝑆 100×2375.18
= = 1.18N/mm2
𝑏𝑑 1000 ×202

45
By interpolation v = 0.801N/mm2

But fcu ˃ 25N/mm2

V = 0.801(𝑓𝑐𝑢
25
) 0.33

= 0.801(30
25
) 0.33

= 0.85 ˂ 1.41

VC ˃ V Therefore the

𝐴𝑆𝑉 𝑏(𝑉−𝑉𝐶) shear required

=
𝑆𝑉 0.95 𝑓𝑦𝑍

1000(1.41−0.85)
= 0.95 ×460

= 1.28

3.9 Design of Main Beams

900 mm deep by 400 mm width will be adopted for the

design of the main section provided at spacing of 3.65 m.

Loading

The dead load on the beam includes the reaction from the

slab and self-weight of the beam.

Load from slab = 22.60 + 106.78 + 95.18 = 224.56 KN/m

Self-weight of the beam = 0.5 × 0.4 × 24 = 4.80 KN/m

Total load = 224.56 + 4.8 = 229.36 KN/m

229.35KN/M

15m R2
R1

RB

Mmax at mid span = WL2/8

46
 229.35 ×152
= 8
M = 6450.75
= 6450.75 KNm
KNm
Shear force

∑fv = 0

R1 + R2 = 229.39 (But R1 = R2)

2R1 = 229.36

R1 = 114.68 KN
114KN

114.68KN

Shear force (KN)

6450.75KNM

Bending Moment (KNm)

Moment and shear force due to moving load by influence

line method

As the load are dispersed in the direction of span it is

assumed that the maximum bending moment occurs when

47
the load are symmetrically placed about the centre of the

bending at centre will be taken for design purpose (Aswani

et al, 1992). The position of the load is shown in the figure

below. Load with axle load of 120 KN will be placed to give

maximum bending moment.

120KN

A B

15m

60KN

60KN
Shear Force (KN)

450KNM

48
 Bending Moment (KNm)

Design moment at mid span = Wab/L

120 ×7.5 ×7.5
= 15

= 450KNm

Shear Force

∑FV = 0

R1 + R2 = 120 But R1 = R2

2 R1 = 120

R1 = 60 KN R2 = 60 KN

Total shear = 114.68 + 60 = 174.68 KN

Total design moment = 6450.75 + 450

= 6900.75 KNm

Design Data

Assumed diameter Ø = 20 mm

Overall depth H = 900 mm

Concrete cover C = 50 mm

Water cement ratio = 0.55

Diameter of links ØL= 10 mm

d = H- C- ØL- Ø/2

= 900 – 50 – 10 – 20/2

= 830 mm

Effective width of flange (bf)

𝐿𝑍
bf = bw + 10

49
But LZ = 0.7L L= 15 m

0.7 ×15 ×103

= 400+ 10

= 1450 mm
Therefore stress
Checks for location of stress of stress block (MF)

ℎ𝑓
block extend
Mf = 0.45fcu bf hf (d- )
2
below the flange.
250
= 0.45 ×30 × 1450 × 250 (830 - )
2

= 3450.09 ˂ 6900.75 KNm

Moment about tension reinforcement due to flange alone.

ℎ𝑓
Mf = 0.45fcu(bf – bw) hf(d- )
2

= 0.45 × 30 (1450 – 400) 250(830 -

250
)×10−6 Therefore
2
compression
= 2498.34 KNm
reinforcement is
M−Mcfa
K = bwfcu d2
required.
6900.75−2498.34
= (400×30×8302 )10−6

= 0.5325 ˃ 0.156

𝑑ˋ
Check ˂ 0.215 Therefore
𝑑

dˋ= C+ØL compression

= 50 + 10 steel has yielded.

= 60mm
60
= 830 = 0.072 ˂ 0.215

M−Mcfa−0.156fcubwd2
ASˋ= 0.95fy(d−dˈ)

50
 (6900.75−2498.34)×106 −0.156×30×400×8302
= 0.95×460×(830−60)
Provide 26Y32
= 9250.76mm2
(AS provided =
Provide 12Y32 at 150 c/c (AS = 9650.88mm2)
20910.24mm2)
ASˋ+0.45fcu(bf−bw)hf+0.202fcubwd
AS = 0.95𝑓𝑦

9650.88+0.45×30(2498.34−400)×250+0.202×400×830
= 0.95×460

= 20831.74mm2

Check for Deflection

𝑀 6900.75 ×106
= = 25.04
𝑏𝑤𝑑2 400 × 8302

Modification factor

(477−𝑓𝑠)
MF = 0.55 + 𝑀 ≤ 2.0
120(0.9+
𝑏𝑑2

5𝑓𝑦𝐴𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑞 1
fs = 8 𝐴𝑆𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣 (ℬ𝑏)

where ℬb is redistribution ratio

5×460×20831.74
For Tension
= 8 ×20910.24
Reinforcement
2
= 286.42 N/mm

(477−286.42)
MF = 0.55 + 120(0.9+ 25.04)

= 0.61

100𝐴𝑆ˈ𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣
1+ For Compression
𝑏𝑑
MF = 100𝐴𝑆ˈ𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣
3+ 𝑏𝑑 Reinforcement.

100×9650.88
1+ 400×830
= 100×9650.88
3+ 400×830

51
 = 0.66 The section is

safe in
Total Mf = 0.61 + 0.66 = 1.27 ˂ 1.5

Basic span ratio

Deflection.
= 20
effective depth

permissible span ratio

= 20 × 1.27 = 25.40
effective depth

actual span ratio 15000

= = 18.07 ˂ 25.40
effective depth 830

Note: To prevent Cracks at sides of the deeps beam, provide

2Y10 bar at both sides longitudinally.

Nominal Links
𝐴𝑆𝑉 0.4𝑏𝑤
=
𝑆𝑉 0.95 𝑓𝑦𝑉

𝑂.4×400
= 0.95 ×460

= 0.37

Provide links Y10 @ 300 mm c/c

3.9.1 Design of Internal Beams

Load from slab = 146.46 + 146.46 + 139.06

= 431.98KN/M

Self-weight of slab = 0.4 × 0.5 ×24

= 4.80 KN/M

Total Load = 431.98 + 4.8

= 436.78 KN/m

52
 436.78KN/m M = 12284.44

A B KNm

15m
RA RB

Mmax at mid span = WL2/8

436.78 ×152
= 8

= 12284.44 KNm

Shear Force

R3 + R4 = 436.78×15 But R3 = R4

2R3 = 6551.7

R3 = R4 = 3275.85 KN

Total Shear Force = 3275.85 + 60 = 3335.85 KN

Total Moment = 12284.44 + 450

= 12734.44 KNm

Moment and shear force due to moving load by influence

line method is the same as previous page of this project.

3335.85KN

3335.85KN

Shear force (KN)

53
 12734.44KNM
Bending Moment (KNm)

Design Data

Assumed diameter Ø = 20 mm

Overall depth H = 900 mm

Width of web Bw = 400mm

Concrete cover C = 50 mm

Water cement ratio = 0.55

Diameter of links ØL= 10 mm

d = H- C- ØL- Ø/2

= 900 – 50 – 10 – 20/2

= 830 mm

Effective width of flange (bf)

Therefore stress
𝐿𝑍
bf = bw + 5 block lies

But LZ = 0.7L L= 15 m outside the

0.7 ×15 ×103
= 400+ flange.
5

= 2500 mm

Checks for location of stress of stress block (MF)

ℎ𝑓
Mf = 0.45fcu bf hf(d- )
2

54
 250
= 0.45 ×30 × 2500 × 250 (830 - )× 10−6
2

= 5948.44 ˂ 12734.44 KNM

Therefore
Moment about tension reinforcement due to flange alone.

ℎ𝑓 compression
Mf = 0.45fcu(bf – bw) hf(d - )
2
reinforcement is
250 −6
= 0.45 × 30 (2500 – 400) 250(830 - )×10
2 required
= 4996.69 KNM

M−Mcfa
K = bwfcu d2 Therefore

12734.44−4996.69 compression
= (400×30×8302 )10−6
steel has yielded.
= 0.936 ˃ 0.156

𝑑ˋ
Check ˂ 0.215
𝑑
Provide 24Y32
dˋ= C+ØL
at 150 c/c (AS =
= 50 + 10
19302 mm2)
= 60mm
60 Provide 26Y32
= 830 = 0.072 ˂ 0.215
(AS provided =
M−Mcfa−0.156fcubwd2
ASˋ= 0.95fy(d−dˈ) 20911mm2)
(12734.44−4996.69)×106 −0.156×30×400×8302
= 0.95×460×(830−60)

= 19162.91mm2

ASˋ+0.45fcu(bf−bw)hf+0.202fcubwd
AS = 0.95𝑓𝑦

19302+0.45×30(2500−400)×250+0.202×30×400×830
= 0.95×460

= 20866.64mm2

55
Check for Deflection

𝑀 12734.44 ×106
= = 46.21
𝑏𝑑2 400 × 8302

Modification factor

(477−𝑓𝑠)
MF = 0.55 + 𝑀 ≤ 2.0
120(0.9+
𝑏𝑑2 For Tension
5𝑓𝑦𝐴𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑞 1
fs = 8 𝐴𝑆𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣 (ℬ𝑏) Reinforcement

where ℬb is redistribution ratio

5×460×20866.64
= 8 ×20911

= 286.89 N/mm2
For Compression
(477−286.89)
MF = 0.55 + 120(0.9+ 25.04)
Reinforcement.
= 0.61

100𝐴𝑆ˈ𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣
1+
𝑏𝑑
= 100𝐴𝑆ˈ𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣
3+ 𝑏𝑑 The section is

100×19302 safe in
1+ 400×830
= 100×19302 = 0.77
3+ 400×830 Deflection.

Total Mf = 0.61 + 0.77 = 1.38 ˂ 1.5

Basic span ratio

= 20
effective depth

permissible span ratio

= 20 × 1.38 = 27.60
effective depth

actual span ratio 15000

= = 18.07 ˂ 27.60
effective depth 830

Note: To prevent Cracks at sides of the deeps beam, provide

2Y10 bar at both sides longitudinally.

56
 Nominal Links
𝐴𝑆𝑉 0.4𝑏𝑤
=
𝑆𝑉 0.95 𝑓𝑦𝑉

𝑂.4×400
= 0.95 ×460

= 0.37

Provide links Y10 @ 300 mm c/c

CHAPTER FOUR

DESIGN OF PIER CAP

REFERENCE CALCULTION OUTPUT

4.1 Design of Pier Caps

Design Data

Total length of cap = 9000 mm

Width of cap B = 5000 mm

Height of cap H = 1100 mm

Concrete cover C = 50 mm

Assumed diameter Ø = 20 mm

Effective depth d = H – C – Ø/2

= 1100 – 50 – 20/2 = 1040 mm d = 1040 mm

Since all the beams loading are directly supported by piers

only the self-weight of the caps shall be considered. Ultimate design

Self-weight of pier cap = 5 × 1.1 × 24 = 132 KN/m load = 184.8

Ultimate design load = 1.4 × 132 = 184.8 KN/m KN/m

57
A B

RA RB RC
3.65m 3.65m

184.8KN/M

RA 3.65m RB

Span A-B = Span B-C

WL2 184.8×3.652
Moment = = = ±205.17 KNm
12 12

Distribution Factor (DF)

DFAB = DFCB = 1 M = ±205.17

DFBA = DFBC = 0.5 KNm

Moment Distribution Method

SUPPO A B B C

RT

DF 1 0.5 0.5 1

FEM -205.17 205.17 205.17 205.17

BAL -205.17 205.17 205.17 205.17

CO 102.58 -102.58 205.17
BAL 205.17
FINAL 0 307.75 -307.75 O
END
MOME
NT
SHEAR 252.94 421.58 421.98 -252.94

58
 FORCE
MID 315.71 -315.71
SPAN
MOME
NT

184.8KN/M

RA 3.65m RB

∑MRB = O

3.652
3.65 RA –184.8 × + 307.75
2

RA = 252.94 KN

∑MRB = O

3.652
-3.65 RB + 184.8 × + 307.75
2

RB = 421.58 KN

Maximum Span Moment

RA = 252.94 KN
Span A-B = Span BC

Point of Zero shear, n = V/N = 421.58/184.8

X= 2.3 m
RB = 421.58 KN
Maximum moment at x = 2.3 m

Max = Vx-wx2 – 89.67

= 421.58 x 2.3 – 184.8 x 2.32 – 307.75

59
= -315.71 KNm

Similarly, Since span A – B symmetrical to span the above

values are applied accordingly.

252.94KN
421.58KN

M= -315.71 KNm

421.58KN
252.94KN
Shear Force (KN)

K = M/bd2fcu

315.71×106
= 5000 × 10402 ×30

= 0.002 ˂ 0.156

Lever arm (Z) = 0.95 × 1040 = 988 mm

M
AS = 0.95fyZ

315.71 ×106
= 0.95 × 460×988

= 731.22 mm2

Shear Reinforcement

Shear force at support (middle) = 459.90 KN

𝑉
Design for shear stress VC =
𝑏𝑑

429.58 ×103 Provide 4Y16 @

= 5000×1040
250 c/c (AS
= 0.083 N/mm2
provided =
100𝐴𝑆 100×804 2
= 5000 ×1040 = 0.015N/mm
𝑏𝑑
804mm2 )
By interpolation v = 0.36 N/mm2

60
But fcu ˃ 25N/mm2

V = 0.36(𝑓𝑐𝑢
25
) 0.33

= 0.36(30
25
) 0.33

= 0.36 N/mm2

VC ˃ V

𝐴𝑆𝑉 0.4𝑏
=
𝑆𝑉 0.95 𝑓𝑦

0.4×5000
= 0.95 ×460

= 4.58

4.2 Analysis and Design of Piers

A circular geometry pier is selected to reduce the effects of

Therefore the
scour and eddy current develop for pier located in water.
shear required
Height of pier = 10 m

Allow for free board = 0.5 m

Total height of pier = 10 m

Clear distance between pier and restrained i.e (footing and

cap)

L = 10 m

Lex =Ley (circular pier)

lex
≤ 12 (unbraced)
d

lex 10
= = 8.3 < 12 (short pier)
d 1.2

Area of circular pier = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ

But d =1200 mm

61
 r = 600 mm

Area of circular pier = π × 0.62 × 10 = 11.31 m2

Self-weight of the pier = 1.4(11.31 × 24) = 380.02 kn/m

Axial load on pier

Total axial load from four beams = 698.72 KN Design as a short

Axial load from pier cap = 252.94 KN pier

Assumed weight of bearing plate = 1.00 KN

Self-weight of the pier = 380.02 KN

Total axial load = 1332.68 KN

Longitudinal Forces

Tracking or braking of vehicles

HA braking or tracking = 8 KN/M + 200 KN (for loaded

length of 15 m)

Load = 8 × 15 + 200 = 320 KN

DCB to BS Skiding Forces Total axial load =

5400 6.6.1 Skidding load are introduced because of coefficient of 1332.68 KN

L.A. Clark. friction for lateral skidding of nearly 1.0 m undry condition.

A single load of 250 KN to act in one notional lane in any

direction.

DCB to BS Wind Forces Longitudinal

5400 6.6.2 Since the bridge is less than 20 m span and less than 10 m force = 320 KN

L.A. Clark. width, wind load can be neglected.

Total horizontal forces = 320 + 250 = 570 KN

62
 1332.68KN

DCB to BS

5400 570KN

L.A. Clark.

Total horizontal

10m forces = 570 KN

Distribution moment = 570 × 10 = 5700 KNm

Design of Reinforcement

N = 1332.68 KN

M = 5700 KNm

Fy = 460 N/mm2

Concrete cover = 50 mm

Bar diameter = 32 mm

Overall depth = 1200 mm

d = 1200-50-32-12 = 1106 mm

N 1332.68×103
= = 0.93
bh 1200 ×1200

M 5700×106
= = 3.3
bh2 1200×12002

d 1106
= 1200 = 0.92
h

100ASC
bh
=2

63
 2bh 2×1200×1200
ASC = 100 = = 28800mm2
100

Links/stirups

25% of bar size

0.25 × 32 = 8 mm d = 1106 mm

Column design Provide Y12 @ 300 mm

chart 4.3 Design of the Second Piers

Height of the pier = 13 m

Lex =Ley (circular pier) Provide 36Y32

lex
≤ 12 (unbraced) (A𝑆𝐶 =
d

lex 13
28944 mm2 /𝑚)
= = 10.83 < 12 (short pier)
d 1.2

Total axial load on column = 1332.68 KN

Total horizontal forces = 570 KN

Distribution Moment = 570 × 13 = 7410 KNm

Design of Reinforcement

N = 1332.68 KN

M = 7410 KNm

Fy = 460 N/mm2

Concrete cover = 50 mm

Bar diameter = 32 mm

Overall depth = 1200 mm

d = 1200-50-32-12 = 1106 mm

N 1332.68×103
= = 0.93
bh 1200 ×1200

64
M 7410×106
= = 4.3
bh2 1200×12002

d 1106
= 1200 = 0.92
h

100ASC
= 2.4
bh

2.4bh 2.4×1200×1200
ASC = = = 28800mm2
100 100

Links/stirups

25% of bar size

0.25 × 32 = 8 mm

4.4 Analysis and Design of Pile Cap

Combine footing shall be recommended for the two piers

Load Estimation Provide 43Y32

Total load on footing = (1332.68 + 570)×2 = 3805.36 KN (A𝑆𝐶 =
Bearing pressure = 200 KN/m2 34572 mm2 /𝑚)
3805.36
Area of the base = = 45 m2
200

Sizing Provide Y12 @

Length of the base = 9m 300 mm center to

Width of the base = 5m center

9m

5m

Load from the piers = 3805.36 KN

65
 Weight of pier cap = 45 x 1.2 x 1.4 x 24 = 1814.4 KN

Total Load = 3805.36 + 1814.4 = 5619.76 KN

Load per pile = 5619.76/8 = 702.47 KN

Bending moment M = WL/4

702.47 ×1.65
= = 290 KNm
4

Therefore the area

Effective depth d = 1200 – 50 – 20 – 10 = 1120mm

M 290×106
provided = 45m2
K= = 5000×11202 ×30 = 0.002 ˂ 0.156
bd2 fcu

Z = 0.95d = 0.95 x 1120 = 1064mm

M 290×106
AS = = = 623.70mm2
0.95fyZ 0.95×460×1064

Minimum steel = 0.24%bh = 0.0024 x 5000 x 1200 = Load per pile

14400mm2 = 702.47 KN

Shear

av = 200 mm

av/d = 200/600 = 0.33 ˂ 0.6

2d/ av = (2 x 600)/200 = 6

100𝐴𝑆 100 × 14730

= = 0.26
𝑏𝑑 5000 × 1120

Therefore Vc = 0.409 N/mm2

Provide 30Y25 @
And enhanced shear stress Vc = 0.409 x 6 = 2.454 ˂ 4.38
Oyenuga 150 c/c (As
N/mm2
(2001) provide
Shear per band V = W/2 = 702 47/2 = 351.24 KN
14730mm2)
6
Vc 315 × 10
V= = = 0.063N/mm2
bd 5000 × 1120

66
 V ˂ Vc

Anchorage
𝑎
2− 𝑣 2− 0.33
𝑑
Bond factor = 2−0.6 = = 1.193
2−0.6

623.70
Anchorage length required = 39Ø x 1.193 x = 1.97Ø
14730

= 1.97 x 25 = 49.25 mm

4.5 Analysis and Design of Abutment

This adequate
Design Data
since d = 1120
0
Angle of internal friction = 30
mm
Coefficient of friction N = 0.45

Height of abutment = 7.65 m

Bearing capacity = 140 KN/m2

Density of the retained soil = 1.8g/cm3

i. Sliding

Applying Rankine theory coefficient of active pressure

1−sin∅ 1−sin30 1−0.515

Ka = 1 +sin∅ = = = 0.32
1 +sin30 1 +0.515

Horizontal forces of earth on the structure at the base is

given as

P = K a ρgh

Where ρ = density of the soil

g = 9.81 m/s

P = 0.32 x 1.8 x 9.81 x 7.65 = 43.24KN/𝑚2

The horizontal force on 1 m length of wall = Hk

67
Hk = 0.5ph = 0.5 x 43.24 x 7.65 = 165.39 KN/m2

Vertical Loads

Wall = 1.2 x 1.0 x 7.65 x 24 = 220.32KN

Load from Beams = 698.72 KN

Base = 1.2 x 6 x24 = 172.8 KN

Subtotal = 220.32 + 698.72 + 172.8 = 1091.84 KN

Earth = 2.0 x 7.65 x 1.8 x 9.81 = 270.17 KN

For stability calculation a partial factor of safety of 1.6 is

used for the lateral loading while 1.4 will be used for

strength calculation

For a number of heel beam = μ(1.0Gk + 1.0Vk) ≥ Yf HK

μ is the coefficient of friction between base and soil taken as

0.45

frictional resistance force = μ(1.0Gk + 1.0Vk)

= 0.45(1.0 x 1091.84 + 1.0 x 270.17)

= 612.90 KN

Sliding force = Yf HK = 1.6 x 165.39

= 264.62 KN ˂ 612.90KN

b Overturning

Taking moment about point A at the edge of the toe, at

ultimate limit state.

Overturning moment = YfHKh/3 = 1.6 x 165.39 x 7.65/3 =

674.79KN

68
Restraining moment = 1.0(220.32 x 1.7 + 172.8 x 3 + 270.17

x 4.1)

= 1987.13 KNm

The criterion for overturning is satisfied since Restraining Sliding okay

moment ˃ Overturning moment.

C. Bearing Pressure

The bearing pressure underneath the abutment are assessed

using serviceability limit state.

The following equation is used

N M
p= ± D=6m
D D2

N = Vertical loading or weight of structure

M = Resultant moment about the center line.

N = 1.6(220.32 + 698.72 + 172.8) + 1.0 x 270.17 =

2017.11KN

M = 1.0(165.39 + 8.85/2) + 1.0 x 220.32(6-3)-1.0 x

270.17(4.1-3.0)

= 547.10 KNm

Maximum and minimum bearing pressure

N M 2017.11 547.10
P1 = + = + = 351.39KNm
D D2 6 62

N M 2017.11 547.10
P2 = − 2 = − = 320.99KNm
D D 6 62

Check

M D
<
N 6

69
 547.10 6
= 0.27 =1
2017.11 6
M D
Since p2 is positive and < , it implies that there is
N 6

positive contact along the base and eccentricity of loading

lies within the middle third of the base respectively.

Bending Reinforcement

Wall

Horizontal force Hf = Yf 0.5Kaρgh2

= 1.4 x 0.5 x 0.32 x 1.8 x 9.8 x 7.652

= 231.24 Kn

Considering the effective span, the maximum moment

= 231.24(0.25 + 7.65/3) = 647.47 KNm

Effective depth d = 1200 – 50 – 20/2 – 10

= 1130 mm
𝑀
K = 𝑏𝑑2 𝑓𝑐𝑢

647.47×106
= 1000 × 11302 ×30

= 0.017 ˂ 0.156

Z = 0.95d = 0.95 x 1130 = 1074 mm

𝑀
AS = 0.95𝑓𝑦𝑍

647.47×106
= 0.95 ×460 ×1074

= 1380.18mm2/m

Provide 5Y20 at 150 mm c/c both faces (AS Provided

70
1570mm2/m)

Similarly, provide Y12 @ 200 c/c for tranverse

reinforcement.

4.6 Design of Wing Wall

Active Pressure = Pa = KaɣZ

= 0.32 x 1.8 x 9.81 x 7.65

= 43.23KN/m

Hk = 0.5PaZ = 0.5 x 43.23 x 7.65 = 165.34 KN

Loading

Gk = 1.2 x 7.65 x 24 = 220.32 KN

1.2
Gk = × 7.65 × 24 = 110.16 KN
2

1.2
Earth Vk = × 7.65 × 1.8 × 9.81 = 81.10 KN
2

Vk = 2.4 x 7.65 x 1.8 x 9.81 = 324.20KN

Total Vk = 81.10 + 324.20 = 405.3 KN

Check for Stability

Sliding

Resistance force = 0.45(1.0 x 330.48 + 1.0 x 405.3) = 331.10

KN

Sliding force = 1.6 Hk = 1.6 x 165.34 = 264.54 KN

Since Resistance force ˃ sliding force (okay)

Overturning

Taking moment about point A at the edge of the toe, at

ultimate limit state.

71
 h
Overturning moment = YkHk 3 = 1.6 x 165.34 x 7.65/3 =

674.59 KNm

4.7 Pile Cap for Abutment

Height of abutment = 7650 mm

Length of pile cap = 11600 mm

Width of pile cap = 6000 mm

Height of pier cap = 1200 mm

Number of pile per pile cap = 18

Diameter of pile = 600 mm

Load from beams and Abutment = 1091.84 KN

Earth pressure from soil = 270.17 KN

Load from wing wall = 735.78 KN

Self-weight of pier cap = 11.6 x 6 x 1.2 x 1.4 x 24 = 2806.27

KN

Total Load = 1091.84 + 270.17 + 735.78 + 2806.27 = 4904

KN

Load per pile = 4904/18 = 272.45 KN

Bending moment M = WL/4

272.45 ×2
= = 136.23 KNm
4

Effective depth d = 1200 – 50 – 20 – 10 = 1120mm

M 136.23×106
K= = 6000×11202 ×30 = 0.0006 ˂ 0.156
bd2 fcu

Z = 0.95d = 0.95 x 1120 = 1064mm

72
 M 136.23×106 Total load = 4904
AS = = = 293 mm2 /𝑚
0.95fyZ 0.95×460×1064
KN
Minimum steel = 0.24%bh = 0.0024 x 6000 x 1200 =

17280mm2/m

Shear

av = 160 mm

av/d = 160/600 = 0.33 ˂ 0.6

2d/ av = (2 x 600)/160 = 7.5

100𝐴𝑆 100 × 17676

= = 0.26
𝑏𝑑 6000 × 1120

Therefore Vc = 0.409 N/mm2 Provide 30Y25 @

And enhanced shear stress Vc = 0.409 x 7.5 = 3.07 ˂ 4.38 150 c/c (As

N/mm2 provide 17676

Shear per band V = W/2 = 272.45/2 = 136.22 KN mm2/m)

Vc 136.22 × 106
V= = = 0.020N/mm2
bd 6000 × 1120

Shear is satisfied since V ˂ Vc

Anchorage
𝑎
2− 𝑣 2− 0.27
𝑑
Bond factor = 2−0.6 = = 1.24
2−0.6

293
Anchorage length required = 39Ø x 1.193 x
17676

= 0.802Ø This is adequate

= 0.802 x 25 = 20.04 mm since d = 1120

mm

73
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Summary

In the design of this bridge the major consideration were safety, economy, functionality,

durability and aesthetic. The consistency of the design was in accordance with BS 8110 (Part 1-

3) 1985 and BS 5400. The total estimated load on the bridge is 21048 KN. Both piers and

abutments were design to use pile as a type of foundation due to the low bearing capacity of the

soil at the river and the depth at which the bearing stratum were obtained. The number of piles

were designed to be more at abutment because of the impact load at that point, also due to wider

nature of the abutment designed. Whereas the piers were designed to carry less piles because of

the width of the bridge. The following designed data were arrived at.

Width of the roadway = 7300 mm

Surfacing (wearing coat) = 75 mm

Dimension of the kerb walkway = 250 mm x 1000 mm

Width of walkway = 1500 mm

Height of railing = 1000 mm

Overall thickness of concrete of slab = 250 mm

Beam dimension (both external and internal) = 900 mm x 400 mm

Elastomeric bearing rubber length = 30 mm x 350 mm x 63mm

Dimension of the pier cap = 11000 mm x 5000 mm x 1100 mm

Diameter of the pier = 1200 mm

Diameter of pile = 600 mm

Depth of pile = 11000 mm

74
Dimension of the pile cap = 9000 mm x 5000 mm x 1200 mm

Height of pier 1 = 10000 mm

Height of pier 2 = 13000 mm

5.2 Conclusion

By the conclusion of this reinforced concrete bridge to span across River Guma, the entire people

residing near the river who may wish to get to the other side but find it difficult will be relieved

of this problem. The economic and the social standard of the people would be uplifted.

Reduction of traffic congestion in many roads shall be affected and of course more food will be

available for the nation as the people of Gbajimba are known for high production of yam and

grains.

The reinforced concrete bridge was chosen for the easy nature of its construction and availability

of the construction of materials. Consideration was also given to the durability of concrete, its

fire resisting property ability to withstand normal impacts without bending or cracking.

From the foregoing analysis and design, it was concluded that the construction of the bridge

across River Guma will be of great economic benefit to Benue State and recommends same

across the river.

75
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