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CHEMISTRY -- General Chemistry 101

1 amu -- Neutrons and Protons has a mass of _____________.

Volume -- Three dimensional physical space. 1.67 X 10^-27 kg -- 1 amu

Matter -- Anything that has mass and occupies volume. Electrons -- Negatively charged particles that exist in clouds around
the atomic nucleus.

Density -- Mass per unit volume

Atomic number -- The number of protons in one atom of an
element.
Energy -- The capacity to do work.

1/1837 amu -- Electrons have a mass of approximately

_____________.
Potential Energy -- Energy that a body possesses due to its position
in space.

Mass number -- The sum of the number of protons and the number
of neutrons in one atom of a given isotope of an element.
Kinetic Energy -- Energy that a body possesses due to its motion.
Isotopes -- Atoms with the same atomic number but different mass
numbers
Temperature -- A measure of the thermal energy of the molecules in
a system.
Electrons -- _____________ are both wavelike (similar to light) and
particle-like (similar to matter).
Atom -- The smallest unit of an element that retains the chemical
properties of that element.
Wavefunctions -- Mathematical expressions called _____________
characterize the waves that describe electron behavior.
Element -- A pure substance composed of only one type of atom.

Square of its wavefunction -- The probability of finding an electron

Molecule -- The smallest unit of a compound that retains the at a point in space is proportional to the _____________ at that
chemical properties of that element. point.

Compound -- A pure substance composed of multiple atoms Probabilistic haze -- According to the model, electrons exist in a
chemically combined in a known ratio. _____________.

Ion -- An atom or a group of bonded atoms that carries an electrical Atomic Orbitals -- Regions of space around the nucleus that have a
charge. nonzero probability of containing an electron in a specific energy
state; can

hold up to two electrons; have characteristic shapes that are

Cation -- A positively charged ion. designed by different letters.

Anion -- A negatively charged ion. Quantum numbers -- Integers or half-integers used to identify
specific electrons in atoms.

Protons -- Positively charged particles residing in the atomic

nucleus. Shielding -- Electrons closer to the nucleus reduce the nucleus
attractive force for electrons farther from the nucleus; these outer
electrons are said to be "shielded".
Neutrons -- Charge less particles residing in the atomic nucleus.
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Aufbau principle -- The procedure used to find the ground-case
electron configuration of an atom or ion.
Valence electrons -- The electrons in the outermost occupied shell
of an atom.
Octet rule -- An atom is most stable when its valence shell is
completely full; an atom can obtain a full valence shell by bonding
with other atoms.
Metals -- Good conductors of heat and electricity; tend to lose
electrons to form cations.
Nonmetals -- Poor conductors of heat and electricity; tend to gain
electrons to form anions.
Metalloids -- Intermediate between metals and nonmetals; have
physical and chemical properties in common with both.
Atomic radius -- Half the difference between nuclei of neighboring
atoms in a sample of an element.
Ionization energy -- The energy required to remove an electron from
the highest-energy shell of an atom.
Electronegativity -- The ability of an atom in a molecule to attract
electrons.
Covalent -- Formed when two elements share valence shells.
Ionic -- Formed when the electronegativities of bonded atoms are
significantly different.
Metallic -- Metals involved in bonding exist as cations held together
in a regular crystal lattice by a cloud of delocalized valence
electrons.
Bond order -- Half the number of electrons shared in a covalent
bond.
Bond polarity -- In bonds between atoms of unequal
electronegativities, shared electrons are more likely to be found
near the more
electronegative atom, such bond is said to be polar.
Lewis Structure -- A representation of a molecule that depicts
covalent bonds and no bonding valence electrons.
Resonance Structures
Some Lewis structures have multiply distinct, but equivalent, ways
of arranging multiple bonds and electrons while still obeying the
octet rule.
Formal charge
The formal charge on an atom equals the number of valence
electrons in the unbounded atom minus the sum of the number of
electrons the atom has in lone-pairs and the number of covalent
bonds to the atom.
Valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory
A model for predicting molecular geometry.
Valence-bond theory
A theory of bonding that states that bonds form through the spatial
overlap of orbitals containing valence electrons.
Hybridiization
Formation of hybrid orbitals, which are mixtures of individual
atomic orbitals.
Hybrid orbitals can hold up to _____________ electrons. -- 2
London (dispersion) forces -- Attractive forces between transient
dipoles caused by random changes in the electron distribution of a
molecule (one part of a molecule temporarily becomes slightly
negatively charged).
London (dispersion) forces -- Weakest type of cohesive force.
Dipole-dipole Interactions
Attractive forces between the permanent dipoles of polar molecules
(a given polar molecule will always have partially positively charged
and partially negatively charged regions).
Hydrogen bonding -- A type of dipole-dipole interaction involving
molecules containing hydrogen attached to a highly electronegative
element with electron lone-pairs.
Electrostatic Interactions
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Interactions in which oppositely charged specifies (ions) attract each Kinetic Molecular Theory -- A theory that explains the behavior of
other. gases on a molecular level.

6.02 x 10^23 -- Mole (Avogadro's number)

Energy -- The average kinetic energy of a gas is proportional to its

absolute temperature.
Molar mass -- Mass of one mole of particles.

Diffusion -- Mixing of two or more gases by random molecular

Molecular mass -- Mass (in amu) of one molecule of a compound. motion..

Molecular formula -- The chemical formula that shows the actual Effusion -- Escape of a gas by random molecular motion from one
number of atoms of each element present in a molecule. container into another through a permeable barrier.

Empirical formula -- The chemical formula that shows the relative Graham's Law of Effusion -- The ratio of the rates of effusion of two
number (ratio) of atoms of each element present in a molecule. different gases is inversely proportional to the square of their molar
masses.

Chemical reaction -- A process by which chemical bonds can be

broken or made. Ideal Gas -- A gas that is described perfectly by kinetic molecular
theory.

Addition (combination) reactions -- Multiple reactants combine to

give a single product. Boyle's Law -- At constant temperature (T), the pressure of a gas (P)
is inversely proportional to its volume (V).

Decomposition reactions -- A compound breaks down into multiple

simpler compounds. Charles' Law -- At constant pressure, the volume of a gas is directly
proportional to its temperature.

Metathesis (displacement) reactions -- Two reactants exchange

component parts. Avogadro's Law -- The volume occupied by an ideal gas at constant
temperature and pressure is proportional to the number of moles (n)
of gas present.
State symbols -- Symbols used in chemical equations to denote
whether a reactant or product is a solid (s), a liquid (l), a gas (g), or
an ion in Ideal Gas Law -- Boyle's Law, Charles' Law and Avogadro's Law
combined. PV=nRT
aqueous solution (aq).

Limiting reactant -- The reactant that is supplied in an amount

smaller than required by the stoichiometric relation for any of the Van dear Walls equations -- Models the intermolecular interactions
other that cause non-ideality.

reactants to be consumed completely.

Mole fraction -- Ratio of the number of moles of particular gas in a

mixture to the total number of moles of gas in the mixture.
Theoretical yield -- The amount of a given product formed if all of
the limiting reactant is consumed by the reaction.

Partial pressure -- Pressure due to an individual gas in a mixture of

different gases.
Percent yield -- Fraction of the theoretical yield obtained
experimentally.

Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures -- The total pressure of a mixture of

gases is the sum of the pressures that each individual gas would
exert alone.
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Solvent -- Major component of a solution.

First Law of Thermodynamics -- Energy can neither be created nor

destroy, only interconverted between heat and work.
Concentration -- Amount of solute per unit volume or mass in a
solution.

Second Law of Thermodynamics -- The entropy of the universe

increases in a spontaneous process.
Molarity -- Mole of solute per liter of solution.

Third Law of Thermodynamics -- The entropy of a pure substance in

a perfect crystalline state is zero at absolute zero. Molality -- Moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.

Heat (q) -- The thermal energy resulting from the motion of atoms, Normality -- Molar equivalents of solute per liter of solution.
molecules, or ions.

Mass percent -- One hundred times mass of solute divided by mass

Work (w) -- Force acting on an object over a distance. of solution.

Entropy (S) -- A measure of disorder in a system. Mole fraction -- Ratio of the number of moles of substance in a
solution to the total number of moles in the solution.

Spontaneous process -- Process that occurs without any external

intervention. Henrey's Law -- The concentration of gas in a solution is directly
proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the solution.

Absolute Zero -- Zero on the kelvin temperature scale; the lowest

physically possible temperature; approximately equal to -273C Collimating properties -- Properties of a solution that depend only
on the number of solute molecules, and not the identity of the
solute.

Enthalpy -- A measure of energy that can be released as heat.

Raoult's Law -- In a solution, the vapor pressure of a solvent is

proportional to its mole fraction.
Reaction Enthalpy -- At constant pressure, the change in enthalpy
observed when reactants are converted into products.

Boiling Point Elevation -- The boiling point of a solvent is raised by

the presence of a solute.
Hess's Law -- The overall enthalpy of a reaction is the sum of the
reaction enthalpies of the steps into which that exactions can be
divided.
Freezing Point Depression -- The freezing point of a solvent is
lowered by the present of a solute.
Gibbs Free Energy -- The thermodynamic driving force of reaction.

Osmotic pressure -- The pressure that results from solvent flow in

osmosis (the new flow of solvent through a selectively permeable
Gibbs Free Energy Change -- The change in Gibbs free energy
membrane from a solution of high concentration to a solution of
observed when reactants are converted to products.
low concentration).

Solution -- A homogenous mixture of more than one substance in

Equilibrium -- State reached by a reversible reaction when forward
one phase.
and reverse reaction rates are equal.

Solute -- Minor component of a solution.

Equilibrium constant -- A measure of the relative amounts of
reactants and products in a reaction system at equilibrium.
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Activated complex -- Species intermediate between reactants and

products; results from the collision of reactants; can either proceed
Solubility Product Constant -- Equilibrium constant for the
to form
dissolution of a compound.
products or revert to reactants.

Catalyst -- A substance that lowers activation energy but is not

Le Chatelier's Principle -- When a system at dynamic equilibrium is
consumed in a reaction.
perturbed, the system will adjust itself to minimize the effects of the
perturbation.

Arrhenius

Phase -- Physically distinct state of a substance. Acids: Compounds that produce H20 in water.
Bases: Compounds that product OH- in water.

Phase diagram -- Plot showing which phase of a substance is most

stable at a given combination of temperature and pressure. Lewis

Acids: Electron-pair acceptors.

Bases: Electron-pair donors.
Phase boundaries -- Lines on a phase diagram, the two phases on
either side of a phase boundary are in equilibrium (coexist) at the
phase-boundary.
Bronsted-Lowry

Acids: Proton donors.

Triple point -- Point on a phase diagram where all three phases are Bases: Proton acceptors.
in equilibrium

Amphiprotic species -- A compound that can both donate and

Critical Point -- Temperature and pressure above which a substance accept protons.
cannot condense into a liquid.

Amphoteric species -- A compound that can accept both electron

Reaction rate -- The rate of change in concentration ion a reactant pairs and protons.
or product over time.

Polyprotic acid -- A bronsted acid that can donate more than one
Instantaneous rate -- The rate of reaction at a given instant; may proton per molecule.
vary as a reaction proceeds.

Hydrolysis reaction -- A reaction between a bronsted acid or base

Rate Law -- Equation that expresses the instantaneous rate of and water to produce an acidic or basic solution.
reaction as a function of reactant concentrations.

Strong acid (or base) -- An acid (or base) that does ionizes
Half-life -- Time required for the concentration of a reactant to fall completely in water.
on to one half of its initial value.

pH -- A measure of the acidity of a solution.

Reaction coordinate diagram -- A plot of energy versus reaction
progress.
pOH -- A measure of the basicity of a solution.

Activation energy -- Energy barrier that the reactants must

overcome in order to react; the energy different between the
Buffer Solution -- Solution of a weak acid (or base) and its conjugate
reactants and the
base (or acid) that is resistant to changes in pH; works by reacting
activated complex. with

any added acid or base to restore the equilibrium of the weak acid
(or base) and neutralize the added acid or base.
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Galvanic Cell -- Electrochemical cell in which a spontaneous redox

reaction is used to generate an electrical current.
Titration -- A method for determining the concentration of an acid
(or base) by neutralization of a known volume of that acid (or base)
with a known volume of base (or acid) at a known concentration.
Anode -- Negatively charged electrode, where oxidation occurs.

Indicator -- Substance used to detect the end-point of a titration

Cathode -- Positively charged electrode, where reduction occurs.
generally by changing the color of the titration mixture.

Titration Curve -- Plot of pH versus titrant volume.

Cell Potential -- Voltage produced by an electrochemical cell.

Electrolytic Cell -- Electrochemical cell that reverses the direction of

Equivalence Point -- Midpoint of the vertical part of a titration curve;
a galvanic cell by using a supply of electricity.
indicates when the acid (or base) being titrated is exactly
neutralized by the added base or acid.

Radioactivity -- Emission of high-energy particles from unstable

nuclei.
Electrochemistry -- The study of chemical reactions that produce
electricity, and the use of electricity to facilitate non-spontaneous
chemical reactions.
Nuclear decay -- Breakdown of the nucleus; the origin of
radioactivity.
Electrochemical cells -- Device that uses an electrochemical reaction
to generate an electric current at a constant voltage.
Fission -- Splitting of large, unstable nuclei into smaller, more stable
ones.
Voltage -- Electric potential energy per charge unit.

Fusion -- Combination of small nuclei into larger ones.

Current -- Flow of charge past a point in an electric circuit per unit
time.

Oxidation -- Electron loss; associated with an increase in oxidation

number.

Reduction -- Electron gain; associated with a decrease in oxidation

number.

Redox Reaction -- A react in which one reactant is reduced when it

oxidizes the other reactant.

Oxidizing Agent -- The reactant in a redox reaction that gains

electrons and becomes reduced.

Reducing Agent -- The reactant in a redox reaction that donates

electrons and becomes oxidized.

Half-reactions -- Chemical equations that show oxidation and

reduction separately and can be combined to give the overall
equation for a redox reaction.