HIGHWAY DRAINAGE

Johnnie Ben-Edigbe
 Drainage System
Main Objectives
• Remove storm-water from roadway
• Prevent flooding and damage to roadway and
upstream properties

Main Functions
• Convey storm-water from roadway to outfalls
• Control the level of water table in the subgrade
• Intercept encroaching groundH20 and surface H20
• Convey controlled H20 across road alignments
 Components of Drainage System
HYDROLOGY HYDRAULIC DESIGN

• Rainfall • Longitudinal Drainage

• Flood Estimation- • Cross Drainage
Methods • Culvert Design
• Flood Estimation – Field • Erosion and Scour
Investigations Protection
• Design Discharge
Drainage Channels and Side slopes
• Drainage channels and side slopes are
provided along the length of road for storm
water drainage etc.
Drainage Channels and Side slopes
Drainage channels should:
• have adequate capacity for the design runoff,
• minimize damage to the highway caused by unusual
storm water,
• minimize risk for motorists,
• be resistant to the high speed water flows where
expected,
• prevent sedimentation of the particles carried by
water.
Drainage Channels and Side slopes
Side slopes should
• insure the stability of the roadway
• provide opportunity for recovery of an out-of-
control vehicle
 HYDROLOGY
• Deals with characteristics and distribution of
water in the atmosphere, on the earth’s
surface and in the ground
• 1st step in drainage design
• Highway engineers are primarily concerned
with rainfall intensity, duration and frequency
• Rainfalls are liquids in motion
 LIQUIDS IN MOTION
• No shear force in fluid at rest
• Viscosity and turbulence set up shear force for liquids
in motion
• Turbulent flow-particles of fluid move in disorderly
manner
• Viscous flow (streamline or laminar flow) particles of
fluid move in orderly manner and retain the same
relative positions in successive cross-sections
• For continuity of flow in any system of fluid flow the
total amount of fluid entering the system must equal
the amount leaving the system…It occurs in uniform
and steady flow
 TYPES OF FLOW & VELOCITY
• Uniform flow: cross-sectional area and velocity of
stream fluid are same
• Steady flow: cross-sectional area and velocity may vary
but flow do not change with time
• Unsteady flow: cross-sectional area and velocity vary
with time
• Mean velocity, v = Q / A
• Discharge, Q: volume of liquid passing a given cross-
section per unit time
• Mass flow rate, m: mass of fluid passing a given cross
section per unit time
 RAINFALL
Recording
Intensity
Duration
Frequency

Rainfall intensity mm/h, I = a / (b + t)n

t = the duration
a, b, and n are constants
 FLOOD ESTIMATION METHODS
Methods include:
• Analysis of flow data
• Runoff modeling
• Regionalized flood formulae
 Analysis of flow data
Analysis of flow data using manning equation:

Q = A x 1/n x R2/3 x S ½

Q = discharge in m3 sec-1
A = cross-sectional area in m2
n = Manning roughness coefficient
S = longitudinal slope of the stream bed
 Runoff modeling
Run-Off components are; surface runoff, interflow and
ground water flows . Using rational method;
Q = CIA / 3.6
A = drainage area (km2)
I = average rainfall intensity (mm/hr)
C = run-off coefficient

Time of concentration,
Tc = ((0.87 x L2) /1000 x S)0.385
L = length of main stream (km)
S = average slope of main stream (mm-1)
 Regionalized flood formulae
General form: Q = C x An
Q = flood discharge
C = constant
A = the catchment area
n = a constant exponent

Regressed Model: Q = K x Am x Bn x Cp
K = a constant
B = mean annual precipitation
C = elevation
m, n and p are exponents
 FIELD INVESTIGATIONS
• In order to estimate runoff and select the
design discharge, data on rainfall runoff,
catchment and river characteristics should be
collected.
• Check estimate against historic evidence, local
experience and practice, research and earkier
studies.
 Field Information
Important data include;
• Cross-sectional area
• Bed material (for manning roughness)
• Longitudinal slope of stream bed
• Details of historic floods
 DESIGN DISCHARGE
• Depends on selected flood frequency or
recurrence interval
• Large recurrence interval = lower risk of
damage with high cost of structures and vce
versa
• Always supplement design calculations with
sensitivity analyses, showing consequences in
terms of damage for different recurrence
intervals
 Highway Drainage
• A means by which surface water is removed
from pavement and ROW
• Redirects water into appropriately designed
channels
• Eventually discharges into natural water
systems
 Inadequate Drainage
• Damage to highway structures
• Loss of capacity
• Visibility problems with spray and retro-
reflectivity
• Safety problems, reduced friction and
hydroplaning
 Highway Drainage
• Transverse slopes
– Removes water from pavement surface
– Facilitated by cross-section elements (cross-
slope, shoulder slope)
• Longitudinal slopes
– Minimum gradient to maintain adequate slope
in longitudinal channels
• Longitudinal channels
– Ditches along side of road to collect surface
water after run-off
 Drainage System
Three phases
1. To Estimate the quantity of water to reach
the system
2. Hydraulic design of system elements
3. Comparison of different materials to serve
the purpose
Steep slopes provide good hydraulic
capacity and lower costs, but reduces
safety and increases erosion and
maintenance costs
 Hydrologic Analysis

Q = CIA (english) or Q = 0.0028CIA (metric)

Q = runoff (ft3/sec) or (m3/sec)

C = coefficient representing ratio or runoff to
rainfall
I = intensity of rainfall (in/hour or mm/hour)
A = drainage area (acres or hectares)
Transverse Slope
Transverse Slope
Transverse Slope
Drainage Channels and Sideslopes
Design considerations of highway drainage includes
• safety
• good appearance
• control of pollutants
• economy in maintenance

This can be achieved by applying

• flat side slopes
• wide drainage channels
• rounding
 Drainage Channels
Types of Drainage Channels

Intercepting
channel

Toe-of-slope Flume
channel

Roadside
channel
 Drainage Channels
Drainage channels should:
• have adequate capacity for the design runoff,
• minimize damage to the highway caused by unusual
storm water,
• minimize risk for motorists,
• be resistant to the high speed water flows where
expected,
• prevent sedimentation of the particles carried by
water.
 Roadside Channels

• Steep sides improve hydraulic efficiency and reduce right of way

costs
• Flatter sides improve slope stability and traffic safety, reduce
maintenance costs
• Side slopes 1:4 or flatter provides a good chance of recovery for
errant vehicles and relax drivers' tension (roadside channel is visible
to drivers)
• Side slopes of 1:5 or 1:6 are recommended in the flat areas
• Intercepting channels have a flat cross section form by a dike made
with borrow material
• Median drainage channels are shallow depressed areas with inlets
• Flumes are open channels or pipes used to connect intercepting
channels or shoulder curbs with roadside channels
• Channel lining prevents channels erosion caused by fast stream of
water.
Examples: grass (where possible), concrete, stone etc.
 Side slopes
Side slopes should:
• insure the stability of the roadway
• provide opportunity for recovery of an out-of-control vehicles
 Side slopes

Safety consideration
• Rounded hinge point reduces the chance of an errant vehicle
becoming airborne
• Fore slopes 1:6 or flatter can be negotiated by errant vehicles
• Fore slopes 1:3 with liberal rounding provide a good chance for
recovery
• Slopes steeper than 1:3 can be used only where justified by local
conditions. The use of roadside barriers should be considered
Maintenance consideration
• Flat and well-rounded side slopes simplify establishment of turf and
its maintenance
• Slopes 1:3 or flatter enable the use of motorized equipment
 Side slopes
Other rules
Flat, well-rounded side slopes create a streamlined cross
section. Advantages for the streamlined cross sections
are:
• natural, pleasant appearance,
• improved traffic safety,
• snow drift prevented,
• easy maintenance.
Retaining walls should be considered where slopes would
be steeper than 1:2.
Standard slope for rock cuts is 2:1. In good-quality rock,
slopes ranges from 6:1.
Sideslopes
 Culvert Design - Basics

 Top of culvert not used as pavement surface

(unlike bridge), usually less than 7 m span
 > 7m use a bridge
 Three locations
 Bottom of Depression (no watercourse)
 Natural stream intersection with roadway (Majority)
 Locations where side ditch surface drainage must cross
roadway
 Hydrologic and Economic Considerations

• Alignment and grade of culvert (wrt roadway)

are important
• Similar to open channel
• Design flow rate based on storm with
acceptable return period (frequency)
 Culvert Design Steps

 Obtain site data and roadway cross section at culvert

crossing location (with approximation of stream
elevation) – best is natural stream location and slope
(may be expensive though)
 Establish inlet/outlet elevations, length, and slope of
culvert
 Determine allowable headwater depth (and probable
tailwater depth) during design flood – control on design
size – f(topography and nearby land use)
 Select type and size of culvert
 Examine need for energy dissipaters
 Headwater Depth
• Constriction due to culvert creates increase in depth
of water just upstream
• Allowable level of headwater upstream usually
controls culvert size and inlet geometry
• Allowable headwater depth depends on topography
and land use in immediate vicinity
 Types of culvert flow
• Type of flow depends on total energy available
between inlet and outlet
• Inlet control
– Flow is controlled by headwater depth and inlet geometry
– Usually occurs when slope of culvert is steep and outlet is
not submerged
– Supercritical, high v, low d
– Most typical
– Following methods ignore velocity head
 Types of culvert flow
• Outlet control
– When flow is governed by combination of headwater
depth, entrance geometry, tailwater elevation, and slope,
roughness, and length of culvert
– Subcritical flow
– Frequently occur on flat slopes
– Concept is to find the required HW depth to sustain Q flow
– Tail water depth often not known (need a model), so may
not be able to estimate for outlet control conditions
 Two Concerns
• Preventing excess spread of water on the
traveled way
– Design of curbs, gutters and inlets
• Protecting adjacent natural resources and
property
– Design of outlets

44
 Gutter Capacity
• Q is determined via rational method
• Slopes are based on the vertical alignment
and pavement cross slope (normal and
superelevated values)
• Usually solving for width of flow in gutter and
checking it against criteria

45
 Gutter Capacity
• Modified form of Manning’s equation
– Manning’s roughness coefficient
– Width of flow (or spread) in the gutter
– Gutter cross slope
– Gutter longitudinal slope
• Equation or nomograph
• Inlets placed where spread exceeds criteria

46
 Gutter Capacity
• Q=(0.376/n)*Sx1.67S0.5T2.67
• Where:
• Q=flow rate (cms)
• N=manning’s roughness coefficient
• Sx=cross slope (m/m)------decimal
• S=longitudinal slope (m/m)-----decimal
• T=width of flow or spread in the gutter (m)

47
48
 Inlets
• Curb-opening inlet
– No grate (not hydraulically efficient; rarely used)
• Gutter Inlet
– Grate only-used if no curb (common if no curb)
– Slotted (rarely used)
• Combination Inlet
– Used w/ curbs (common for curbed areas)

49
 Grates
• Reticuline
• Rectangular
• Parallel bar

50
 Interception Capacity
• Depends on geometry and characteristics of
gutter flow
• Water not intercepted is called carryover,
bypass or runby
• On-grade (percent efficiency)
• Sag location
– Acts as a weir for shallow depths and as an orifice
for deeper depths

51
 Factors for Inlet Location
• Drainage areas/spread
• Maintenance
• Low points
• Up-grade of intersections, major driveways,
pedestrian crosswalks and cross slope
reversals to intercept flow

52
 Storm Drainage System Layout
Basic Steps
1. Mark the location of inlets needed w/o drainage
area consideration
2. Start at a high point and select a trial drainage
area
3. Determine spread and depth of water
4. Determine intercepted and bypassed flow
5. Adjust inlet locations if needed
6. With bypass flow from upstream inlet, check the
next inlet

53
 Storm Sewer Outfall
Erosion Control
• Reduce Velocity
• Energy Dissipator
• Stilling Basin
• Riprap
• Erosion Control Mat
• Sod
• Gabion

54
 Storm Sewer Outfall
Erosion Control-Riprap
• Various Design Methods/Standards
–Type of stone
–Size of stone
–Thickness of stone lining
–Length/width of apron

55
Schematic GIS drainage map
Typical Manhole
 Definitions (cont’d)
• Catch Basin: A basin, typically with a grated
cover, to which surface runoff drains. The
basin may be along a curb side or in the
middle of a field. The bottom of the basin is
typically connected to a drainage pipe, and
the basin serves as an inlet to the storm drain
system.

58
Catch Basin
 Storm Drain System Design
1. Layout drainage channels and pipes to provide
transport of runoff
2. Delineate the drainage area from which runoff
drains toward a pipe or channel
3. Determine drainage pipe or channel size
4. Design catch basins, manholes, detention
basins, and other pertinent structures
5. Conduct system-wide drainage analysis to
ensure connectivity and system capacity
 Design Considerations
1. Free surface flow exists for the design
discharge. Practical design limit for free
surface (open channel) flow is 80% full.
2. Use commercially available pipe sizes >8” in
diameter. Sizes include 8, 10, 12, 15, 18, 21,
24, 27, 30, 36, 42, 48 inches, etc.
3. A minimum flow velocity of 2 ft/sec is
desirable to reduce deposition
 Design considerations (cont’d)
4. Reasonable velocity may be 10 ft/sec
5. At any junction or manhole, the downstream
pipe should not be smaller than any of the
upstream pipes
6. Typically, the rational method is used to
determine design discharge because of its
simplicity and suitability to small urban
drainage areas
 Rational Method
• Q = iCA
Q: discharge in cfs
C: dimensionless runoff coefficient depending
on surface condition and area slope
i: rainfall intensity in inches per hour
A: drainage area in acres
• when there is more than one basin that drains
into a junction, use
Q = iΣ(CA)
 Rational Method Runoff Coeff. C

Fall 2009 64
 Rainfall Intensity “i”
• Typically prepared by local water agency as
part of rainfall intensity-duration-frequency
curve such as Figure I-1 of DSD
• “i” is a function of design return period and
rainfall duration (which is equal to time of
concentration)

100T r
0.2

i=
T c
+ 25
 Rainfall Intensity “i” (cont’d)
• Where
Tr = design return period in years
Tc = rainfall period in hours which is assumed
to be the same as the time of concentration
• Sonoma County proposed this relationship
for the local area (note: this Tc is in minutes):

i = 5.12T r T
0.1469 −0.528
c
• For either case, need to determine Tc
 Time of Concentration Tc
• Usually a function of watershed slope, length,
surface roughness and rainfall intensity
• May be computed by runoff calculation or from
flood hydrograph
• Simplified time of concentration estimate by Yen
and Chow [FHWA-RD-82-063, 064 & 065, 1983]

0.6
 NL 
 
Tc 
= K

 So 
 Time of Concentration Tc
• Tc = time of concentration in hours
• N = overland texture factor (see next slide)
• L = length of longest flow path in feet
• So = average slope
• K = constant defined below

Rain Intensity Light rain Moderate rain Heavy rain

i (in/hr) < 0.8 0.8 – 1.2 > 1.2

K 0.025 0.018 0.012

 Time of Concentration Tc
• N – overland texture factors
 Example of Tc calculation
• Matadero Creek in Palo Alto:
L = 7.2 miles = 38000 ft
S = 2% = 0.02
N = between suburban and dense residential
= 0.05 from table
K = heavy rain > 1.2 in/hr
= 0.012
• Tc = 0.012 (0.05*38000/(0.02)^0.5)^0.6
= 3.6 hours
 Example of “i” calculation
• Use the Sonoma County relationship and the Matadero
watershed time of concentration to compute the 10-year
and 100-year design rainfall intensities:

i = 5.12T r T
0.1469 −0.528
c

• Tc = 216 min., for 10-year rain intensity, i =0.42 in/hr

• For the 100-year event, i = 0.59 in/hr
• Note that the ratio between a 10-year and 100-year
rainfall intensity is only 1.4
 Rational Method
• For each drainage area, knowing A (in acres),
estimating C, and computing Tc to get i, the
design discharge (Q) can be computed.
• The minimum pipe diameter (for nearly full
flow) that is required to convey the design
discharge may be computed using one of the
2 formulae below:
 Worked Example
A cambered pavement surface (C=0.8) has a total width of 7m and grass shoulder with adjoining land
(C=0.25) of 8m on each side of the carriageway. A trapezoidal drainage ditch, 400m long runs
parallel to this pavement and shoulder, with adjoining land, and it is to drain half of the pavement
surface. On the other side of the ditch water flows across from the road reserve land with a grass
cover (C=0.35), and a 2% cross slope towards the drainage ditch; the width of this trip of land is 25m.
• Estimate the quantity of run-off flowing in the drain, assuming a 200 year return period.
• Design the cross section and the slope of the side ditch in a clayey soil (n=0.022, Vmax = 0.8m/s).

Note A = Q/V; Run-off = CIA; and R = A/P

Assume a bottom width of 0.5m with slopes of 1:1.5, then A = (0.5 + 1.5d) d;
Manning formula, V = (R2/3 S1/2) / n

Assumptions:
The period of concentration is calculated on the sum of periods of flow across the grass reserve land
to the ditch (11mm) and the period of flow along the longitudinal drain (8min), 19mins.

Critical rainfall intensity occurs when the duration of the storm = period of duration of the storm =
period of concentration = 19min; with a period of concentration = 19min and the appropriate return
period storm curve, the corresponding rainfall intensity, I works out to be 125 mm/h (0.0347mm/s).
Where run-off discharge, Q = CIA, allowing for unit conversion, Q = 0.278CIA
 Runoff Discharge
The drainage area consists of:
Q1 = Pavement surface (carriageway, C = 0.8) 3.5 x 400 = 1400m2
Q2 = Shoulder/adjoin land (grass verge, C = 0.25) 8 x 400 = 3200m2
Q3 = Land on the other side of drain (grass verge, C = 0.35) 25 x 400 = 10,000m2
Run-off = 0.278CIA
Q1 = 0.278 x 0.8 x 125 x 1.4 x 10-3 = 0.039m3/s
Q2 = 0.278 x 0.25 x 125 x 3.2 x 10-3 = 0.028m3/s
Q3 = 0.278 x 0.35 x 125 x 10 x 10-3 = 0.122m3/s
Total run-off = 0.189 m3/s
 Cross section design
A = Q/V = 0.189/0.8 = 0.236m2
Assume a bottom width of 0.5m with slopes of 1:1.5 then
A = (0.5 + 1.5d) d
Where d = depth of ditch
So that, 1.5d2 + 0.5d = 0.236
d = 0.263m
Therefore, size of trapezoidal ditch is:
Bottom width = 0.5m
Slope = 1:1.5
Depth, d = 0.263m
 Cross section design
Slope drain
Wetted perimeter, P = 0.5 + 2(d2 + 1.5d2)1/2
= 0.5 + 2(0.416) = 1.33m
Area, A = 0.235m2
R = A/P = 0.235/1.33 = 0.177

Using Manning formula; V = (R2/3S ½ ) / n

0.8 = (0.1772/3S ½ ) / 0.022

Hence, Slope of the side ditch, S = 0.0032 or 0.3%

 Inside diameter of pipe culvert drain
4
Talbot’s formula: 𝑎𝑎 = 𝐶𝐶 𝐴𝐴3

Where: a = cross-section area (m2); C = constant = 0.10; and A = drainage area (ha)

Therefore:
4
𝑎𝑎 = 0.10 253 = 1.12𝑚𝑚2

𝜋𝜋𝑑𝑑2
= 1.12 ∴ 𝑑𝑑 = 1.2𝑚𝑚
4
 Pipe Sizing
• If using Manning’s formula (in English units):
3/8
 n Q 
D = 3.208 
 1.486 S 
 o

• If using Darch-Weisbach formula (any consistent unit):

1/ 5
 f 2
D = 0.811
g So
Q 
 