172 Quadratic Equations and Inequations

Chapter

5
Quadratic Equations and Inequations
A polynomial of second degree is generally called a
Polynomial quadratic polynomial. Polynomials of degree 3 and 4 are
known as cubic and biquadratic polynomials
Algebraic expression containing many terms of the respectively.
form cxn , n being a non-negative integer is called a
(4) Polynomial equation : If f(x) is a polynomial,
polynomial. i.e., real or complex, then f(x) = 0 is called a polynomial
f(x)  a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  a3 x 3  ...... an1 xn1  an xn , equation.
where x is a variable, a0, a1, a2,.......an are constants and Types of quadratic equation
an  0 . An equation in which the highest power of the
Example : 4x 4  3x 3  7x 2  5x  3 , unknown quantity is two is called quadratic equation.
Quadratic equations are of two types :
3x 3  x 2  3x  5 .
(1) Real polynomial Table : 5.1

f(x)  a0  a1x  a2x2  a3x3  ..... anxn Purely quadratic Adfected quadratic
2 2
is called real polynomial of real variable x with real ax  c  0 , where ax  bx  c  0 , where
coefficients. a, c  C and a, b, c  C and a  0 ,
Example: 3x 3  4x 2  5x  4, x 2  2x  1 b  0, a  0 b 0
etc. are real polynomials.
Roots of a quadratic equation : The values of
(2) Complex polynomial variable x which satisfy the quadratic equation is called
f(x)  a0  a1x  a2x2  a3x3  ...... anxn roots of quadratic equation.

is called complex polynomial of complex variable x Solution of quadratic equation

with complex coefficients.
(1) Factorization method
Example:
3x 2  (2  4i)x  (5i  4), x 3  5i x 2  (1  2i)x  4 Let ax2  bx  c  a(x   )(x   )  0 .
etc. are complex polynomials. Then x   and x   will satisfy the given
(3) Degree of polynomial : Highest power of equation.
variable x in a polynomial is called degree of Hence, factorize the equation and equating each
polynomial. factor to zero gives roots of the equation.
Example: Example : 3x 2  2x  1  0 
f(x)  a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  ...... an1 xn1  an xn is a n (x  1)(3x  1)  0 ;
degree polynomial. x  1,  1 / 3
f(x)  4x 3  3x 2  7x  5 is a 3 degree (2) Sri Dharacharya method : By completing the
polynomial. 2 b c
perfect square as ax2  bx  c  0  x  x  0
a a
 173 Quadratic Equations and Inequations
2 Product of roots
 b 
Adding and subtracting   , c Constantterm
 2a   P   .  
 t of x 2
a Coefficien
b2  4ac
2
b  (2) Formation of an equation with given roots :
 x    0 which gives,
 2a  4a2  A quadratic equation whose roots are  and  is given
by (x   )(x   )  0 .
 b  b2  4ac .
x  x 2  (   )x    0
2a
Hence the quadratic equation ax2  bx  c  0 (a0) i.e. x2  (sumof roots)
x  (productof roots
) 0
 x 2  Sx  P  0
 b  b2  4ac ,
has two roots, given by   (3) Symmetric function of the roots : A function
2a
of  and  is said to be a symmetric function, if it
 b  b2  4ac remains unchanged when  and  are interchanged.
 
2a For example,  2   2  2 is a symmetric function
Every quadratic equation has two and only two
roots.
of  and  whereas  2   2  3 is not a
symmetric function of  and  .
Nature of roots
In order to find the value of a symmetric function of
In a quadratic equation ax2  bx  c  0 , let us  and  , express the given function in terms of
suppose that a, b, c are real and a  0 . The following    and  . The following results may be useful.
is true about the nature of its roots. (i) 2 2  (  )2  2
(1) The equation has real and distinct roots if and (ii)  3   3  (   )3  3 (   )
only if D  b2  4ac  0 . (iii)  4   4  ( 3   3)(   )   ( 2   2)
(2) The equation has real and coincident (equal)
(iv)  5   5  ( 3   3)( 2   2)   2 2(   )
roots if and only if D  b2  4ac  0 .
(v) |    | (   )2  4
(3) The equation has complex roots of the form
  i ,  0,   0 R if and only if (vi)  2   2  (   )(   )
D  b2  4ac  0. (vii)  3   3  (   )[(   )2   ]
(4) The equation has rational roots if and only if (viii)  4   4  (   )(   )( 2   2 )
a, b, c  Q (the set of rational numbers) and
Higher degree equations
D  b2  4ac is a perfect square (of a rational
number). The equation
(5) The equation has (unequal) irrational (surd form) p(x)  a0 xn  a1xn1  ..... an1x  an  0 …..(i)
roots if and only if D  b2  4ac  0 and not a perfect
square even if a, b and c are rational. In this case if Where the coefficients a0, a1,.......,an  R (or C)
p  q , p, q rational is an irrational root, then and a0  0 is called an equation of nth degree, which
p q is also a root (a, b, c being rational). has exactly n roots 1,  2,........, n  C , then we
(6)   i (   0 and  ,   R ) is a root if and can write
only if its conjugate   i is a root, that is complex p(x)  a0(x  1)(x   2)......(x   n)
roots occur in pairs in a quadratic equation. In case the
=
equation is satisfied by more than two complex
numbers, then it reduces to an identity. a0{xn  (1)xn1  (1 2)xn 2  ..... (1)n1 2..... n}
2
0.x  0.x  0  0 , i.e., a 0 b c . ……(ii)
Comparing (i) and (ii),
Relations between roots and coefficients
a1
(1) Relation between roots and coefficients of  1   1   2  .......  n  
a0
quadratic equation : If  and  are the roots of
quadratic equation ax2  bx  c  0 , (a  0) then a2
1 2  1 2  .....  n1 n 
Sum of roots a0
b Coefficient of x
 S      an
a t of x2
Coefficien and so on and 1 2..... n  (1)n
a0
 Quadratic Equations and Inequations 174
Cubic equation : When n  3 , the equation is a a2c1  a1c2 b1c2  b2c1
cubic of the form ax3  bx2  cx  d  0 , and we have in    ,  0
a1b2  a2b1 a2c1  a1c2
this case
 The condition for only one root common is
b c d
       ;       ;    (c1a2  c2a1 )2  (b1c2  b2c1)(a1b2  a2b1)
a a a
Biquadratic equation : If  ,  ,  ,  are roots of (2) Both roots are common: Then required
condition is
4 3 2
the biquadratic equation ax  bx  cx  dx  e  0 ,
a1 b1 c1
then  
b a2 b2 c2
1          
a
Properties of quadratic equation
c
 2              (1) If f(a) and f(b) are of opposite signs then at
a
least one or in general odd number of roots of the
d equation f(x)  0 lie between a and b.
 3          
a
(2) If f(a)  f(b) then there exists a point c
e
4    . between a and b such that f (c)  0 , a  c  b .
a
(3) If  is a root of the equation f(x)  0 then the
Formation of a polynomial equation from
given roots : If  1, 2 , 3 ,..... n are the roots of a polynomial f(x) is exactly divisible by (x   ) , then
polynomial equation of degree n, then the equation is (x   ) is factor of f(x) .
n
x   1x n1
  2x n 2
  3x n 3...... n
(1)  n  0 (4) If the roots of the quadratic equations
a1x2  b1x  c1  0 and a2x2  b2x  c2  0 are in the
where  r    1 
2 ..... r .
   
Cubic equation : If  ,  ,  are the roots of a same ratio  i.e. 1  2  then b12 / b22  a1c1 / a2c2 .
  1  2 
cubic equation, then the equation is 
x3   1 x 2   2 x   3  0 or
The quadratic expression
3 2
x  (     )x  (     )x    0 .
(1) Let f(x)  ax2  bx  c, a, b, c  R , a  0 be
Biquadratic Equation : If  ,  ,  ,  are the
roots of a biquadratic equation, then the equation is a quadratic expression. Since,

 b 
2
 b2  4ac
x4   1 x3   2 x 2   3 x   4  0 f(x)  a  x     
2a 2  ……(i)
or x 4  (       )x 3  (     
   4a 

The following is true from equation (i)
      )x 2  (       )
(i) f(x)  0 ( 0) for all values of x  R if and
x    0
only if
Condition for common roots a  0( 0) and D  b2  4ac  0 .

(1) Only one root is common : Let  be the common (ii) f(x)  0( 0) if and only if
root of quadratic equations a1 x 2  b1 x  c1  0 and a  0( 0) and D  b2  4ac  0 .
a2 x 2  b2 x  c2  0 . In this case (D  0) , f(x)  0 if and only if
b
 a1 2  b1  c1  0 , a2 2  b2  c2  0 x
2a
By Crammer’s rule :
 2
 1
(iii) If D  b2  4ac  0 and a  0 (<0), then
 
 c1 b1 a1  c1 a1 b1  0( 0), for x lying betw
eentherootsof f(x)

 c2 b2 a2  c2 a2 b2 f(x)   0( 0), for x notlying betw
eentherootsof f
  0, for x  eachof therootsof f(x)  0
2  1
or  
b1c2  b2c1 a2c1  a1c2 a1b2  a2b1
 175 Quadratic Equations and Inequations
(iv) If a  0,( 0) , then f(x) has a minimum  b D
 ax2  bx  c  0  x 
b 2a
(maximum) value at x   and this value is given
2a For D > 0, parabola cuts x-axis in two real and
by  b D
distinct points i.e. x  .
4ac b2 2a
[ f(x)]min(max)  .
For D=0,parabola touches x-axis in one point,
4a
x  b / 2a .
(2) Sign of quadratic expression : Let
f(x)  ax2  bx  c or y  ax2  bx  c
Where a, b, c  R and a  0, for some values of x,
f(x) may be positive, negative or zero. This gives the a < 0,D >
0 x-
following cases : axis
(i) a > 0 and D < 0, so f(x)  0 for all x  R i.e., x-
a > 0, D axis
f(x) is positive for all real values of x. >0
D=0
(ii) a < 0 and D < 0, so f(x)  0 for all x  R i.e., For D < 0, parabola doesa <not
0, cut x-axis (i.e.
x-
f(x) is negative for all real values of x. imaginary value of x). axis
x-
(iii) a > 0 and D = 0, so f(x)  0 for all x  R i.e., a> D = axis
f(x) is positive for all real values of x except at vertex, 0, 0
where f(x)  0 .
(iv) a < 0 and D = 0, so f(x)  0 for all x  R i.e. a < 0, D <
0 x-
f(x) is negative for all real values of x except at vertex, axis
where f(x)  0 .
(b) Intersection with
x- axis y-axis : For y axis
(v) a > 0 and D > 0, let f(x)  0 have two real x  0 , y a c>.0, D< axis
0
roots  and  (   ) , then f(x)  0 for all
Wavy curve method
x  (, )  ( , ) and f(x)  0 for all
x  ( ,  ) . Let f(x)  (x  a1)k1 (x  a2 )k2 (x  a3 )k3 ......
a  0 and D  0 , let f(x)  0 have two real
(vi)
(x  an1)kn1 (x  an )kn
roots  and  (   ) . Then f(x)  0 for all
…..(i)
x  (, )  ( , ) and f(x)  0 for all
where k1, k2 , k3 ...,kn  N and
x  ( ,  )
a1, a2 , a3 ,......,an are fixed natural numbers
(3) Graph of a quadratic expression
satisfying the condition
We have y  ax2  bx  c  f(x)
a1  a2  a3 .....  an1  an
 b 
2
D  2
y  a x     D  b  First we mark the numbers a1, a2 , a3 ,......,an
 y   a x  
 2a  4a2  4a  2a  on the real axis and the plus sign in the interval of the
right of the largest of these numbers, i.e. on the right of
D b
Now, let y   Y and X  x  an . If kn is even then we put plus sign on the left of
4a 2a
an and if kn is odd then we put minus sign on the left
2 1
Y  a.X 2  X  Y of an . In the next interval we put a sign according to
a
the following rule :
(i) The graph of the curve y  f(x) is parabolic.
When passing through the point an1 the
b
(ii) The axis of parabola is X  0 or x  0 polynomial f(x) changes sign if kn1 is an odd number
2a
i.e. (parallel to y-axis). and the polynomial f(x) has same sign if kn1 is an
(iii) (a) If a > 0, then the parabola opens upward. even number. Then, we consider the next interval and
(b) If a < 0, then the parabola opens downward. put a sign in it using the same rule. Thus, we consider
all the intervals. The solution of f(x)  0 is the union
of all intervals in which we have put the plus sign and
x- the solution of f(x)  0 is the union of all intervals in
a > 0, D < axis which we have put the minus sign.
(iv) Intersection
0 with axis a < 0, D <
x-axis Position of roots
(a) Intersection with x-axis : For x axis,0 y  0
 Quadratic Equations and Inequations 176
(1) If f(x)  0 is an equation and a, b are two (2) Solution of rational algebraic inequation: If
real numbers such that f(a).f(b)  0 has at least one P(x) and Q(x) are polynomial in x, then the inequation
real root or an odd number of real roots between a P(x) P(x) P(x) P(x)
and b . In case f(a) and f(b) are of the same sign,  0,  0,  0 and 0
Q(x) Q(x) Q(x) Q(x)
then either no real root or an even number of real roots
of f(x)  0 lie between a and b. are known as rational algebraic inequations.
(2) Every equation of an odd degree has at least To solve these inequations we use the sign method
one real root, whose sign is opposite to that of its last as explained in the following algorithm.
term, provided the coefficient of the first term is +ve
e.g., x3  3x  2  0 has one real negative root. Algorithm
(3) Every equation of an even degree whose last Step I: Obtain P(x) and Q(x).
term is –ve and the coefficient of first term +ve has at
least two real roots, one +ve and one –ve e.g., Step II: Factorize P(x) and Q(x) into linear factors.
x4  4x3  3x2  5x  2  0 has at least two real roots, Step III: Make the coefficient of x positive in all
one +ve and one –ve. factors.
(4) If an equation has only one change of sign, it has
one +ve root and no more. Step IV: Obtain critical points by equating all
(5) If all the terms of an equation are +ve and the factors to zero.
equation involves no odd power of x, then all its roots
Step V: Plot the critical points on the number line. If
are complex.
there are n critical points, they divide the number line
Descarte's rule of signs into (n + 1) regions.
The maximum number of positive real roots of a Step VI: In the right most region the expression
polynomial equation f(x)  0 is the number of
changes of sign from positive to negative and negative P(x)
bears positive sign and in other regions the
to positive in f(x). Q(x)
The maximum number of negative real roots of a expression bears positive and negative signs depending
polynomial equation f(x)  0 is the number of on the exponents of the factors.
changes of sign from positive to negative and negative (3) Lagrange’s identity
to positive in f( x) .
If a1, a2 , a3 , b1, b2 , b3  R then

Rational algebraic inequations
(1) Values of rational expression P(x)/Q(x) for
real values of x, where P(x) and Q(x) are
quadratic expressions : To find the values attained by
a1 x 2  b1 x  c1
rational expression of the form
a2 x 2  b2 x  c2
values of x, the following algorithm will explain the
procedure :
Algorithm
(a12  a22  a32)(b12  b22  b32)  (a1b1  a2b2  a3b3)2
 (a1b2  a2b1)2  (a2b3  a3b2)2  (a3b1  a1b3)2
Equations which can be reduced to linear,
Quadratic and Biquadratic equations
for real
Type I : An equation of the form
(x  a)(x  b)(x  c)(x  d)  A ,
where a  b  c  d , b  a  d  c , can be solved by
a change of variable.

Step I: Equate the given rational expression to y. (x  a)  (x  b)  (x  c)  (x  d)

i.e., y 
Step II: Obtain a quadratic equation in x by 4
simplifying the expression in step I. (a  b  c  d)
y  x .
Step III: Obtain the discriminant of the quadratic 4
equation in Step II. Type II : An equation of the form

Step IV: Put Discriminant  0 and solve the (x  a)(x  b)(x  c)(x  d)  Ax2
inequation for y. The values of y so obtained determines where ab  cd , can be reduced to a collection of
the set of values attained by the given rational two quadratic equations by a change of variable
expression. ab
y  x .
x
 177 Quadratic Equations and Inequations
Type III An :
equation of the form  An equation of degree n has n roots, real or
4 4
(x  a)  (x  b)  A can also be solved by a change imaginary.
of variable, i.e., making a substitution  An odd degree equation has at least one real root
(x  a)  (x  b) whose sign is opposite to that of its last term
y . (constant term), provided that the coefficient of
2 highest degree term is positive.
Some important result  Every equation of an even degree whose
constant term is negative and the coefficient of
(1) For the quadratic equation ax2  bx  c  0 . highest degree term is positive has at least two real
roots, one positive and one negative
(i) One root will be reciprocal of the other if a  c.
 If f( )  0 and f ( )  0 , then  is a
(ii) One root is zero if c  0.
repeated root of the quadratic equation f(x)  0
(iii) Roots are equal in magnitude but opposite in
and f(x)  a(x   )2 .
sign if b  0 .
(iv) Both roots are zero if b  c  0. In fact   b / 2a .
(v) Roots are positive if a and c are of the same  If  is a repeated root of the quadratic equation
sign and b is of the opposite sign.
(vi) Roots are of opposite sign if a and c are of
f(x)  ax2  bx  c  0
opposite sign. Then  is also a root of the equation f '(x)  0 .
(vii)Roots are negative if a, b, c are of the same
sign.
 If  is repeated common root of two quadratic
equations f(x)  0 and  (x)  0 , then  is also a
(2) Let f(x)  ax2  bx  c , where a  0 . Then common root of the equations f '(x)  0 and
(i) Conditions for both the roots of f(x)  0 to be  '(x)  0 .
greater than a given number k are
b  In the equation ax2  bx  c  0 [a, b, c  R], if
b2  4ac  0; f(k)  0; k. a  b  c  0 then the roots are 1, c/a and if
2a
a  b  c  0 , then the roots are –1 and – c/a.
(ii) Conditions for both the roots of f(x)  0 to be
 If the ratio of roots of the quadratic equation
less than a given number k are b2  4ac  0 ,
ax  bx  c  0 be p : q , then pqb  (p  q) ac .
2 2 2
b
f(k)  0, k.  If one
root of the quadratic equation
2a 2 th

(iii) The number k lies between the roots of

ax  bx  c  0 is equal to the n power of the other,
then
f(x)  0 , if b2  4ac  0; f(k)  0 .
1 1
(iv) Conditions for exactly one root of f(x)  0 to .
(acn)n1  (anc)n1  b  0
lie between k1 and k2 is
 If the roots of the equation ax2  bx  c  0 are
2
f(k1)f(k2 )  0, b  4ac  0 .  ,  , then the roots of cx2  bx  a  0 will be
(v) Conditions for both the roots of f(x)  0 are 1/  ,1/  .

confined between k1 and k2 is  The roots of the equation ax2  bx  c  0 are

b reciprocal to ax2  bx  c  0 if
f(k1)  0, f(k2)  0, b2  4ac  0 and k1   k2 ,
2a (cc  aa)2  (ba  cb)(ab  bc) .
where k1  k2 .
 If one root is k times the other root of the
(vi) Conditions for both the numbers k1 and k2 lie quadratic equation ax2  bx  c  0 , then
between the roots of f(x)  0 is (k  1)2 b2
 .
b2  4ac  0; f(k1)  0; f(k2)  0 . k ac
 If an equation has only one change of sign, it has
one +ve root and no more.
 If all the terms of an equation are +ve and the
equation involves no odd power of x, then its all roots
are complex.
 To find the common root of two equations, make
 Quadratic Equations and Inequations 178
the coefficient of second-degree term in the two
equations equal and subtract. The value of x
obtained is the required common root.
 Two different quadratic equations with rational
coefficient can not have single common root which is
complex or irrational as imaginary and surd roots
always occur in pair.