WORKSHOP

ON

GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIR ENGINEERING*

Paul Kruger and Henry J. Ramey, J r .

Stan f o r d Geo the rma 1 Program
Stanford U n i v e r s i t y
Stanford, C a l i f o r n i a

Workshop Report

December 1 5- 1 7, 1975

J;
Conducted under Grant No. NSF-AER-72-03490 sponsored by t h e RANN program
of t h e N a t i o n a l Science Foundation.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Summary of t h e Workshop - P . Kruger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Rapporteur Reports

R e s e r v o i r Physics - P. A. Witherspoon ..... .......... 4

Well T e s t i n g - H. J. Ramey, J r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
F i e l d Development - G. F r y e ........... ......... 8
Well S t i m u l a t i o n - M. Nathenson ........ .......... 9
Model i n g - J . W. Mercer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Overv iews

A Programmatic View of Geothermal R e s e r v o i r Engineering -

R. C o r y e l l 16
The B i r t h o f Geothermal R e s e r v o i r E n g i n e e r i n g - H. J. Ramey, J r . . . 20

R e s e r v o i r Phvsics

Summary D e s c r i p t i o n o f Research A c t i v i t i e s - D. R. Kassoy ...... 23

Heat and F l u i d Flow Experiments t o Measure Geothermal R e s e r v o i r
P h y s i c a l Parameters -
W. E. Brigham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
An Attempt t o C o r r e l a t e Kh D i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h Geological S t r u c t u r e
o f L a r d e r e l l o Geothermal F i e l d - R. C e l a t i , G. N e r i , F . P e r u s i n i ,
and P. Squarci ......................... 37
F l u i d Flow i n Geothermal R e s e r v o i r s - J . C . M a r t i n . . . . . . . . . 42
F r a c t u r e Flow i n Geothermal R e s e r v o i r s - G. Bodvarsson ....... 45
R e s e r v o i r F a c t o r s D e t e r m i n i n g t h e F r a c t i o n o f Stored Energy
Recoverable f r o m Hydrothermal Convection Systems -
M. Nathenson . 50
U t i l i z a t i o n o f G r a v i m e t r i c Data f o r E s t i m a t i o n o f Hydrothermal
R e s e r v o i r C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n t h e East Mesa F i e l d , I m p e r i a l V a l l e y ,
California - T, Meidav, R. James, and S. Sanyal . . . . . . . . 52
An I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f Screening Geothermal P r o d u c t i o n We1 1s from
Effects o f Reinjection -
C . F. Tsang and P. A. Witherspoon . . . 62
Land Surface Subsidence A s s o c i a t e d w i t h Geothermal Energy
P r o d u c t i o n - S . K. Garg ..................... 65

Well T e s t i n g

Pressure and Temperature B u i l d u p i n Geothermal W e l l s - M. S . G u l a t i . 69

Well Log A n a l y s i s and Well T e s t i n g i n t h e Heber
Geothermal F i e l d -
L. Mann ................... 74

I
 Geothermal Well Testing at Roosevelt KGRA, Beaver County, Utah -
D . C.Harban . ..... .......
. . . . . ........ 77
Shell's Activity in The Geysers Area - E. L. Fehlberg . . . . . . . . 84
Water Entry Below Steam Production: A Case History at
The Geysers - G. Frye .... ....... .........
. , 89
An Interference Test in Alfina Geothermal Field (Northern Latium,
Italy) - A. Barelli and G. Manetti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Horner Method Applied to Build-Up Tests on Travale 22 Well -
A. Barelli, R. Celati, G. Manetti, and G. Neri ......... 101
Study of a Geothermal Field in the Asal Active Volcanic Rift Zone
(French Territory of Afars and Issas, East Africa) -
A. C. Gringarten and L. Stieltjes ..
. .. . . . ........ 113
Raft River Geothermal Reservoir Engineering and Well Stimulation -
J. F. Kunze, L. G. Miller, and R. C. Stoker .
. . . . . . 117 . . . .
Initial Results of Reservoir Production Tests, Raft River Geothermal
Project, Idaho - T. N. Narasimhan and P. A. Witherspoon . . . . . 124

Field Development

An Approach to Geothermal Development - R. A. Wooding ........ 126

Geopressured Geothermal Reservoir Engineering Research at the
University o f Texas - R. M. Knapp, M. H. Dorfman, 0. F. Isokrari 130
SDGEE Pioneering Geothermal Test Work in the Imperial Valley of
Southern California - G. L. Lombard and J. M. Nugent ...... 135
Niland Reservoir Monitoring and Evaluation Operating Program -
T. C. Hinrichs ......................... 143
.......
East Mesa Reservoir - T. L. Gould .... ... . . . 146
The PG&E Geysers Power Plant - A Utility Company's Viewpoint -
L. J . Woitke . .
. .. ...... . . , . I . ..... . ..
. 153
Geothermal Reservoir Pressure Requirements for Production -
J . T. Kuwada . . ...................... .. 156
On the Optimal Rate of Geothermal Energy Extraction - C. R. Scherer . 161
Economic Modeling f o r Geothermal Reservoirs and Power Plants -
C. H. Bloomster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 167

We1 1 Stimulation

Physical Models o f Stimulated Geothermal Reservoirs - P . Kruger . .. I69

Hydraul ic-Fracture Geothermal Reservoir Engineering - H. D. Murphy . 174
Model Experiments in Hydraulic Fracture - J . Dundurs ...... .
. 178
Analytical Study of Crack Growth and Shape by Hydraulic Fracturing
of Rocks - T. Mura, L. M. Keer, and H. Ab6 .. ... ....
. 180
Control of Silica Scaling - H. L. Barnes and J . D . Rimstidt ..... 185
Predicting Explosion-Generated Permeability around
Geothermal Wells - C. R. McKee and M. E. Hanson . ... ..... 192

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Model i n g

-
Summary o f o u r Research i n Geothermal R e s e r v o i r S i m u l a t i o n
C . R. Faust and J . W . Mercer - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
The P r i n c e t o n Geothermal Research Program - George Pinder . . . . . . 199
Numerical C a l c u l a t i o n o f M u l t i p h a s e F l u i d and Heat Flow i n
Hydrothermal R e s e r v o i r s - . . . . . . . . . . . .
J. W. P r i t c h e t t 201
Methods o f S o l u t i o n o f t h e Equations f o r Convection i n Porous
Media, w i t h Geothermal A p p l i c a t i o n s -
R. A. Wooding . . . . . . . 2 06
A Hele-Shaw Model of Heat Convection i n Porous Media under
Geothermal C o n d i t i o n s -
H. W . Shen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Numerical and A n a l y t i c a l S t u d i e s on Heat and Mass T r a n s f e r i n
V o l c a n i c I s l a n d Geothermal R e s e r v o i r s-Ping Cheng . . . . . . . 219
Research on Numerical Modeling o f L i q u i d Geothermal Systems -
blichael Sorey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Finite Element S o l u t i o n o f Geothermal Energy E x t r a c t i o n -
Z. P. Ba?ant, S . Nemat-Nasser, and H. Ohtsubo . . . . . . . . . . 232
Numerical Model i n g o f Hydrothermal Reactions i n Geothermal
Reservoirs -
C . G . Sammis .................... 240
Progress Report on a Mathematical Model of a P a r a l l e l e p i p e d R e s e r v o i r
w i t h No P e n e t r a t i n g W e l l b o r e and Mixed Boundary C o n d i t i o n s -
.........
A. B a r e l l i , G. M a n e t t i , R. C e l a t i , and G. N e r i 242
Fundamental Study o f Changing o f Phase i n Porous Materials -
Serge B o r i e s .......................... 247
Thermal D e p l e t i o n of Liquid- Dominated Geothermal R e s e r v o i r s w i t h
-
F r a c t u r e and Pore P e r m e a b i l i t y P. W. Kasameyer and
R. C . Schroeder ......................... 249
Geothermal Energy from a Borehole i n Hot Dry Rock - A P r e l i m i n a r y
Study - D. Sharma and T. M a i n i . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 58
The Use o f General S e n s i t i v i t y Theory t o Analyze t h e Geothermal
Reservoir Model's S e n s i t i v i t y t o t h e Permeability Functions -
R. W . A t h e r t o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 67

iii
 1 NTRODUCT ION

Although geothermal energy was f i r s t converted t o e l e c t r i c i t y more

than 70 years ago, u n t i l r e c e n t l y l i t t l e p u b l i c demand f o r i t s widespread
use e x i s t e d . Geothermal energy has been considered an a t t r a c t i v e a l t e r n a t e
source o f energy f o r more t h a n a decade i n many developed as w e l l as un-
developed c o u n t r i e s and t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l awareness o f t h e growing d e f i c i t
o f f o s s i l f u e l s has sparked a c c e l e r a t e d i n t e r e s t i n d e t e r m i n i n g n a t i o n a l
resources and u t i l i z a t i o n t e c h n o l o g i e s . As o f 1976, t h e t o t a l w o r l d
g e n e r a t i n g c a p a c i t y f o r g e n e r a t i n g e l e c t r i c i t y from geothermal resources
i s about 1100 MW (equal t o t h a t o f one modern n u c l e a r power p l a n t ) and
more than 3/4 o f i t i s produced a t o n l y two s i t e s , The Geysers i n C a l i f o r n i a
and t h e Tuscany f i e l d s i n I t a l y .

Many problems have been i d e n t i f i e d which beset t h e r a p i d development

o f geothermal resources, c o v e r i n g t h e e n t i r e " f u e l c y c l e " from e x p l o r a t i o n
through conversion and r e s i d u a l s c o n t r o l . The major problem i s t h e i n -
f l e x i t y o f n a t u r a l geothermal resources which occur i n a wide v a r i e t y o f
hydrogeologic, thermal, and chemical q u a l i t i e s . U t i l i z a t i o n must be
designed t o f i t t h e s p e c i f i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f i n d i v i d u a l resources.
Since t h e thermal e f f i c i e n c i e s f o r conversion t o e l e c t r i c energy a r e v e r y
low even f o r t h e t w o known h i g h e s t q u a l i t y hydrothermal resources, i n -
d u s t r i a l development a w a i t s g r e a t e r economies i n resource e x p l o r a t i o n and
e v a l u a t i o n , energy e x t r a c t i o n , and u t i l i z a t i o n t e c h n o l o g i e s . To compound
t h e problems, development i s o c c u r r i n g i n an e r a of increased p u b l i c aware-
ness about i n s t i t u t i o n a l and environmental concerns. As a r e s u l t , a
f o r m i d a b l e a r r a y o f l e g a l , s o c i a l , and r e g u l a t o r y problems a l s o r e q u i r e s
resolution.

As t h e developnent o f a geothermal i n d u s t r y proceeds, these many

problems a r e b e i n g e v a l u a t e d g e n e r a l l y by t h e s e c t o r o f t h e n a t i o n a l
economy t h a t has had e x p e r i e n c e i n s o l v i n g s i m i l a r problems f o r o t h e r
resources. The e x p l o r a t i o n f o r geothermal resources has been undertaken
l a r g e l y by t h e energy r e s o u r c e companies t h a t use subsurface geosciences
and t h e d r i l l r i g as t h e i r mode o f o p e r a t i o n . Conversion t o e l e c t r i c i t y ,
p r e s e n t l y t h e major u t i l i z a t i o n o f geothermal resources, has been under-
taken by t h e p r i v a t e and p u b l i c u t i l i t y i n d u s t r y . And t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l
problems a r e w i t h i n t h e domain o f t h e s e v e r a l l e v e l s o f p u b l i c a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
r a n g i n g from t h e Federal government t o county and township agencies.

I t can be assumed t h a t as t h e p u b l i c demand f o r energy t o be s u p p l i e d

by geothermal resources increases, accommodations between s u p p l i e r s ,
r e g u l a t o r s , and t h e p u b l i c w i l l be achieved. I t can a l s o be assumed t h a t
adequate technology w i l l be developed t o u t i l i z e "commercial" resources for
b o t h e l e c t r i c a l and d i r e c t thermal a p p l i c a t i o n s . Thus, t h e major a r e a f o r
concern i n t h e a c c e l e r a t e d development o f a geothermal i n d u s t r y i s t h e
d e f i n i t i o n o f what c o n s t i t u t e s a " commercial" resource. From a pragmatic
p o i n t o f view, a " commercial" resource i s one from which a s u f f i c i e n t amount
o f geothermal resource can be e x t r a c t e d t o s e l l t o a w i l l i n g buyer a t a
p r o f i t a b l e p r i c e over some reasonable p e r i o d o f time.

E x p l o r a t i o n f o r geothermal resources, i n s p i t e o f t h e aforementioned

i n s t i t u t i o n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s , i s underway. Recent e s t i m a t e s by t h e U. S .

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G e o l o g i c a l Survey i n d i c a t e a l a r g e number o f p o t e n t i a l areas o f geothermal
resources i n t h e U. S. a l o n e . The assessment o f "commercial" v i a b i l i t y o f
t h e s e resources i s t h e d i f f i c u l t t a s k , due i n p a r t t o t h e small number of
e x i s t i n g o p e r a t i o n a l f i e l d s , and a l s o i n p a r t t o t h e e m p i r i c a l h i s t o r y of
geothermal power p l a n t development, w i t h i n s t a l l a t i o n of g e n e r a t i n g c a p a c i t y
by one small u n i t a t a time. I t i s c l e a r from t h e many p u b l i s h e d f o r e c a s t s
o f t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r geothermal energy, r a n g i n g o v e r o r d e r s o f magnitude,
t h a t t h e a c t u a l resources (beyond t h e 1,000 t o 2,000 MW p r o b a b l y e x i s t i n g
a t t h e one U. S . l o c a t i o n ) a r e e s s e n t i a l l y unknown. For undeveloped f i e l d s ,
u n c e r t a i n t i e s e x i s t about t h e thermal q u a l i t y o f t h e resource, t h e h e a t
and f l u i d e x t r a c t i o n c a p a b i l i t y , t h e p r o b a b l e t i m e h i s t o r y o f d e l i v e r a b i l i t y
and l o n g e v i t y , and t h e s y s t e m a t i c s f o r optimum development o f t h e resource
should i t prove t o be " commercial." A l l o f t h e aspects may be considered
t o f a l l under t h e c a t e g o r y o f "Geothermal R e s e r v o i r Engineering," t h e t o p i c
of t h i s Workshop.

Geothermal r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g has been an a d a p t i v e branch of

e n g i n e e r i n g ; much o f t h e nomenclature and methodology have come f r o m t h e
o i l and gas i n d u s t r y , from h y d r o l o g y and hydrogeology, from t h e m i n e r a l
i n d u s t r i e s , and from t h e b a s i c p h y s i c a l , chemical, and n u c l e a r sciences.
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e e x t e n s i v e e f f o r t s c a r r i e d o u t by t h e o p e r a t o r s i n under-
s t a n d i n g s p e c i f i c r e s e r v o i r c h a r a c t e r j s t i c s , a n a t i o n a l f o c u s has developed
on t h i s i m p o r t a n t segment o f t h e geothermal " f u e l cycle," i n v o l v i n g u n i v e r s i t i e s ,
i n d u s t r y , and t h e Federal government. E a r l y e f f o r t s t o develop t h e t e c h n o l o g i e s
of geothermal r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g were supported by t h e N a t i o n a l Science
Foundation and t h e U. S%. G e o l o g i c a l Survey. The Survey's program has been
p r i m a r i l y an in- house program d i r e c t e d a t d e s c r i b i n g what a geothermal
resource i s . Many c o n t r i b u t i o n s have been made i n t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and
m o d e l l i n g o f hydrothermal c o n v e c t i v e and geopressured systems. The
N a t i o n a l Science Foundation d u r i n g i t s t e n u r e as l e a d Federal agency f o r
t h e a c c e l e r a t e d development o f geothermal resources i n i t i a t e d a s e r i e s o f
g r a n t s t o u n i v e r s i t i e s and research c o r p o r a t i o n s t o b r i n g v a r i o u s d i s c i p l i n e s
t o g e t h e r t o b u i l d t h i s branch o f s c i e n c e and technology known as geothermal
r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g . The newly- formed Energy Research and Development
A d m i n i s t r a t i o n has i n c l u d e d such r e s e a r c h i n i t s o v e r a l l program. S i m i l a r
e f f o r t s a r e underway i n o t h e r geothermal c o u n t r i e s .

The purpose o f t h e Workshop convened h e r e a t Stanford t h i s December,

1975, i s t w o - f o l d . F i r s t , t h e Workshop was designed t o b r i n g t o g e t h e r
r e s e a r c h e r s a c t i v e i n t h e v a r i o u s p h y s i c a l and mathematical branches of
t h i s newly-emerging f i e l d so t h a t t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s c o u l d l e a r n about t h e
v e r y many s t u d i e s underway and share experiences through an exchange o f
research r e s u l t s . The second purpose was t o p r e p a r e these Proceedings o f
t h e Workshop so t h a t t h e i n t e g r a t e d i n f o r m a t i o n c o u l d be disseminated t o
t h e geothermal community r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e development, u t i l i z a t i o n ,
and r e g u l a t i o n aspects o f t h e i n d u s t r y .

D u r i n g t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e Workshop some seventy t o e i g h t y r e -

searchers a c t i v e i n t h e NSF program, t h e U . s. G e o l o g i c a l Survey, and i n
u n i v e r s i t y , i n d u s t r y , and ERDA n a t i o n a l l a b o r a t o r i e s were i d e n t i f i e d by
t h e Program Committee. I n v i t a t i o n s t o them and s e v e r a l i n d i v i d u a l s i n
n a t i o n s a c t i v e i n t h i s new f i e l d were extended. The major areas covered
i n t h e program c o n s i s t e d o f r e s e r v o i r p h y s i c s ( s t u d i e s to e v a l u a t e t h e

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p h y s i c a l processes o c c u r r i n g i n geothermal systems), we1 1 t e s t i n g (techniques
used i n s p e c i f i c and g e n e r i c f i e l d s t o determine t h e v o l u m e t r i c and e x t r a c t i v e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a r e s e r v o r ) , f i e l d development (methods f o r t h e optimum
development o f producing f i e ds) , we1 1 s t i m u l a t i o n (techniques f o r improving
energy recovery from marg i na hydrothermal and d r y geothermal resources) ,
and model 1 i n g (mathematical methods t o study geothermal r e s e r v o i r s ) .

The Workshop r e s u l t e d i n , t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f 50 t e c h n i c a l papers,

summaries o f which a r e i n c l u d e d i n these Proceedings. We hope t h a t these
summaries and t h e Rapporteur r e p o r t s of t h e f i v e sessions w i l l p r o v e v a l u a b l e
t o our colleagues i n i n d u s t r y , academic i n s t i t u t i o n s , and espec a l l y t o t h e
government agencies r e s p o n s i b l e f o r an a c c e l e r a t e d o r d e r l y deve opmen t o f
our geothermal resources.

I w i s h t o acknowledge the a s s i s t a n c e o f t h e Program Commi t e e (R. C o r y e l l ,

P. Kruger, M. Nathenson, H. Ramey, P. Witherspoon), t h e session Rapport eu r s
(P. Witherspoon, H. Ramey, G. Frye, M. Nathenson, J. Mercer), o u r c o l l e a g u e s
from France, I t a l y , and New Zealand, whose p a r t i c i p a t i o n e n r i c h e d o u r p r o -
gram, t h e s t u d e n t s i n o u r S t a n f o r d Geothermal Program (P. Atkinson, H. Chen,
A. Hunsbedt, and M. Kuo) who a s s i s t e d i n t h e workshop e x e c u t i o n , and t h e
N a t i o n a l Science Foundation f o r i t s support and encouragement.

Paul Kruger
Stanford U n i v e r s i t y
December 18, 1975

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 RAPPORTEURS' REPORTS

SESSION 1 - RESERVOIR PHYSICS - Paul A. Witherspoon

Session I on R e s e r v o i r Physics i n c l u d e d n i n e papers c o v e r i n g a wide

variety of topics. Kassoy summarized t h e research a c t i v i t i e s c u r r e n t l y
underway a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Colorado, where a t t e m p t s a r e being made t o
c h a r a c t e r i z e and model t h e v a r i o u s processes t h a t occur i n geothermal
systems. The importance o f f a u l t s i n c o n t r o l l i n g t h e c o n v e c t i v e m o t i o n
w i t h i n geothermal systems i s b e i n g examined from a number o f s t a n d p o i n t s ,
and t h e e f f e c t o f a r e a l i s t i c v a r i a t i o n i n v i s c o s i t y on c o n v e c t i o n i n porous
bodies has revealed t h a t t h e c o n v e c t i v e m o t i o n i s u n l i k e t h e symmetric
c l a s s i c a l p r o f i l e s t h a t r e s u l t from a f l u i d o f c o n s t a n t v i s c o s i t y . A consider-
a b l e e f f o r t i s being made t o develop a b e t t e r understanding o f t h e East Mesa
geothermal system i n t h e I m p e r i a l V a l l e y .

Brigham reviewed t h e l a b o r a t o r y i n v e s t i g a t i o n s c u r r e n t l y underway a t

Stanford U n i v e r s i t y t o develop a fundamental understanding of non- isothermal
b o i l i n g two-phase f l o w i n porous media. One o f t h e c r i t i c a l problems i s how
t h e n o r m a l l y immobile l i q u i d s a t u r a t i o n s v a p o r i z e w i t h pressure r e d u c t i o n
under non- isothermal c o n d i t i o n s . Recent work on t h e e f f e c t o f temperature on
relative p e r m e a b i l i t y suggested t h a t a b s o l u t e p e r m e a b i l i t y was a l s o a
temperature dependent p r o p e r t y o f rocks. Laboratory measurements have
revealed t h a t t h e temperature e f f e c t on p e r m e a b i l i t y depends on t h e n a t u r e
of t h e s a t u r a t i n g f l u i d , whereas t h e e f f e c t o f c o n f i n i n g p r e s s u r e on permea-
b i l i t y seems t o be independent o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s a t u r a t i n g f l u i d . The
o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s work has been t o s i m u l t a n e o u s l y measure t h e e f f e c t o f
thermal and mechanical s t r e s s e s on p e r m e a b i l i t y . Brigham a l s o summarized
the advances t h a t have been made i n several d i r e c t i o n s i n modeling geothermal
f l u i d production.

M a n e t t i summarized some r e c e n t work t h a t has been c a r r i e d o u t i n I t a l y

t o c o r r e l a t e t h e kh d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h g e o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e a t L a r d e r e l l o .
Data from about 50 w e l l s i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f L a r d e r e l l o were analyzed by
back- pressure and pressure b u i l d - u p methods. Good agreement between t h e kh
values f o r any g i v e n w e l l was o n l y p o s s i b l e when t h e s k i n - e f f e c t was taken
i n t o account. A c o r r e l a t i o n o f these r e s u l t s shows a good correspondence
between areas o f h i g h t r a n s m i s s i v i t y and t h e v a r i o u s s t r u c t u r a l h i g h s w i t h i n
t h e L a r d e r e l l o f i e l d . The p e r m e a b i l i t y i s b e l i e v e d t o reach i t s maximum
values along t h e c r e s t s because t e c t o n i c a c t i v i t y has r e s u l t e d i n a maximum
of f r a c t u r i n g and f i s s u r i n g a t such l o c a t i o n s .

M a r t i n presented a r e v i e w o f an a n a l y s i s t h a t he has made on i n t e r n a l

steam d r i v e i n geothermal r e s e r v o i r s t h a t a r e produced by p r e s s u r e d e p l e t i o n
w i t h no water i n j e c t i o n . He compares t h e pressure- temperature behavior of
geothermal systems and shows how they d i f f e r depending on t h e i n i t i , a l condi-
tions. He concludes t h a t under c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s o n l y a r e l a t i v e l y small

- 4-
amount o f t h e heat i n i t i a l l y c o n t a i n e d i n a geothermal r e s e r v o i r w i l l be
produced d u r i n g pressure d e p l e t i o n . Where g r a v i t y segregation o f t h e steam
and h o t water occurs d u r i n g d e p l e t i o n , more o f the t o t a l heat can be produced
by completing w e l l s h i g h i n t h e r e s e r v o i r t o enhance steam p r o d u c t i o n and
suppress water p r o d u c t i o n .

Bodvarsson reviewed t h e a n a l y s i s t h a t he has been making o f t h e “macro-

p e r m e a b i l i t y ” t h a t p r e v a i l s i n igneous rocks because o f f r a c t u r e c o n d i t i o n s .
From an a n a l y t i c a l e x p r e s s i o n f o r f l o w t o a h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e i n t e r s e c t i n g
a borehole, he has analyzed t h e f l o w c o n d i t i o n s t h a t e x i s t i n f r a c t u r e d
r e s e r v o i r s . T h i s approach has been used i n I c e l a n d t o develop methods f o r
t e s t i n g w e l l s , e s t i m a t i n g r e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y , and e v a l u a t i n g t h e r e s u l t s
of w e l l s t i m u l a t i o n . Bodvarsson a l s o discussed how t h e i s o t o p e c h e m i s t r y o f
groundwaters i n i c e l a n d has been used t o l o c a t e areas o f recharge.

Natnenson s u m a r i z e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s t h a t he has made t o e s t i m a t e t h e

f r a c t i o n o f s t o r e d energy i n hydrothermal convection systems t h a t i s r e c o v e r -
a b l e . He has analyzed two p o s s i b l e methods f o r e x t r a c t i n g energy: (a) b o i l i n g
the water i n t h e system t o produce steam and (b) n a t u r a l and a r t i f i c i a l
recharge o f c o l d water t o recover r e s e r v o i r heat by a sweep process. It
appears t h a t t h e r e s t r i c t e d range o f p o r o s i t y , temperature, and recharge over
which t h e b o i l i n g method w i l l work l i m i t s i t s a p p l i c a t i o n t o r a t h e r s p e c i a l
cases such as vapor- dominated systems. The f r a c t i o n o f s t o r e d energy t h a t
may be recovered i s c r i t i c a l l y dependent on t h e average l i q u i d s a t u r a t i o n .
I n u s i n g r e c h a r g i n g c o l d water t o d r i v e h o t water t o producing w e l l s , conduc-
t i o n can be analyzed t o a f i r s t approximation by s u p e r p o s i t i o n o n t o t h e move-
ment o f t h e temperature f r o n t . Another f a c t o r i s t h e r o t a t i o n of t h e i n i t i a l l y
v e r t i c a l i n t e r f a c e between c o l d and h o t water. These processes can be com-
bined q u a l i t a t i v e l y t o y i e l d an e s t i m a t e of energy recovery.

Meidav presented a r e v i e w o f a method o f u s i n g g r a v i m e t r i c d a t a t o

e s t i m a t e hydrothermal r e s e r v o i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a t t h e East Mesa geothermal
f i e l d i n C a l i f o r n i a . S i x p o s i t i v e g r a v i t y anomalies a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
abnormally h i g h temperature g r a d i e n t s i n t h e I m p e r i a l V a l l e y , and one o f
these anomalies i s a t East Mesa. The e x p l a n a t i o n f o r these observed e f f e c t s
i s d e n s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s h a l l o w sediments by d e p o s i t i o n o f temperature-
s e n s i t i v e m i n e r a l s i n t h e upward r i s i n g plume o f geothermal waters. An
excess mass o f about 10 b i l l i o n tons of m a t t e r i s b e l i e v e d t o have been
deposited a t East Mesa which would have r e q u i r e d an u p w e l l i n g o f an e s t i m a t e d
2.5 t r i l l i o n tons o f thermal w a t e r . Assuming a p e r i o d o f 50,000 years was
r e q u i r e d leads t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e v e r t i c a l p e r m e a b i l i t y ranges from
0.6 t o 60 m i l 1 i d a r c i e s . A1 though s u r f i c i a l evidence o f geothermal a c t i v i t y
i s absent a t East Mesa, t h i s a n a l y s i s sheds l i g h t on t h e v e r y l a r g e underground
movements o f thermal waters t h a t a r e p o s s i b l e when h y d r o g e o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s
do n o t favor o u t f l o w t o t h e s u r f a c e .

Tsang summarized an a n a l y s i s he has r e c e n t l y made on screening geo-

thermal p r o d u c t i o n w e l l s from t h e e f f e c t s o f r e i n j e c t i o n . I n t h e normal
method o f r e i n j e c t i n g c o l d water i n t o a geothermal r e s e r v o i r , breakthrough
e v e n t u a l l y occurs depending on s e v e r a l f a c t o r s . I n t h e s i m p l e s t case of a
d o u b l e t , one p r o d u c t i o n and one i n j e c t i o n w e l l , t h i s breakthrough t i m e can
be lengthened c o n s i d e r a b l y by p l a c i n g a screening w e l l between t h e two w e l l s

-5-
so as t o i n t e r c e p t t h e s h o r t e s t stream l i n e . By producing water from t h e
screening w e l l , n o t o n l y can breakthrough be delayed, b u t a s i g n i f i c a n t
increase i n energy recovery can a l s o be achieved. A d e t a i l e d econcmic
f e a s i b i l i t y study o f t h e e f f e c t s of screening has n o t y e t been made.

Garg reviewed t h e work t h a t he and h i s colleagues a r e c a r r y i n g o u t i n

an e f f o r t t o m a t h e m a t i c a l l y model land s u r f a c e subsidence a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
geothermal energy p r o d u c t i o n . T h i s i s p o t e n t i a l l y a s e r i o u s problem,
p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r l i q u i d - d o m i n a t e d geothermal systems. The t h e o r e t i c a l model,
developed w i t h i n t h e framework o f t h e Theory o f I n t e r a c t i n g Continua,
d e s c r i b e s t h e thermomechanical response o f t h e r o c k and f l u i d composite
m a t e r i a l i n terms o f t h e i s o l a t e d components. The s t r e s s - s t r a i n equations
f o r t h e r o c k m a t r i x a r e coupled w i t h t h e d i f f u s i o n equations f o r t h e f l u i d .
The m i c r o s c a l e d e t a i l s o f t h e p o r e / f r a c t u r e network i n t h e r o c k a r e ignored,
b u t t h e f l u i d pressures and t h e s t r e s s f i e l d i n t h e r o c k m a t r i x a r e p e r -
m i t t e d t o assume d i s t i n c t values w i t h i n each computational r e g i o n f o r t h e
composite. Although most o f t h e r e q u i r e d m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s can be
o b t a i n e d from standard l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s on cores, i t should be noted t h a t
t h e r e s e r v o i r behavior i s f r e q u e n t l y governed by f r a c t u r e s , f o r m a t i o n
inhomogeneities, and o t h e r l a r g e s c a l e f e a t u r e s such as f a u l t s . It, there-
f o r e , becomes important t o supplement t h e l a b o r a t o r y measurements by s u i t a b l e
f i e l d data. An example o f some p r e l i m i n a r y r e s u l t s i n modeling a h y p o t h e t i c a l
subsidence problem was presented.

SESSION 1 1 - WELL TESTING - Henry J. Ramey, J r .

Data from n i n e d i f f e r e n t f i e l d t e s t s were presented. T h i s one f a c t

s e t s t h i s session a p a r t from a l l p r e v i o u s meetings o r workshops. The f i e l d
cases considered ranged from vapor t o l i q u i d - d o m i n a t e d r e s e r v o i r s , and l i q u i d -
dominated systems ranged from low t o h i g h s a l i n i t y systems. The types o f
w e l l t e s t s included pressure b u i l d u p and drawdown, and i n t e r f e r e n c e t e s t i n g .
As a r e s u l t , i t appears t h e s t a t e o f development and a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e tech-
nology i s good. A p p l i c a t i o n o f e x i s t i n g petroleum e n g i n e e r i n g and ground-
water hydrology t h e o r i e s were shown t o r e v e a l t h e need f o r new s o l u t i o n s ,
however. Problems i d e n t i f i e d i n c l u d e :

1. New s o l u t i o n s f o r t r a n s i e n t w e l l t e s t i n g ( b o t h i n t e r f e r e n c e and i n d i v i d -
u a l w e l l t e s t s ) i n h o t a q u i f e r s which c o n t a i n a carbon d i o x i d e gas cap.
The s o l u t i o n s should c o n s i d e r e i t h e r p r o d u c t i o n o f h o t water from down-
s t r u c t u r e w e l l s , and p r o d u c t i o n o f carbon d i o x i d e from u p s t r u c t u r e o r
gas-cap w e l l s . What p r o p e r t i e s a r e d e t e c t e d i n such t e s t s ?

2. New s o l u t i o n s a r e needed f o r p a r t i a l l y - p e n e t r a t i n g w e l l s i n a t a l l
steam column supported by b o i l i n g of a deep l i q u i d i n t e r f a c e . A l l
types o f t e s t s should be evaluated.

3. Studies should be aimed a t t h e r e s u l t s o f f l a s h i n g i n t h e r e s e r v o i r r o c k

and r e s u l t i n g non-condensable gas e v o l u t i o n .

-6-
 Another f i n d i n g was t h a t t h e r e h a s n ' t been much supported research i n
t h e area o f w e l l t e s t a n a l y s i s . Work t o d a t e has i n v o l v e d m o s t l y a r e t r e a d i n g
of e x i s t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n . Sme work has been underway a s a j o i n t p r o j e c t by
ENEL of I t a l y and personnel o f t h e S t a n f o r d Geothermal Program.
During t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n s , a p l e a f o r f i e l d data was made and s e v e r a l
p a r t i c i p a n t s responded (Roger Stoker o f t h e R a f t R i v e r P r o j e c t , and A l a i n
G r i n g a r t e n concerning d a t a from t h e A f a r s and l s s a s T e r r i t o r y ) .

S i g n i f i c a n t f i n d i n g s were made as a r e s u l t o f t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n of much

f i e l d data. I t i s c l e a r t h a t geothermal r e s e r v o i r s a r e f u l l y responsive t o
a l l p e r t i n e n t laws of p h y s i c s . A c a r e f u l study o f f i e l d performance r e s u l t s
will o f t e n i n d i c a t e i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s which should be i n c l u d e d i n computer
s i m u l a t i o n models. F i e l d d a t a presented a t t h e workshop i n d i c a t e d : (1) t h e r e
a r e w e l l t e s t i n g equipment needs, and ( 2 ) t h e r e were important r e c e n t f i n d i n g s
a s a r e s u l t o f a p p l i c a t i o n o f new instruments. One need f o r new equipment
concerned r u n n i n g p r e s s u r e r e c o r d e r s i n t o v e r y h i g h v e l o c i t y steam w e l l s w h i l e
producing. There i s a need f o r p r e s s u r e and temperature r e c o r d e r s which can
w i t h s t a n d b o t h h i g h v i b r a t i o n and h i g h temperatures. F l u i d p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s
on t h e o r d e r o f one m i l l i o n pounds p e r hour were c i t e d i n s e v e r a l cases!

Very i n t e r e s t i n g e a r t h t i d e e f f e c t s were c i t e d as measured w i t h h i g h -

p r e c i s i o n quartz c r y s t a l pressure recorders i n the Raft River p r o j e c t .
Pressures were measured t o 0.001 p s i . T h i s h i g h p r e c i s i o n r e p r e s e n t s a major
step forward. However, t h e d e v i c e i s l i m i t e d t o upper temperatures i n t h e
range o f 300°F t o 3 5 O O F . The Hewlett- Packard system was used i n t h e R a f t
River project. However, t h e Sperry-Sun s t a i n l e s s c a p i l l a r y tube system has
been used a few times, and i t appears t h a t a combination of t h e c a p i l l a r y tube
w i t h a q u a r t z d e t e c t o r i n an i n s u l a t e d chamber a t t h e surface m i g h t have
immediate use i n some geothermal w e l l s .

F i n a l l y , s e v e r a l i m p o r t a n t o b s e r v a t i o n s from t h e Geysers F i e l d were made.

Burmah ha5 observed water e n t r y below a steam e n t r y i n two separate w e l l s .
Water samples were o b t a i n e d , and i t appears t h a t t h e f i r s t s i g n i f i c a n t i n f o r -
m a t i o n on t h e deep l i q u i d i n t e r f a c e p o s t u l a t e d by Ramey, Bruce, and White may
have been o b t a i n e d . Another i m p o r t a n t o b s e r v a t i o n was r e p o r t e d f r o m t h e c u r -
r e n t S h e l l w e l l d r i l l i n g a t t h e Geysers. Hydrogen s u l f i d e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s as
h i g h as 3000 ppm were observed. T h i s p a r t o f t h e w e l l was plugged and t h e
w e l l sidetracked. Both t h e Burmah and S h e l l w e l l s a r e i n t h e e a s t e r n p o r t i o n
of t h e Geysers F i e l d .

Throughout t h e d i s c u s s i o n s of v a r i o u s f i e l d w e l l t e s t s , i t became
obvious t h a t most r e p o r t e r s considered presence o f f r a c t u r e s common t o geo-
thermal r e s e r v o i r s . As a r e s u l t i t appears t h a t a " h o l i s t i c " approach v i a
w e l l t e s t i n g was u s u a l l y necessary. Most f i e l d t e s t s were c h a r a c t e r i z e d by
a d e a r t h of c o n v e n t i o n a l e l e c t r i c l o g and c o r e data. Well t e s t a n a l y s i s i s
an i m p o r t a n t technology t h a t has l a r g e l y been n e g l e c t e d t o date. Because of
the p o t e n t i a l importance o f t h i s technology, one major f i n d i n g o f t h e work-
shop was i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of t h e need f o r more work i n t h i s area.

-7-
SESSION 1 1 1 - FIELD DEVELOPMENT - G. A. Frye

The a u t h o r s present a m a t u r i n g approach t o f i e l d development., As men-

t i o n e d i n t h e opening session, t h e b i r t h o f geothermal r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g
i s accomplished and t h i s session r e f l e c t s e a r l y c h i l d h o o d development. Many
a u t h o r s express a c a u t i o u s optimism about geothermal energy p o t e n t i a l . Consi-
d e r a t i o n s about o p t i m a l energy e x t r a c t i o n r a t h e r than concerns about economical
p r o d u c t i o n r e f l e c t t h i s optimism. Several times t h e authors express t h e need
f o r e n g i n e e r i n g design d a t a and improved c o r r e l a t i o n s from geophysics and w e l l
testing. Even though t h e geothermal energy f i e l d i s r e l a t i v e l y young i n t h e
U n i t e d S t a t e s , comments such as " I would have done i t d i f f e r e n t l y i f I had t o
do i t over again," i n d i c a t e development o f geothermal r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g .

S p e c i f i c a l l y t h e d i s c u s s i o n sessions a f t e r t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n s r e f l e c t e d
t h e needed development o f h i g h temperature, h i g h r e s o l u t i o n t o o l s f o r
g r e a t e r confidence and s h o r t e r o b s e r v a t i o n p e r i o d s . R e i n j e c t i o n w i l l be
extremely dependent on a n i s o t r o p i c f e a t u r e s o f t h e r e s e r v o i r found by these
tools. H i n r i c h s discussed Magma's e f f o r t s i n I m p e r i a l County t o o b t a i n d a t a
f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g optimum p r o d u c t i o n and i n j e c t i o n techniques. He then i n t r o -
duced M r . James Nugent o f San Diego Gas and E l e c t r i c Company (SDGEE:) who
presented the e f f o r t s o f SDGEE and now along w i t h ERDA on t h e geothermal t e s t
f a c i l i t y associated w i t h t h e Magma w e l l s . I n some cases t h e geophysical
analyses o f economic f i e l d s can be expanded t o new prospects. Wooding, w h i l e
recommending t h i s approach, c a u t i o n e d t h a t t h e same geophysics d o n ' t neces-
s a r i l y y i e l d t h e same w e l l t e s t . More c o r r e l a t i o n between w e l l t e s t data and
the geophysical data a r e r e q u i r e d . Gould presented t h e t a s k TRW Systems and
t h e Bureau of Reclamation has assigned t o lntercomp. The i n i t i a l phase of
t h i s assigment i n v o l v e s a n a l y s i s o f c u r r e n t geophysical data i n c o n s i d e r a t i o n
of f i v e w e l l s on East Mesa operated by t h e Bureau o f Reclamation. Later
phases of t h i s study concern r e s e r v e s , f i e l d development and i n j e c t i on.
lntercomp i s a l s o working w i t h Republic Geothermal on t h e n o r t h end o f East
Mesa.

Another t h r u s t o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n expressed concern about t h e l e n g t h o f

t i m e and i n i t i a l c a p i t a l investment t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e e l e c t r i c a l power produc-
t i o n from geothermal energy. W h i l e n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y f i e l d development,
Woitke discussed PGEE's r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h steam developers. The schedule f o r
The Geysers development i s t y p i c a l o f Burmah's experience. Also presented
were two items now causing some concern o r d e l a y i n f i e l d development a t The
Geysers. The f i r s t was a s t a t u s r e p o r t on H2S abatement. Since t h i s presenta-
t i o n , PGEE has made a d d i t i o n a l commitments t o abate e x i s t i n g p l a n t s before
development i s expanded. The second item expressed an investor-owned u t i l i t y ' s
concern about c e r t a i n Federal l e a s i n g r e g u l a t i o n s . Unless these concerns a r e
r e s o l v e d i n a t i m e l y manner, power p l a n t c o n s t r u c t i o n may be delayed. Com-
ments such as t h e need t o o p t i m i z e t h e c o s t per k i l o w a t t - h o u r and r i o t maximize
t o t a l energy recovery r e f l e c t t h i s concern. Kuwada cautioned i n h i s presenta-
t i o n t h a t some o p t i m a l f i e l d development f o r energy may n o t m i n i m i z e p r o d u c t i o n

- 8-
problems. S p e c i f i c a l l y t h e r e i s an e a r l y requirement t h a t t h e e f f e c t s o f
d i s s o l v e d gases and s o l i d s be considered. S c h e r e r ' s approach t o o p t i m a l
r a t e o f energy e x t r a c t i o n appears t o apply n o t o n l y t o geothermal developers,
b u t a l s o t o governmental agencies a s a p l a n n i n g guide.

A l s o expressed was t h e need f o r v a l i d data f o r economic models and

reservoir stimulators. Dorfman expressed t h e need f o r modeling of geo-
pressured prospects t o know how t o b e s t produce geopressured f l u i d s . However,
he p o i n t e d o u t t h e r e i s l i m i t e d p u b l i s h e d data on f l o w c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
these f l u i d s f o r model v a l i d a t i o n . Some s e n s i t i v i t y a n a l y s i s and examination
o f methodology i s r e q u i r e d t o o b t a i n assured f o r e c a s t s from r e s e r v o i r stimu-
l a t o r s . Knutsen o f BPNL presented Bloomster's paper. P r e l i m i n a r y r e s u l t s
i n d i c a t e d the most important v a r i a b l e s t h a t determine t h e c o s t o f geothermal
energy.

SESSION I V - WELL STIMULATION - Manuel Nathenson

The s t i m u l a t i o n o f geothermal r e s e r v o i r s i n v o l v e s techniques f o r a r t i -

f i c i a l l y c r e a t i n g h i g h e r p e r m e a b i l i t y i n t h e r e i o n near a w e l l over a
d i s t a n c e o f a few c e n t i m e t r e s t o an o r d e r o f 10 m.3 Current geothermal
p r a c t i c e i n v o l v e s h y d r a u l i c pumping t o reopen producing h o r i z o n s clogged
d u r i n g d r i l l i n g , t o remove v e i n d e p o s i t s , and t o f r a c t u r e t o a minor e x t e n t
the r e g i o n v e r y near t o t h e we1 1 ( T h a s s o n and Thorsteinsson, 1975).
Current research concerns massive h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s and the c r e a t i o n of
r u b b l e chimneys and enhanced p e r m e a b i l i t y zones u s i n g e x p l o s i v e s . A r t i c l e s
i n t h e volume e d i t e d by Kruger and O t t e (1973) g i v e an overview o f several
types of s t i m u l a t i o n p r o p o s a l s . The two major q u e s t i o n s t o be answered
about t h e schemes are: w i l l they work i n t h e i d e a l i z e d w o r l d o f t h e computer
o r l a b o r a t o r y model and w i l l they work i n t h e f i e l d ? Because of t h e expense
of f i e l d experiments and t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f o b t a i n i n g enough d a t a t o i n t e r p r e t
f i e l d gxperiments, p h y s i c a l and mathematical models a r e important t o o l s f o r
research.

Several papers were g i v e n on h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s and the e x t r a c t i o n o f

energy from h o t r o c k u s i n g water i n j e c t e d i n t o f l a t cracks. AbB, Mura and
Keer ( t h i s volume) d i s c u s s t h e problem o f how t o s o l v e t h e equations f o r t h e
shape of a c r a c k under s t r e s s and pressure g r a d i e n t s along t h e crack. They
p l a n t o b u i l d up a s o l u t i o n by u s i n g d i s l o c a t i o n theory. The equations f o r
the coupled f l u i d - a n d solid- mechanical problem o f c r a c k growth were presented
and v a r i o u s approximations i n t r o d u c e d t h a t w i l l a l l o w t h e problem t o be
solved. Secor and P o l l a r d (1975) have solved f o r t h e shape of a c r a c k under
the i n f l u e n c e of a h y d r o s t a t i c g r a d i e n t i n t h e c r a c k and a c o n s t a n t g r a d i e n t
of l i t h o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e f a r from t h e c r a c k by superimposing a number o f p l a n e
s t r a i n e l a s t i c i t y s o l u t i o n s . They a p p l y t h i s s o l u t i o n t o d i s c u s s a t what
l e n g t h t h e c r a c k becomes u n s t a b l e as a f u n c t i o n o f f r a c t u r e toughness and
t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n g r a d i e n t between l i t h o s t a t i c s t r e s s and h y d r o s t a t i c pressure.

- 9-
P o l l a r d (1975) has a l s o i n v e s t i g d t e d t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e ground s u r f a c e on
c r a c k shape and s t a b i l i t y and t h e deformation o f t h e ground s u r f a c e d u r i n g
subsurface c r a c k i n g . Dundurs ( t h i s volume) i s modeling f r a c t u r e s by d r i l l i n g
f i n e holes i n t o a b l o c k of epoxy r e s i n , cementing tubes i n t o t h e h o l e s and
s u p p l y i n g mercury under p r e s s u r e t o form h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s . One o f t h e
experiments was f o r a c r a c k p r o p a g a t i n g p a r a l l e l t o an e x i s t i n g p r e s s u r i z e d
c r a c k a t a d i s t a n c e l e s s than t h e s i z e o f t h e f i r s t crack. The second c r a c k
t u r n e d and j o i n e d t h e f i r s t crack. The j o i n t was on t h e s i d e ( n o t t i p ) o f
t h e f i r s t c r a c k and was o f a v e r y small s i z e . F u r t h e r p r e s s u r i z a t i o n o f t h e
second c r a c k enlarged t h e f i r s t c r a c k b u t t h e second c r a c k d i d n o t expand.
Byerlee, Lockner, and Weeks (1975) have s t u d i e d h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s i n sand-
stone a t c o n f i n i n g pressures t o 1000 bars and d i f f e r e n t i a l s t r e s s e s t o 4000
bars. A t h i g h i n j e c t i o n r a t e s , h y d r a u l i c t e n s i o n f r a c t u r e s were formed, b u t
a t low i n j e c t i o n r a t e s , shear f r a c t u r e s were formed.

Murphy ( t h i s volume) i s a n a l y z i n g t h e heat t r a n s f e r t o a c i r c u l a r c r a c k

whose f r a c t u r e gap w i d t h v a r i e s across t h e c r a c k f o r t h e l i m i t i n g case o f no
mechanism f o r p o r o s i t y g e n e r a t i o n , so t h a t h e a t i s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e c r a c k
o n l y by conduction. The c r a c k i s assumed open so t h a t t h e formula f o r f l o w
r e s i s t a n c e i n a t h i n channel can be used and t h e conduction problem i s solved
t o p r o v i d e a k e r n e l f o r t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h e f l u i d f l o w equation ( i n c l u d i n g
buoyancy) and energy e q u a t i o n i n t h e crack. McFarland (1975) has s o l v e d
s e v e r a l problems f o r heat t r a n s f e r and f l u i d f l o w i n c l u d i n g buoyancy i n a
crack. The f l o w i n c i r c u l a r c r a c k s o f e l l i p t i c a l cross s e c t i o n i s !;alved f o r
cases i n which the c r a c k i s e i t h e r p a r t l y f i l l e d w i t h porous m a t e r i a l o r i s
open. The c r a c k may c o n t r a c t or r e t a i n i t s shape. B a i a n t , Nemat-Nasser, and
Ohtsubo ( t h i s volume) a r e u s i n g f i n i t e element methods t o s o l v e f o r t h e i n i t i a -
t i o n and e x t e n s i o n o f f r a c t u r e s i n h o t d r y r o c k and f o r t h e c i r c u l a t i o n of
water and heat t r a n s f e r i n t h e f r a c t u r e d zone. I n an example, they compare
a n a l y t i c a l and numerical s o l u t i o n s f o r t h e temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r water
f l o w i n g i n a stream tube and g a i n i n g heat by conduction from t h e surrounding
rocks.

The progress o f f i e l d s t u d i e s t o develop t h e e x t r a c t i o n o f energy u s i n g

h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s has been r e c e n t l y d e s c r i b e d by Smith, Aamodt, P o t t e r , and
Brown (1975). A w e l l d r i l l e d t o a depth o f 2928 m has a bottom- hole tempera-
t u r e of 197°C. Various f r a c t u r i n g experiments have been performed. For
example, w i t h a packer s e t a t 2917 m y a s i n g l e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e was c r e a t e d
a t a s u r f a c e pumping pressure o f 120 bars w i t h a c a l c u l a t e d c r a c k r a d i u s of
57 m . A second w e l l r e c e n t l y d r i l l e d t o a depth o f 3060 m has a bottom- hole
temperature of 2 0 3 O C (H. D. Murphy, W r i t t e n Commun., 1976; Aamodt, 1976).
These two w e l l s have been connected by what i s thought t o be a system o f
hydraulic fractures.

The second s t i m u l a t i o n technique discussed a t t h e workshop was t h e

c r e a t i o n o f P e r m e a b i l i t y by e x p l o s i o n s . McKee and Hanson ( t h i s vollume and
1975) propose t h a t t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y i n t h e f r a c t u r d zone beyond t h e c a v i t y
5
should s c a l e as l/r5 f o r a s p h e r i c a l b l a s t and l / r f o r a c y l i n d r i c a l b l a s t
where r i s d i s t a n c e from ttie shot p o i n t . , Kruger ( t h i s volume) and Ihis
colleagues a r e l o o k i n g a t v a r i o u s , a s p e c t s o f heat and mass t r a n s f e r . r e l e v a n t

-10-
t o s t i m u l a t e d r e s e r v o i r s . Hunsbedt, Kruger, and London have b u i l t a l a b o r a -
t o r y model o f a r u b b l e chimney t o study t h e processes o f i n - p l a c e b o i l i n g ,
moving f l a s h f r o n t s , and two-phase f l o w . The i n i t i a l r o c k l o a d i n g has a h i g h
p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y so t h a t pressure g r a d i e n t s needed t o d r i v e t h e f l o w
a r e s m a l l . The system i s i n i t i a l l y f i l l e d w i t h l i q u i d water. As i t i s p r o -
duced from t h e t o p , e i t h e r no recharge o r recharge o f c o l d o r h o t w a t e r i s
added from t h e bottom. Plans a r e underway t o s c a l e these experiments t o
f i e l d - s i z e systems. Kuo, Brigham, and Kruger d e s c r i b e another experiment t o
measure heat and mass t r a n s f e r r a t e s from a sphere of porous m a t e r i a l i n a
b a t h of c i r c u l a t i n g f l u i d t o check i f heat t r a n s f e r r a t e s a r e enhanced by
mass d i f f u s i o n . R e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t mass t r a n s f e r by m o l e c u l a r d i f f u s i o n
i s such a s l o w process t h a t heat t r a n s f e r r a t e s a r e n o t a f f e c t e d . Stoker,
Kruger, and Umana have been l o o k i n g a t t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f radon as a d i a g n o s t i c
for reservoir studies. S i n c e t h e emanating power of a r o c k m a t e r i a l f o r
r e l e a s i n g radon i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e exposed s u r f a c e area, i t may be p o s s i b l e
t o r e l a t e radon measurements t o t h e increase i n s u r f a c e area caused by stimu-
lation. Since f i e l d d a t a a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e f o r s t i m u l a t e d r e s e r v o i r s ,
measurements a r e b e i n g made on p r o d u c t i o n from n a t u r a l systems t o develop
i n t e r p r e t i v e techniques.

Barnes and R i m s t i d t ( t h i s volume) a r e s t u d y i n g e q u i l i b r i u r n c h e m i s t r y

o f s i l i c a s o l u b i l i t y and k i n e t i c s o f t h e dominant r e a c t i o n s . Data o b t a i n e d
w i l l be u s e f u l f o r suggesting ways t o m a n i p u l a t e w e l l s i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t
s c a l e f o r m a t i o n d u r i n g t h e f l o w o f h o t water i n w e l l s and p i p e s . Sammis
( t h i s volume) discusses t h e modeling o f chemical r e a c t i o n s i n geothermal
r e s e r v o i r s . N a t u r a l f l u i d s i n hydrothermal c o n v e c t i o n systems have long
a q u i f e r residence times a t h i g h temperatures so t h a t they tend t o be i n
chemical e q u i l i b r i u m w i t h t h e i r h o s t rocks. The i n j e c t i o n o f c o l d water i n t o
a n a t u r a l o r s t i m u l a t e d geothermal r e s e r v o i r w i l l p r o v i d e a f l u i d t h a t i s n o t
i n e q u i l i b r i u m l e a d i n g t o p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f d e p o s i t i o n , s o l u t i o n , and redeposi-
t i o n depending upon t h e i n i t i a l d i s s o l v e d - s o l i d s c o n t e n t o f t h e f l u i d and i t s
subsequent temperature h i s t o r y . Summers, W i n k l e r , and B y e r l e e (1975) have
found s i g n i f i c a n t p e r m e a b i l i t y r e d u c t i o n s i n f l o w i n g water t h r o u g h g r a n i t e
a t h i g h temperatures, and Charles and Valagna (1975) d e s c r i b e a l t e r a t i o n
products i n t h e f l o w o f water through monzogranite a t h i g h temperature. The
r e s u l t s o f these and f u r t h e r s t u d i e s must be i n t e g r a t e d i n t o models o f f l u i d
i n j e c t i o n processes i n o r d e r t o assess p o t e n t i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s .

REFERENCES

Aamodt, R. L., 1976, H y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i n and communication between two

adjacent wellbores: EOS Trans., Am. Geophys. Union, v . 57 ( i n p r e s s ) .

Byerlee, J., Lockner, D . and Weeks, J., 1975, Tension f r a c t u r e s and shear
f r a c t u r e s produced d u r i n g h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e : EOS Trans., Am. Geophys.
Union, v. 56, p. 1060.

Charles, R. W . and Balagna, J. P., 1975, Monzo- granite a l t e r a t i o n i n a hydro-

thermal system: EOS Trans., Am. Geophys. Union, v. 56, p. 913.

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Kruger, Paul and O t t e , Carel, 1973, Geothermal energy- resources, p r o d u c t i o n ,
s t i m u l a t i o n : S t a n f o r d , CA., Stanford Univ. Press, 360 pp.

McFarland, R. D., 1975, Geothermal r e s e r v o i r models- - crack plane moldel:

Los Alamos S c i . Lab. Report LA-5947-MS, 18 pp.

McKee, C . R. and Hanson, M.E., 1975, E x p l o s i v e l y c r e a t e d p e r m e a b i l i t y from

s i n g l e charges: SOC. Petroleum Engineers SPE 5414, 7 pp.

P o l l a r d , D. D., 1975, On t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e ground surface and

hydraulic fractures: EOS Trans., Am. Geophys. Union, v. 56, p. 1060.

Secor, D. T., J r . and P o l l a r d , D. D., 1975, On t h e s t a b i l i t y o f 0pe.n h y d r a u l i c

fractures i n the Earth's crust: Geophysical Research L e t t e r s , v. 2,
NO. 1 1 , pp. 510-513.

Smith, M. C., Aamodt, R. L., P o t t e r , R. M., and Brown, D. W . , 1975, Man-made

geothermal r e s e r v o i r s : U n i t e d Nations Symposium on t h e Development and
Use o f Geothermal Resources, 2nd, San Francisco, 1975, Proc. ( i n p r e s s ) .

Summers, R., W i n k l e r , K., and B y e r l e e , J., 1975, P e r m e a b i l i t y changes d u r i n g

f l u i d f l o w through h o t g r a n i t e : EOS Trans., Am. Geophys. Union, v. 56, 1060.
Tbmasson, J. and Thorsteinsson, T., 1975, Use o f i n j e c t i o n packer f o r h y d r o t h e r -
mal w e l l s t i m u l a t i o n i n I c e l a n d [abs.]: U.N. Symp. on Development and Use
of Geothermal Resources, 2nd., San Francisco, abs. no. VI-45.

SESSION V - MODELLING - James W. Mercer

The goal o f t h i s r e p o r t i s t o summarize t h e present s t a t u s of: geothermal

r e s e r v o i r m o d e l l i n g , and t o i n d i c a t e t h e f u t u r e goals o f geothermal1 m o d e l l i n g
research. The geothermal m o d e l l i n g e f f o r t presented a t t h i s workshop i s
c a t e g o r i z e d i n F i g . 1. The major s u b d i v i s i o n s a r e m o d e l l i n g o f n a t u r a l geo-
thermal systems and m o d e l l i n g o f producing geothermal systems. These two
s u b d i v i s i o n s were chosen because, i n g e n e r a l , they emphasize two d i f f e r e n t
viewpoints. M o d e l l i n g of n a t u r a l geothermal systems i s u s u a l l y done i n t h e
v e r t i c a l c r o s s - s e c t i o n and emphasis i s placed on examining f r e e c o n v e c t i o n i n
o r d e r t o g a i n i n s i g h t i n t o t h e n a t u r a l ( p r e - e x p l o i t a t i o n ) behavior and forma-
t i o n of geothermal r e s e r v o i r s . M o d e l l i n g o f producing geothermal systems i s
u s u a l l y done i n t h e a r e a l p l a n e . T h i s approach emphasizes s i m u l a t i n g e x p l o i t a -
t i o n e f f e c t s i n o r d e r t o reproduce observed f i e l d c o n d i t i o n s , and h o p e f u l l y
p r e d i c t f u t u r e f i e l d c o n d i t i o n s . M o d e l l i n g associated w i t h p r o d u c t i o n can be
subdivided f u r t h e r as shown i n F i g . 1. These d i v i s i o n s w i l l be discussed l a t e r .

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 Geothermal Modelling

I 1
Modelling Modelling
Natural Systems Producing Systems
I
Porous
I I
Fractured
I
Subsidence
1
Hydrothermal

+
Reservoir Re servoir React ions
Performance Performance

Single-phase Two-Phase

(Hot-Water) (Steam-Water)

Figure 1.--Status of Geothermal Modelling.

-13-
 Researchers i n v o l v e d w i t h t h e m o d e l l i n g o f n a t u r a l geothermal systems
i n c l u d e ( i n t h e o r d e r o f t h e i r p r e s e n t a t i o n s ) : R. A. Wooding, H. W. Shen,
P . Cheng and M. Sorey. D r . Wooding c o n s i d e r s a n a l y t i c a l and f i n i t e - d i f f e r e n c e
techniques a p p l i e d t o f r e e c o n v e c t i o n . For reasons o f economics, he g e n e r a l l y
r e s t r i c t s h i s models t o two dimensions. To examine t h e three- dimensional
aspects of t h e problem, he i s c o l l a b o r a t i n g w i t h D r . Shen, who i s u s i n g phys-
i c a l model 1 i n g (Hele-Shaw c e l l models) t o examine f r e e convection. The p h y s i -
c a l models developed by D r . Shen a r e a l s o being used t o v e r i f y t h e numerical
models. D r . Cheng uses f i n i t e - d i f f e r e n c e techniques t o examine t h e f r e e con-
v e c t i o n associated w i t h v o l c a n i c i s l a n d s , such as t h e Hawaiian I s l a n d s . He
has a l s o developed a n a l y t i c a l s o l u t i o n s f o r f r e e c o n v e c t i o n caused by v a r i o u s
types of magmatic i n t r u s i o n s . D r . Sorey examines t h e heat and mass t r a n s f e r
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h v a r i o u s h o t s p r i n g geometries. He uses a numerical method
based on an i n t e g r a t e d f i n i t e - d i f f e r e n c e scheme.

I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t a l l o f t h e above models c o n s i d e r s i n g l e -
phase (hot- water) f l o w . A l o g i c a l e x t e n s i o n o f t h i s work would be t o i n c l u d e
t h e vapor phase. Such a two-phase, c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l model could a i d i n t e s t i n g
t h e v a r i o u s hypotheses concerning vapor- dominated geothermal systems. Although
such a model was n o t presented a t t h i s workshop, Dr. T. Lasseter (who was
i n v i t e d t o t h e workshop b u t c o u l d n o t a t t e n d ) has considered t h i s problem
u s i n g a model based on i n t e g r a t e d f i n i t e - d i f f e r e n c e techniques.

Researchers i n v o l v e d w i t h t h e m o d e l l i n g o f producing geothermal systems

i n c l u d e ( i n t h e o r d e r o f t h e i r p r e s e n t a t i o n s ) : C. R. Faust, J . W. Mercer,
G . F. P i n d e r , W. G. Gray, J . W. P r i t c h e t t , 2 . P. Bafant, S . Nemat-Nasser,
H. Ohtsubo, C. G. Sammis, A. B a r e l l i , R. C e l a t i , G. M a n e t t i , G. N e r i , S . B o r i e s ,
and T. M a i n i . D r s . Faust and Mercer have developed f i n i t e - e l e m e n t and f i n i t e -
d i f f e r e n c e models f o r s i m u l a t i n g p r o d u c t i o n o f geothermal r e s e r v o i r s . These
models can t r e a t s i n g l e - and two-phase (steam- water) f l o w , and a r e capable o f
s i m u l a t i n g t h e conversion of a compressed-water r e g i o n t o a two-phase r e g i o n .
Drs. P i n d e r and Gray have c o n c e n t r a t e d o? t h e o r e t i c a l equation development
and computer code implementation ( u s i n g f i n i t e - e l e m e n t techniques) f o r m u l t i -
phase f l o w (steam- water), subsidence, and f l o w i n f r a c t u r e media. O i r . P r i t c h e t t
has developed a f i n i t e - d i f f e r e n c e model f o r m u l t i p h a s e f l o w and heat t r a n s p o r t .
I t i s proposed t h a t t h i s model be coupled w i t h a c o n s o l i d a t i o n model developed
by S . K. Garg i n o r d e r t o s i m u l a t e subsidence and induced seismic a c t i v i t y .
Drs. B a f a n t , Nemat-Nasser and Ohtsubo use f i n i t e - e l e m e n t techniques t o examine
t h e f o r m a t i o n of f r a c t u r e s ( b o t h h y d r a u l i c a l l y and t h e r m a l l y induced) and t h e
subsequent f l o w of water i n t h e f r a c t u r e s . D r . Sammis examines rock- water
i n t e r a c t i o n s u s i n g f i n i t e - d i f f e r e n c e and experimental techniques. He c o n s i d e r s
d i s s o l u t i o n and p r e c i p i t a t i o n r e a c t i o n and a l t e r a t i o n r e a c t i o n e f f e c t s on:
( 1 ) r e a c t i o n heat (chemical energy), ( 2 ) changes i n p e r m e a b i l i t y and p o r o s i t y ,
and (3) changes i n t h e thermodynamic p r o p e r t i e s of water. Drs. B a r e l 1 1 ,
C e l a t i , M a n e t t i and N e r i examine a n a l y t i c a l l y t h e pressure h i s t o r y o f a p a r t i a l
p e n e t r a t i n g w e l l i n a hot- water r e s e r v o i r . D r . Bories i s attempting t o deter-
mine e x p e r i m e n t a l l y t h e heat t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t s between f l u i d and r o c k i n
a porous system undergoing conversion from s i n g l e - t o two-phase f l o w . Finally,
D r . Maini uses a n a l y t i c a l s o l u t i o n s to examine downhole heat exchange.

-14-
 Another paper, which does n o t f i t d i r e c t l y i n t o t h e scheme i n F i g . 1 ,
b u t which encompasses a l l o f t h e m o d e l l i n g work, was g i v e n by R. A t h e r t o n on
general s e n s i t i v i t y t h e o r y . By a p p r o p r i a t e l y m o d i f y i n g a g i v e n s e t of p a r t i a l
d i f f e r e n t i a l equations, a s e n s i t i v i t y a n a l y s i s may be performed on b o t h equa-
t i o n parameters and boundary c o n d i t i o n s t o determine i n which space domains
they a r e important.

Before d i s c u s s i n g f u t u r e g o a l s o f m o d e l l i n g , i t should be noted t h a t

t h e r e were o t h e r papers which d e a l t i n p a r t w i t h modelling; however, they w i l l
be included i n t h e o t h e r r a p p o r t e u r s ' r e p o r t s .

Returning t o F i g . 1 , i t i s e v i d e n t from the papers presented t h a t model-

l i n g of porous r e s e r v o i r performance, b o t h s i n g l e - and two-phase, i s a t an
a p p l i c a t i o n stage. However, m o d e l l i n g o f f r a c t u r e d r e s e r v o i r performance,
subsidence and hydrothermal r e a c t i o n s needs f u r t h e r research and development
before f i e l d a p p l i c a t i o n s o f t h i s t y p e a r e p o s s i b l e . Extensions o f t h e models
presented i n c l u d e : (1) i n c o r p o r a t e a we1 l b o r e model and/or near-we1 l b o r e
model w i t h a r e s e r v o i r model, (2) i n c l u d e t h e equation o f s t a t e f o r s a l i n e
water, (3) couple t h e r e s e r v o i r model w i t h a management model, (4) perform
f u r t h e r s e n s i t i v i t y a n a l y s i s , and (5) i n c l u d e more rock- water i n t e r a c t i o n .

One of t h e most i m p o r t a n t p o i n t s made a t t h i s workshop i s t h e need f o r

people i n m o d e l l i n g t o work more c l o s e l y w i t h people doing l a b o r a t o r y and
f i e l d work, i n o r d e r t o determine what d a t a a r e needed and w h a t assumptions
are valid. Some o f t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s from l a b o r a t o r y work i n c l u d e : ( 1 ) thermal
e f f e c t s on r e l a t i v e and a b s o l u t e permeabil i t y , (2) thermal e f f e c t s on d i s p e r -
s i o n , ( 3 ) chemical r e a c t i o n r a t e s , (4) c a p i l l a r y pressure e f f e c t s , and (5) heat
t r a n s f e r r a t e s between f l u i d and r o c k . C o n t r i b u t i o n s from f i e l d work i n c l u d e :
( 1 ) d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f permeabil i t i e s and p o r o s i t i e s , (2) r e s e r v o i r boundaries
and t h i c k n e s s , (3) i n i t i a l pressure and temperature/enthal py d i s t r i b u t i o n s ,
and (4) r e s e r v o i r geology.

I t i s t h e o p i n i o n o f t h i s r a p p o r t e u r t h a t t h e most important goal f o r geo-

thermal m o d e l l i n g i n d i c a t e d a t t h i s workshop, i s t h e need t o make f i e l d a p p l i -
c a t i o n s , and i f these a p p l i c a t i o n s a r e t o be s u c c e s s f u l , i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o have
good communication between people doing m o d e l l i n g and people doing w e l l t e s t i n g
and f i e l d work.

- 1 5-
 A PROGRAMMATIC V I E W OF GEOTHERMAL
RESERVOIR ENGINEERING

R i t c h i e B. C o r y e l l
N a t i o n a l Science Foundation
Washington, D. C. 20550

I w i l l make my remarks b r i e f i n t h e i n t e r e s t o f g e t t i n g on w i t h t h e
s c i e n t i f i c s u b j e c t o f t h i s workshop, which I l i k e t o regard as t h e !science
o f geothermal r e s e r v o i r s . To be more s p e c i f i c , we a r e n o t concerned here
w i t h t h e science o r technology o f how t o f i n d and how t o assess t h e energy
p o t e n t i a l o f these r e s e r v o i r s ( a l b e i t i m p o s s i b l e t o make a c l e a n s e p a r a t i o n
between t h e r e l a t e d t e c h n o l o g i e s ) ; b u t r a t h e r o u r purpose i s t o focus on
t h e behavior o f r e s e r v o i r s under t h e s t i m u l u s o f p r o d u c t i o n and commercial
e x t r a c t i o n o f heat.

A t NSF we f e e l t h i s i s a h i g h l y opportune moment t o convene such a group

as t h i s . Many research and development e f f o r t s a r e now underway i n t h i s
area, and many have reached t h a t p o i n t where s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s have been
achieved and where new data and new q u e s t i o n s a r e b e i n g generated a t a r a p i d
pace. ( I n a moment I w i l l review t h e recent h i s t o r y of how many o f these
e f f o r t s were i n i t i a t e d through t h e NSF Geothermal Program.)

Therefore, NSF i s pleased t o support S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y i n sponsoring

t h i s workshop, and i n b e h a l f o f t h e Foundation I want t o welcome you here.
We have attempted t o gather those who a r e c u r r e n t l y a c t i v e i n geothermal
r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g research and who a r e i n t h e f o r e f r o n t o f new knowledge
and experience o f t h i s r a p i d l y expanding f i e l d .

I n t h i s o b j e c t i v e , I t h i n k D r . Paul Kruger and h i s colleagues a t Stanford

have succeeded admirably. The response t o workshop i n v i t a t i o n s , I understand,
has been e n t h u s i a s t i c and almost 100% i n acceptances. Some request!; t o a t -
tend had t o be discouraged, n o t because t h e people a r e n o t smart enough and
n o t because they l a c k a l e g i t i m a t e i n t e r e s t i n t h e s u b j e c t area and f i n d i n g s
o f t h e workshop. Rather, attendance had t o be c o n s t r a i n e d t o a manageable
s i z e so as t o enable f r u i t f u l and spontaneous exchange o f ideas among t h e
a c t i v e researchers i n t h e f i e l d .

Because t h e r e i s a wide community o f i n t e r e s t i n these matters:, 1 have

asked Stanford t o prepare a r e p o r t summarizing t h e papers, d i s c u s s i o n s and
f i n d i n g s o f these t h r e e days. They have agreed t o do t h i s , and t h e r e p o r t
w i l l be made a v a i l a b l e t o a l l who a r e i n t e r e s t e d . Furthermore, I f u l l y
expect t o see numerous conferences and symposia i n t h e coming year devoted
t o t h i s and o t h e r areas o f geothermal science. These meetings, a t which
many o f you w i l l present papers, w i l l p r o v i d e ample o p p o r t u n i t y f o r t h e
d i f f u s i o n o f new and c u r r e n t knowledge t o t h e whole community o f t e c h n i c a l
and commercial i n t e r e s t .

I want t o extend a s p e c i a l welcome t o t h e workshop p a r t i c i p a n t s who

have come h e r e from o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . You a r e n o t o n l y welcome i n o u r
c o u n t r y t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h i s workshop, b u t we l o o k w i t h a n t i c i p a t i o n t o

-16-
s t r e n g t h e n personal and p r o f e s s i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h you t h a t w i l l be
o f mutual b e n e f i t i n o u r r e s e a r c h e f f o r t s i n t h e f u t u r e .

Now, i t may i n t e r e s t you t o know how some o f t h e U. S . e f f o r t s were

s t a r t e d . The f i r s t p r o j e c t t o be i n i t i a t e d by NSF was r i g h t h e r e a t
Stanford. Paul Kruger i n S t a n f o r d ' s C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g Department had some
ideas about t a p p i n g steam o u t o f a r u b b l e chimney c r e a t e d by an underground
e x p l o s i o n i n h o t rock, and he wanted t o e x p l o r e t h e thermal and mass t r a n s -
f e r processes t o be expected i n such a s i t u a t i o n and t o f i n d ways t o e x t r a c t
t h e h e a t . Henry Ramey, o v e r i n t h e Petroleum Engineering Department,
wanted answers t o q u e s t i o n s o f fundamental b e h a v i o r o f h o t water and steam
t h a t had a r i s e n i n h i s c o n s u l t i n g p r a c t i c e a t The Geysers and o u t o f h i s
e x t e n s i v e e x p e r i e n c e i n h o t w a t e r f l o o d i n g and o t h e r thermal s t i m u l a t i o n
methods i n o i l r e s e r v o i r s . T h i s p r o j e c t was s t a r t e d i n J u l y 1972.

Take a l o o k a t F i g u r e 1 , and see how t h e f u n d i n g has progressed a t

NSF i n t h i s i m p o r t a n t area. Our f u n d i n g i n r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g r e s e a r c h
has peaked i n FY 1975 as i n every area o f t h e NSF Geothermal Program, It
i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e i n r e t r o s p e c t , t h a t 20% o f t h e $13.4 m i l l i o n t o t a l
investment i n geothermal energy b y NSF o v e r a f i v e - y e a r p e r i o d has been
devoted t o r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g . The investment grew a t a somewhat l e s s e r
r a t e i n t h e e a r l y p e r i o d t h a n d i d t h e program as a whole, b u t f o l l o w i n g
t h e f o r m a t i o n o f ERDA i n FY 1975, I t has become a l a r g e r f r a c t i o n of t h e
whole. T h i s increased r e l a t i v e emphasis d e r i v e s from o u r p o l i c y t o focus,
n o t on t h e e n g i n e e r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s , n o t on t h e u t i l i z a t i o n technology and
t h e p i l o t p l a n t s and t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n p l a n t s , and n o t on t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l
and n o n - t e c h n i c a l b a r r i e r s t o u t i l i z a t i o n , b u t r a t h e r on t h e fundamental
s c i e n c e problems i n h i b i t i n g t h e f u l l e s t development o f t h e resource,
C l e a r l y , problems c o n c e r n i n g r e s e r v o i r phenomena comprise a s i g n i f i c a n t
p a r t o f t h i s concern f o r new fundamental knowledge, and t h e NSF program i s
moving i n t h a t d i r e c t i o n .

F i n a l l y , f o r a word on o u r c u r r e n t l y a c t i v e p r o j e c t s , each o f w h i c h
w i l l be r e p o r t e d a t t h i s workshop, p l e a s e l o o k a t f i g u r e 2. Here I have
l i s t e d t h e g r a n t e e i n s t i t u t i o n s , t h e r e s e a r c h area o f each p r o j e c t , t h e
p r i n c i p a l i n v e s t i g a t o r , and t h e c u m u l a t i v e f u n d i n g through FY 1975. The
s t a t u s o f t h e r e s e a r c h r e p r e s e n t e d on t h i s l i s t w i l l u n f o l d i n t h e t h r e e
days ahead o f us.

I t i s g o i n g t o be a v e r y s t i m u l a t i n g t h r e e days, as n o t o n l y t h e NSF
research i s d e s c r i b e d b u t a l s o t h a t o f t h e U. S . G e o l o g i c a l Survey, i n
t h e ERDA l a b o r a t o r i e s , i n t h e f i e l d and i n l a b o r a t o r i e s o f p r i v a t e U. S .
companies, and i n f o r e i g n c o u n t r i e s w i t h a c t i v e geothermal programs and
who a r e r e p r e s e n t e d h e r e today.

-17-
1972 1973 1974
2 35

FY
1975
rl 29"

FY
1976

Figure 1 . R e s e r v o i r Engineering Support i n

t h e Geothermal Energy Program of
The N a t i o n a l Science Foundation.

-18-
 National Science Foundation

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY PROGRAM

RESERVOIR ENGINEERING PROJECTS

Pr i nci pal Fund i ng

Institution Research Investigator(5) thru FY75

Stanford U. laboratory experiments in Henry Ramey, Jr. $ 586,700

heat and mass transfer Paul Kruger
Penn State U. laboratory experiments in Hugh Barnes, 402 000
)

reservoir chemistry Wayne Burnham

Princeton U. numer i ca 1 mode 1 i ng of George Pi nder 249,500

Wairakei field by finite
element method
Colorado U. numerical modeling David Kassoy 248,300
problems by finite
difference methods

Sys tems Science numerical modeling of John Pritchett 378) 000

Salton Sea field by
finite difference
methods
U. of Hawaii* numerical modeling of Ping Cheng 61,100
coastal aquifer problem

Northwestern U. rock mechanics problems Hans Weer tman 213,900

in stimulation of geo-
thermal reservoirs

*Transferred to ERDA under Hawaii Geothermal Project

Figure 2

-1g-
 THE BIRTH OF GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIR ENGINEERING

Henry J. Ramey, Jr.

Petroleum Engineering Department
Stanford University
Stanford, CA 94305

The term "reservoir engineering'' arose within the field of study of

the development of gas and o i l reservoirs. One definition of reservoir
engineering i s the application of scientific principles to the drainage
problems arising during development and production of o i l and gas reservoirs.
Although many important physical laws concerning reservoir mechanics were
established during the first half of this century, reservoir engineering
has flourished mainly since the end of World War i l . The Combination of
the recognition of increasing energy requirements in a rapidly industrial-
izing world and the release of trained manpower following World War I I
abetted the development of the field of reservoir engineering. In the
1940's and 1950's oi 1 recovery processes such as underground combustion
of oil and oil recovery by steam and hot water injection received great
attention. The modern development of geothermal reservoirs also began
to accelerate about that time. The pioneering geothermal development in
Larderello, Italy, began the massive job of rebuilding the devastation of
World War I I . New Zealand began the important development of geothermal
power in the Wairakei steam field, and the Magma-Thermal Power Company
development of the Geysers in California, USA, followed thereafter.

Nevertheless, it was not until the early 1960's that petroleum

reservoir engineering principles were first applied to geothermal reservoir
problems. It appears that the first such study was conducted by Whiting
and Ramey in the mid 960's (Whiting and Ramey, 1969). As a result of
this work, Cady began an experimental study of the importance of capillary
pressure on boiling w thin porous media in 1967 (Cady, 1969), a line of
study which continues to this date, A second reservoir engineering study
of a geothermal field was presented by Ramey in 1968 concerning the Geysers
Geothermal Field in California.

Although reservoir engineering principles were widely known for 20

years prior to application to geothermal reservoirs, the birth of geothermal
reservoir engineering appears to date to the early 1960's. This is not to
say that geothermal reservoirs were not subject to scientific study closely
related to modern reservoir engineering. It appears that the types of
investigation were more closely aligned to the fields of geology, geophysics,
hydrology, and geochemistry.
The reason for this situation appears to lie in a misunderstanding
concerning petroleum reservoirs. In one state publication concerning
geothermal resources, it was remarked that because petroleum reservoi rs
were always closed pools and geothermal systems were always active hydro-
thermal systems, there was nothing applicable within the field of petroleum
reservoir engineering. The conclusion that geothermal systems were large
hydrothermal systems subject to natural "recharge" also had an effect. It

-20-
had been t h e o r i z e d t h a t geothermal systems c o u l d be se f- regenerating i f
developed p r o p e r l y . I t was o n l y necessary t o d i s c o v e r t h e n a t u r a l recharge
r a t e ( b o t h heat and f l u i d ) and produce a t t h a t r a t e t o have a s t e a d y - s t a t e
system which would never d e p l e t e . I t now appears t h a t few i f any n a t u r a l
systems can recharge a t t h e phenomenal r a t e s r e q u i r e d o r e l e c t r i c power
genera t i o n .

The remark t h a t petroleum r e s e r v o i r s s w e r e always closed p o o l s i s

i n c o r r e c t as w e l l . The f i r s t study o f o i l r e s e r v o i r performance s u b j e c t
t o water recharge ( i n f l u x ) was p u b l i s h e d i n 1930. The word " r e s e r v o i r "
i s now used i n t h e same sense as a "thermodynamic system.'' It i s possible
t o have t r a n s p o r t i n t o and o u t o f t h e system, o f course. L e t us t h e n t u r n
t o geothermal r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g as a new f i e l d of study.

Although many o f t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f r e s e r v o i r physics i n v o l v e d i n non-

i s o t h e r m a l o i l p r o d u c t i o n by f l u i d i n j e c t i o n ( o i l p r o d u c t i o n by underground
combustion and steam i n j e c t i o n ) a r e reasonably w e l l understood, i t i s n o t
s u r p r i s i n g t h a t some problems appear t o remain f o r geothermal r e s e r v o i r
p h y s i c s . For t h i s reason, Cady (1969) s t u d i e d geothermal system b e h a v i o r
w i t h t h e p h y s i c a l model p r i o r t o 1969. A s p e c u l a t i o n t h a t c a p i l l a r y
pressure might reduce t h e vapor pressure o f l i q u i d water t o a s u b s t a n t i a l
degree was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e Cady study. Although vapor pressure suppres-
s i o n was n o t n o t i c e d i n Cady's work w i t h an unconsolidated sand core, he
d i d make t h e s u r p r i s i n g o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t an isothermal d r y steam zone c o u l d
develop w i t h i n a few inches above a two-phase b o i l i n g zone which f o l l o w e d
t h e vapor p r e s s u r e c u r v e f o r water as pressure d e c l i n e d . A search for
c a p i l l a r y pressure e f f e c t s upon b o i l i n g c o n t i n u e s a t Stanford.

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o s c a l e a l l important p h y s i c a l
parameters between t h e f i e l d and t h e l a b o r a t o r y . Many i m p o r t a n t p h y s i c a l
phenomena have been d i s c o v e r e d by thorough a n a l y s i s o f f i e l d performance
data. However, f i e l d d a t a f o r geothermal systems a r e n o t r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e .
I n r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g i t appears t h a t t h e r e i s no hope o f e v e r p h y s i c a l l y
examining t h e r e s e r v o i r d i r e c t l y . I t i s n o t l i k e l y t h a t we s h a l l mine o r
exhume many r e s e r v o i r s . Thus, t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e r e s e r v o i r engineer
u s u a l l y i n v o l v e s a two- step process: ( 1 ) t o make and i n t e r p r e t i n d i r e c t
measurements of t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e r e s e r v o i r , and
( 2 ) t o employ t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n and b a s i c p h y s i c a l p r i n c i p l e s t o f o r e c a s t
t h e b e h a v i o r o f t h e r e s e r v o i r under any p o t e n t i a l l y useful p r o d u c t i o n
-
scheme. The second s t e p assumes t h a t a l l b a s i c p h y s i c a l p r i n c i p l e s a r e
known. H e r e i n l i e s t h e need f o r much f i e l d and l a b o r a t o r y experimental
work. Even i n t h e much o l d e r f i e l d o f petroleum r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g ,
i t i s c l e a r t h a t much remains t o be d i s c o v e r e d concerning b a s i c p h y s i c a l
p r i n c i p l e s . See r e c e n t d i s c u s s i o n s o f r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g b y Wyll i e
(1962) and Ramey (1971).

Ramey p o i n t e d o u t t h a t such i m p o r t a n t i n f o r m a t i o n as can be determined

by d i r e c t measurement on r e s e r v o i r samples (cores) o f t e n leaves much t o be
d e s i r e d . The d i f f i c u l t y w i t h c o r e a n a l y s i s i n f o r m a t i o n l i e s i n r e l a t i n g
i t t o the reservoir. Indeed, as W y l l i e has p o i n t e d o u t , why should we
assume t h a t t h e r e s e r v o i r i s l i k e t h e minuscule volume o f r o c k samples
taken o u t of t h e r e s e r v o i r and discarded? Many i m p o r t a n t computations

-21 -
and d e c i s i o n s a r e reached, n e v e r t h e l e s s , upon t h e b a s i s o f q u a n t i t a t i v e
i n f o r m a t i o n d e r i v e d from c o r e samples.

By now, i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n d e r i v e d from cores should be

w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d and s t a n d a r d i z e d . I t i s n o t ! There i s no consensus
o f p r o p e r methods o f h a n d l i n g c o r e data. W y l l i e made an eloquent p l e a
t h a t t h e approach t o r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g be h o l i s t i c ( t h a t t h e d e t e r -
m i n a t i o n s be made i n wholes, n o t i n p a r t s - - f o r example, t h a t "what
m a t t e r s i s t h e r o c k u n i t and n o t samples o f a r b i t r a r y s i z e t h a t may
have been taken from i t " ) . He c i t e d p r e s s u r e b u i l d u p and drawdown
t e s t i n g . Determining t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e r e s e r v o i r by i n - s i t u
measurements u s i n g w e l l s as t h e i n p u t and o u t p u t f l o w faces o f t h e
r e s e r v o i r " core" makes a g r e a t deal o f sense. R e s e r v o i r s i m u l a t i o n by
d i g i t a l computer i s a n o t h e r h i g h l y p o p u l a r t e c h n i q u e t h a t embodies t h e
h o l i s t i c approach. We a t t e m p t t o generate a d e t a i l e d ' d e s c r i p t i o n o f a
r e s e r v o i r t o match a l l known performance data. I f t h e matching i s suc-
c e s s f u l , we assume t h a t a reasonably a c c u r a t e model o f t h e a c t u a l r e s e r v o i r
system i s a v a i l a b l e and employ i t to f o r e c a s t b e h a v i o r under v a r i o u s
o p e r a t i o n a l schemes. To r e s t a t e t h i s s i t u a t i o n , performance matching
c o n s i s t s o f d e v e l o p i n g an n- dimensional mathematical r e s e r v o i r mode.1
t h a t responds t o model f l u i d p r o d u c t i o n as t h e p r o t o t y p e responds t o
a c t u a l f l u i d p r o d u c t i o n . The "response" i n v o l v e d u s u a l l y means p r e s s u r e
response. I n t h e case o f geothermal systems, we g e n e r a l i z e p r o d u c t i o n t o
i n c l u d e b o t h f l u i d and energy, and response t o i n c l u d e pressure, temperature,
e n t h a l p y , q u a l i t y , and composition. The b i r t h o f geothermal r e s e r v o i r
e n g i n e e r i n g i s accomplished, and we a w a i t t h e development o f t h e c h i l d .

References

Cady, G. V . 1969. Model S t u d i e s o f Geothermal F l u i d P r o d u c t i o n . Ph.D.

d i s s e r t a t i o n , Stanford U n i v e r s i t y , Stanford, C a l i f o r n i a .

Ramey, H. J., J r . 1971. R e s e r v o i r Engineering i n t h e 7 0 ' s and 80%.

J o u r n a l of Petroleum Technology, p. 33.

Ramey, H. J., J r . 1968. A R e s e r v o i r Engineering Study o f t h e Geysers

Geothermal F i e l d . Submitted as evidence, Reich and Reich, P e t i t i o n e r s
v. Commissioner o f I n t e r n a l Revenue, 1969 Tax Court o f t h e U.S., 52.T.C.
No. 74, 1970.
W h i t i n g , R. L., and H. J. Ramey, J r . 1969. A p p l i c a t i o n o f M a t e r i a l and
Energy Balances t o Geothermal Steam P r o d u c t i o n . J o u r n a l o f Petroleum
Technology, v. 21, pp. 893-900.

W y l l i e , M. R. J. 1962. R e s e r v o i r Mechanics- - Stylized Myth o r P o t e n t i a l

Science? Journal o f Petroleum Technology, pp. 583-588.

-22-
 SUMMARY D E S C R I P T I O N OF RESEARCH A C T I V I T I E S

D. R. Kassoy
Mechanical Engineering Department
U n i v e r s i t y o f Cclorado
Bou 1 d e r , Colorado 80302

The b a s i c goal o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Colorado Geothermal Research

Program has been t o assess, c h a r a c t e r i z e and model the myriad o f p h y s i c a l
processes o c c u r r i n g i n t h e geothermal environment. While d e v e l o p i n g an
understanding o f t h e fundamental n a t u r e of these phenomena we can c o n s t r u c t
a comprehensive model o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f a g i v e n geothermal system. Such
a r e s u l t should prove u s e f u l i n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f s u r f a c e geophysical
measurements and f o r t h e general development o f a geothermal f i e l d . Our
s t u d i e s spanning t h e range from heat and mass t r a n s f e r process i n hydro-
thermal c o n v e c t i o n anomalies t o t h e p o s s i b l e appearance of d i l a t a n c y due
t o l a r g e r a t e s o f l i q u i d w i t h d r a w a l , a r e c a r r i e d o u t by a d i v e r s e group o f
engineers, g e o p h y s i c i s t s g e o l o g i s t s , s e i s m o l o g i s t s and e x p e r t s i n computa-
t i o n . Much o f t h e e f f o r t has been c a r r i e d o u t w i t h t h e c o o p e r a t i o n of t h e
geothermal group a t Systems, Science and Software, La J o l l a , C a l i f o r n i a .

The f o l l o w i n g summary o f a c t i v i t i e s p r o v i d e s an extremely b r i e f

d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e ongoing research programs, t h e i r purpose and when
appropriate, the r e s u l t s obtained.

Physical Characterization

B l a c k " ) has c a r r i e d o u t a subsurface study o f t h e Mesa anomaly i n t h e

Imperial Valley. H i s s t u d i e s have shown t h a t :

There i s a cap o f low v e r t i c a l p e r m e a b i l i t y composed o f a l a r g e

fraction o f clay-like material.

Below t h e cap a r e r e l a t i v e l y compacted, sandy s t r a t a w i t h

significant permeability.

F r a c t u r i n g i n deeper r o c k l a y e r s , presumably a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
s e i s m i c a c t i v i t y increases v e r t i c a l p e r m e a b i l i t y .

I n t e r s e c t i n g f a u l t zones near two w e l l s have produced a chimney

of p a r t i c u l a r l y h i g h v e r t i c a l permeability. Substantial upwelling
of h o t water f r o m depth occurs here as w e l l as long t h e l i n e a r
f a u l t zone t o t h e southeast.

The r i s i n g h o t w a t e r spreads l a t e r a l l y , m o s t l y t o t h e southeast

as t h e f a u l t zone i n t e r s e c t s r e l a t i v e l y permeable h o r i z o n t a l
aquifers.

Reduced s a l i n i t y o f w a t e r a t depth compared t o t h a t i n upper l e v e l s

(0-800m) imp1 i e s g r e a t e r c i r c u l a t i o n and l e s s e v a p o r i t e s i n t h e
deeper zone.

-23-
 R i neha r t (2) has c o n s i d e r e d t h e presence o f f a u l t i n g i n geothermal
areas. He has concluded t h a t :

(A) Almost a l l p r o d u c t i v e geothermal areas a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

faulting. Many o f these a r e p a t t e r n s o f r i n g f r a c t u r e s
associated w i t h calderas w h i l e others are l i n e a r features
associated w i t h r i f t zones.

(B) F a u l t zones a c t as c o n d u i t s f o r t h e f l o w o f heated f l u i d f r o m

depth. They can a f f e c t t h e s u p p l y o f s u r f a c e water t o t h e
system a t depth.

Mechanical Models

R i r ~ e h a r t ' ~ has
) suggested a p o s s i b l e p h y s i c a l mechanism f o r t h e
observed c y c l i c v a r i a t i o n i n f l o w r a t e s and w a t e r t a b l e l e v e l a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h s a t u r a t e d porous media s u b j e c t e d t o temporal a l t e r a t i o n s i n i n - s i t u
s t r e s s due t o t e c t o n i c and t i d a l f o r c e s . Making reasonable assumptions,
he argues t h a t a s o l i d b l o c k supported by a s a t u r a t e d porous m a t e r i a l c o u l d
move as much as s e v e r a l c e n t i m e t e r s due t o p e r i o d i c mechanical l o a d i n g .
This implies t h a t the e f f e c t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y of r a c t u r e r e s e r v o i r s can be
altered substantially.

Archambeau(a) i s c u r r e n t l y d e v e l o p i n g nonl near models o f suibs idence

due t o i r r e v e r s i b l e p o r e c o l l a p s e . included i s he p o s s i b i l i t y of s t r u c -
t u r a l rock f a i l u r e (induced s e i s m i c i t y ) due t o d latancy r e s u l t i n g f r o m
h i g h l e v e l s o f e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s as p o r e p r e s s u r e i s reduced.

Heat and Mass T r a n s f e r

Kassoy and Z e b i b ( 4 ) examined t h e e f f e c t o f a r e a l i s t i c v i s c o i j i t y

v a r i a t i o n on t h e onset o f c o n v e c t i o n i n a h o r i z o n t a l porous s l a b . C r i t i c a l Ray-
'leigh numbers a r e d r a s t i c a l l y reduced w / r t o t h e c o n s t a n t p r o p e r t y c a l c u l a -
t i o n . The r o l l p a t t e r n s d i s p l a y r e l a t i v e l y h i g h v e l o c i t i e s and lairge
temperature g r a d i e n t s a t depth u n l i k e t h e symmetric c l a s s i c a l p r o f i l e s .

K a s ~ o y ( ~has) considered c o n v e c t i v e f l o w i n a narrow v e r t i c a l s a t u r a t e d

porous s l o t as a model o f mass t r a n s f e r i n a f a u l t zone. The mass f l o w r a t e s ,
r e s u l t i n g p a r t l y from c o n v e c t i o n due t o p r e s u r e head and p a r t l y from
i2
n a t u r a l convection, a r e o f t e a g n i t u d e 10 kg/day o v e r an area 0.5 km
when t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y i s 10 cm -!I 5! .
Garg e t a l . (6) have computed t h e f l o w p a t t e r n and temperature v a r i a -
tion in a
--
h o r i z o n t a l a q u i f e r when f l u i d i s i n t r o d u c e d from an i n t e r s e c t i n g
v e r t i c a l f a u l t zone i n which t h e r e i s h o t f l u i d r i s i n g from depth. The
s o l u t i o n shows t h e development o f a c o n f i n e d n a t u r a l c o n v e c t i o n c e l l i n t h e
aquifer. Hence, i n t h e model c o n s i d e r e d l a t e r a l s p i l l a g e f r o m t h e f a u l t
zone does n o t r e s u l t i n s i m p l e t h r o u g h f l o w i n t h e a q u i f e r .

-24-
 Kassoy and Zebib(b) have extended their work to three-dimensional
i containers more representative of geothermal areas in highly fractured rock
j
,
* of volcanic origin. The results also portray linear convection patterns in
narrow vertical fault zones, and may be used to explain the prese c of
j periodically spaced hot springs along 1 inear fault zones. Kas~oy~~' has
i. I
shown that natural convection instabilities can enhance the vertical fault
I zone flow described above.

Kassoy (d) has extended his analysis to include lateral spillage into
intersecting horizontal aquifers. The pressure and temperature distribu-
tions are reminiscent of those found in the Mesa geothermal anomaly. Linear
instability at critical a Rayleigh number leads to superimposed closed rolls.
These might be used to explain the pair of hot spots at the Mesa anomaly.

Nayfeh(7) --
et al. have examined two-temperature models of flow in
porous media. They conclude that for most geothermal applications the
fluid and solid are in local thermal equilibrium.

There has been a major effort to develop useful describing equations

for thermally active deformable porous media containing two phase fluids
with concentration gradients. This work is summarized in Refs. 6 and 8.

REFERENCES

1. H. T. Black - A Subsurface Study of the Mesa Anomaly, Imperial Valley,

Ca. CUMER* 75-5.
2. J. S. Rinehart - Faulting in Geothermal Areas. CUMERa 75-12.
3. J . S. Rinehart -
Model for Long Period Earth Tidal Deformations.
To appear as a CUMER" report.

4. D. R. Kassoy, A. Zebib - "Variable Viscosity Effects on the Onset of Con-

vection in Porous Media," to appear in The Physics of Fluids, & CUMER:; 75-4.
._I

5. D . R. Kassoy- "Heat and Mass Transfer in Models of Undeveloped Geothermal

Fields," to appear in Proceedings o f the UN Geothermal Symposium, San
Francisco, 1975 - also CUMER 75-7.

6. S. K. Garg et al. - "Simulation of Fluid-Rock Interactions in a Geothermal

Basin," S S S T - 7 6 - 4 7 3 4 Systems, Science and Software, La Jolla, Ca.

7. A. H. Nayfeh -- -
et al. "Heat Exchange in a Fluid Percolating Through Porous
Media,'l Proc. S O ~ .Eng. Sci. Meeting, Austin, Texas, Oct. 1975.

8. T. R . Blake, S. K. Garg, "On the Species Transport Equation for Flow in

Porous Media," submitted to Water Resources Research (1975).

ACUMER refers to Mechanical Engineering Report, University of Colorado.

(a) - (d) - Ongoing research activities.

-25-
 HEAT AND FLUID FLOW EXPERIMENTS TO MEASURE
GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIR PHYSICAL PARAMETERS

W i l l i a m E . Brigham
Stanford University
S t a n f o r d , CA 94305

BENCH-SCALE MODELS

The t e s t o b j e c t i v e s and apparatus i n v o l v e d i n t h e bench- scale models

were presented i n Progress Report No. 1 (Ref. 1 ) . I n b r i e f , these e x p e r i -
ments were designed t o t e s t fundamental concepts f o r nonisothermal b o i l i n g
two-phase f l o w through porous media. T h i s work i s aimed a t t h e e n t i r e
r e s e r v o i r , w h i l e the chimney model deals most d i r e c t l y w i t h t h e w e l l b o r e
and n e a r - w e l l r e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s . The combination should be b r o a d l y
u s e f u l i n t h e new f i e l d o f geothermal r e s e r v o i r engineering.

The term " geothermal r e s e r v o i r engineering" i s an a d a p t a t i o n of ' ' p e t r o -

leum r e s e r v o i r engineering," t h e branch o f e n g i n e e r i n g which deals w i t h
assessment, and p l a n n i n g , o f optimum development o f petroleum r e s e r v o i r s .
F o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e i s much t h a t i s u s e f u l f o r geothermal e n g i n e e r i n g i n t h e
l i t e r a t u r e o f o i l recovery. O i l recovery by steam i n j e c t i o n (Ref. 2 ) and
underground combustion (Ref. 3) p r e s e n t some o f t h e important f e a t u r e s o f
nonisothermal two phase f l o w which appear p e r t i n e n t t o geothermal r e s e r v o i r s .
I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e i s a c o n s i d e r a b l e body o f u s e f u l data on t h e p r o p e r t i e s
o f rocks and f l u i d s as a f u n c t i o n o f temperature and pressure. Many o f
these data a r e summarized i n Reference 4. P r i o r t o t h i s work t h e r e was o n l y
one s p e c i f i c study o f t h e f l o w o f single- component (water) two-phase ( t h u s
nonisothermal) f l o w i n porous media (Ref. 5 ) . I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e r e was no
i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e important phenomena i n v o l v e d when n o r m a l l y immobile l i q u i d
s a t u r a t i o n s ( p r a c t i c a l i r r e d u c i b l e water s a t u r a t i o n ) v a p o r i z e w i t h p r e s s u r e
red uc t i on.

The f i r s t bench- scale models use s t e a d y - s t a t e f l o w experiments i n v o l v -

i n g l i n e a r f l o w ( i n t h e a x i a l d i r e c t i o n ) through c y l i n d r i c a l cores.

The L i n e a r Flow Model

The l i n e a r f l o w model i s d e s c r i b e d i n Progress Report No. 1 (Ref. 1 )

and i n Reference 6. Equipment was c o n s t r u c t e d t o perform l i n e a r f l o w e x p e r i -
ments through cy1 i n d r i c a l c o n s o l i d a t e d cores. Both n a t u r a l (Berea) and
s y n t h e t i c cement c o n s o l i d a t e d sand cores were used. A schematic diagram
of t h e completed apparatus i s shown i n F i g . 1 . Fondu c a l c i u m a l u m i n a t e
cement, s i l i c a sand o f about 100 T y l e r mesh s i z e , and water were used as
t h e m a t e r i a l s t o make t h e s y n t h e t i c cores. The m i x t u r e was poured i n t o a
mold formed w i t h a p l a s t i c t u b i n g i n which a g l a s s t u b i n g f o r a l i q u i d
c o n t e n t probe and a thermocouple t u b i n g were h e l d i n place. The l i q u i d
s a t u r a t i o n probe was o r i g i n a l l y developed by Baker (Ref. 7) i n connection
w i t h a s t u d y o f o i l recovery by i n j e c t i o n o f steam. The instrument uses
t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n d i e l e c t r i c c o n s t a n t between t h e l i q u i d water and steam
p r e s e n t i n t h e pore space.

-26-
 I t was decided t o run a s e r i e s o f b a s i c single- phase experiments p r i o r
t o performing t h e b o i l i n g two-phase, nonisothermal f l o w experiments. These
included: ( 1 ) measurement o f a b s o l u t e p e r m e a b i l i t y t o gas arid 1 i q u i d water
a t a range o f temperatures, (2) i n j e c t i o n of h o t water i n t o a system c o n t a i n -
i n g water a t a lower temperature, (3) c o l d water i n j e c t i o n i n t o a system
c o n t a i n i n g h o t water i n i t i a l l y , and (4) i n j e c t i o n o f steam i n t o a system
c o n t a i n i n g l i q u i d water a t a lower temperature. Detailed results are
presented i n Ref. 6.

As an example, F i g u r e 2 presents temperature versus dis,tance a l o n g t h e

c o r e f o r i n j e c t i o n o f h o t water i n t o a c o r e i n i t i a l l y a t room temperature.
Much u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n can be e x t r a c t e d from data such as a r e shown i n
F i g . 2 . Basic i n f o r m a t i o n on single- phase nonisothermal flow, e f f e c t i v e
thermal c o n d u c t i v i t i e s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f flow, and heat l o s s r a d i a l l y
from t h e core may be found. I n regard t o r a d i a l heat loss, two determina-
t i o n s can be o f i n t e r e s t : ( 1 ) t h e thermal e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e i n j e c t i o n , and
(2) t h e o v e r a l l heat t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t f o r the c o r e w i t h i n t h e s l e e v e
t o t h e surroundings. Both types o f e v a l u a t i o n have a l r e a d y been made suc-
c e s s f u l l y . An example o f t h e h e a t i n g t r a n s i e n t s t h a t occur when h o t f l u i d
i s i n j e c t e d i n t o a c o l d porous medium can be seen i n F i g u r e 2;. The computed
r e s u l t s compare r a t h e r w e l l w i t h t h e experimental r e s u l t s ; however, improved
mathematical modeling can improve t h e computed match o f these data.

An a d d i t i o n a l p r e l i m i n a r y s e r i e s o f experiments was r u n t o determine

t h e i n - p l a c e b o i l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a f l o w i n g system. F i g u r e 4 shows
a p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g experiment wherein t h e o r i g i n a l f l u i d i n p l a c e
was h o t water a t h i g h pressure. N o t i c e t h a t c o o l e r water was i n j e c t e d a t
one end, causing a temperature t r a n s i e n t w i t h time, w h i l e a t t h e o t h e r end,
a two-phase b o i l i n g zone was s e t up which remained a t a fixed! temperature
w i t h time. F u r t h e r a n a l y s i s o f these data and o t h e r s i m i l a r data w i l l be
forthcoming d u r i n g t h i s n e x t year.

P e r m e a b i l i t y Measurements

Recent work on t h e e f f e c t o f temperature on r e l a t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y

suggested t h a t a b s o l u t e p e r m e a b i l i t y was a l s o a temperature dependent
p r o p e r t y o f rocks. Equipment was designed t o measure a b s o l u t e p e r m e a b i l i t y
under c o n d i t i o n s o f e l e v a t e d temperature and overburden pressure (Ref. 8).
Several f l u i d s were used t o make these measurements, namely, d i s t i l l e d
water, w h i t e m i n e r a l o i l , n i t r o g e n , and helium.

Several c o n c l u s i o n s can be drawn from t h e r e s u l t s . F i r s t , t h e tempera-

t u r e e f f e c t on p e r m e a b i l i t y depends on t h e n a t u r e o f the s a t u r a t i n g f l u i d .
I n t h e case o f w a t e r - s a t u r a t e d cores, p e r m e a b i l i t y decreased w i t h i n c r e a s i n g
temperature f o r a l l t h e samples s t u d i e d . Over a temperature span o f 70-32SoF,
p e r m e a b i l i t y r e d u c t i o n s o f up t o 65% were observed.

-27-
 For o i l - s a t u r a t e d samples, a s l i g h t increase i n p e r m e a b i l i t y was
observed w i t h i n c r e a s i n g temperature i n t h e low temperature range, f o l l o w e d
by a decrease. However, t h i s thermal s e n s i t i v i t y b a r e l y exceeded t h e range
of experimental e r r o r .

On t h e o t h e r hand, a b s o l u t e p e r m e a b i l i t y t o gas was found t o be inde-

pendent of temperature. S l i p phenomena a r e a f f e c t e d by temperature, and
a l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e K l i n k e n b e r g s l i p f a c t o r and temperature
was found and e x p l a i n e d by a n a l y s i s o f theory. Also, i n e r t i a l ('Iturbulence")
f a c t o r s were determined and found t o be independent o f , t e m p e r a t u r e .

One o f the o b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s work had been t o s i m u l t a n e o u s l y measure

t h e e f f e c t of thermal s t r e s s e s and mechanical s t r e s s e s on p e r m e a b i l i t y . It
was found t h a t r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s a t u r a t i n g f l u i d , t h e l e v e l
o f c o n f i n i n g pressure a f f e c t e d p e r m e a b i l i t y i n t h e same manner, t h a t i s ,
p e r m e a b i l i t y decreased w i t h i n c r e a s i n g c o n f i n i n g pressure. For t h e t h e r m a l l y
s e n s i t i v e , w a t e r - s a t u r a t e d cores, i n c r e a s i n g t h e c o n f i n i n g pressure had t h e
a d d i t i o n a l e f f e c t of i n t e n s i f y i n g t h e temperature dependence. T h i s pressure-
temperature i n t e r a c t i o n i s shown t o a marked degree i n F i g u r e 5.

I n t h e l i g h t o f t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d , i t appears t h a t t h e temperature
e f f e c t was n o t caused b y changes in t h e p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e f l u i d s ,
such as v i s c o s i t y o r d e n s i t y , because f l u i d s w i t h such a l a r g e v i s c o s i t y
and d e n s i t y c o n t r a s t as o i l and gas e s s e n t i a l l y y i e l d e d t h e same r e s u l t s ;
n o r was t h e temperature e f f e c t caused by t h e r m a l l y induced mechanical
s t r e s s e s a c t i n g alone, as no s i g n i f i c a n t p e r m e a b i l i t y changes were found
f o r o i l o r gas flow. Instead, t h e unique r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d f o r water f l o w
suggest t h a t a combination o f r o c k - f l u i d i n t e r a c t i o n , thermal s t r e s s e s and
mechanical s t r e s s e s was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the permeabi 1 i t y r e d u c t i o n s observed,
t h e dominant f a c t o r being the s u r f a c e e f f e c t .

Geothermal Reservoir P h-y s i c a l Model

W h i t i n g and Ramey (Ref. 9) presented t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f energy and

m a t e r i a l balances t o geothermal r e s e r v o i r s . A1 though appl i e d t o a f i e l d
case w i t h success, l a t e r a p p l i c a t i o n s i n d i c a t e d a need f o r m o d i f i c a t i o n
(see Refs. 10, 11, and 12). The need f o r a c t u a l d a t a t o t e s t conceptual
models has been apparent f o r some t i m e (Ref. 13). Previous works concerned
u n c o n s o l i d a t e d sand models, a l t h o u g h a study by Strobe1 d i d i n c l u d e a
c o n s o l i d a t e d sand. S t r o b e l ' s s t u d y concerned c y c l i c p r o d u c t i o n and r e h e a t i n g
of a s i n g l e c o n s o l i d a t e d sandstone geothermal r e s e r v o i r model. T h i s work
has been repeated w i t h b o t h n a t u r a l and s y n t h e t i c sandstone cores w i t h more
complete i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n . These d a t a a r e n o t o n l y important f o r t h e d e t e r -
m i n a t i o n o f proper m a t e r i a l and energy balance procedures f o r g r a v i t y -
dominated geothermal systems, b u t they a r e a l s o o f g r e a t h e l p i n d e t e r m i n i n g
t h e vapor pressure changes t h a t o c c u r as t h e i n - p l a c e l i q u i d evaporates and
t h e l i q u i d i n t e r f a c e s become h i g h l y curved. An example of vapor pressure
l o w e r i n g can be seen i n F i g u r e 6 (Ref. 14).

-28-
MATHEMATICAL MODEL
Advances have been made in the modeling of geothermal fluids production
in four main directions. The first direction is a general view of the many
complex thermal, fluid dynamic, and other physical processes. The second
is the formulation of a mathematical description of a simplified system to
obtain a solution describing the behavior of this system. The third i s
matching the bench-scale experimental results to simulate t h e boiling flow
of steam and water at elevated temperatures. Figure 7 presents the results
o f one simulation o f a bench-scale geothermal reservoir model experiment.
Figure 7a presents the computed pressure history, while Fig. 7b presents the
computed liquid content of the system. Although not shown, the temperature
history of the system was also computed. Development of a more sophisticated
model continues.

The fourth major direction of mathematical development is aimed toward

a graphical-analytical approach to solution of the heat-mass flow problem.
The method o f characteristics is a well-known solution techn que wh i c h
appears to be applicable to this problem. An analogy may be drawn between
this and the classic problem of water or gas displacing oil n petroleum
reservoir engineering (i .e., the Buckley Leverett equations amd.the Welge
equations). Solutions to these displacements are simple graphical construc-
tions. It appears likely that similar techniques may be usedl in the fluid-
heat flow system, and work will be continuing on this concept during the
coming year.

CONCLUDING REMARKS
During 1975 the main components of the projects in the Stanford Geo-
thermal Program were completed and initial runs performed successfully.
Augmentation of system instrumentation, completion of improvements in design,
and collection o f experimental data are well under way. It is encouraging
that many of the experimental results have been found amenable to theoretical
analysis, thus the systems behave reproducibly and logically.

As in any research program, ideas for new experimental techniques

and new methods of data evaluation have developed as the program proceeds.
These new ideas also are being actively pursued.

-29-
REFERENCES

1. Kruger, P., and Ramey, J.J., J r . , S t i m u l a t i o n o f Geothermal A q u i f e r s ,

Progress Report No. 1 , t o Advanced Technology Dept., RANN, N a t i o n a l
Science Foundation, Grant No. Gl-34925, March 1973.

2. Ramey, H.J., Jr., "A C u r r e n t Review o f O i l Recovery by Steam Ilnjection,"

Proceedings, 7th World Petroleum Congress, Mexico C i t y , pp. 471-476,
A p r i l 1967.

3. Ramey, H.J., J r . , " I n - S i t u Combustion,'' Proceedings, 8 t h World Petroleum

Congress, Panel No. 9, MOSCOW, U . S - S . R . , June 13-19, 1971.

4. Ramey, H.J., J r . , Brigham, W.E., Chen, H . K . , Atkinson, P.G., and

A r i h a r a , N., Thermodynamic and Hydrodynamic P r o p e r t i e s of Hydrothermal
Systems, Stanford Geothermal Program, Report SGP-TR-6, A p r i 1 20, 1974.

5. M i l l e r , F . G . , "Steady Flow o f Two-Phase Single-Component F l u i d s

through Porous Media," Trans. AIME, V o l . 192, p p . 205-216, 1951.

-
6 . A r i h a r a , N., A Study o f Non-Isothermal S i n g l e and Two-Phase Flow
through Consolidated Sandstones, S t a n f o r d Geothermal Program,
Report SGP-TR-2, November

7. Baker, P.E., "The E f f e c t o f Pressure and Rate on Steam Zone Development

i n Steam Flooding," SPE 4141, presented a t t h e 47th Annual F a l l Meeting
of SPE o f AIME, San Antonio, Texas, October 8-11, 1972.

8. Casse, F.J., The E f f e c t o f Temperature and Confining Pressure on F l u i d

: Elow P r o p e r t i e s o f Consolidated Rocks, S t a n f o r d Geothermal Program,
Report SGP-TR-3, November 1974.

9. W h i t i n g , R . L . , and Ramey, H.J., J r . , " A p p l i c a t i o n of M a t e r i a l 'and

Energy Balances t o Geothermal Steam Production," J. Pet. Tech. ,
PP. 893-900, May 1969.

10. Cady, G.V., "Model Studies of Geothermal F l u i d Production,'' Ph.D.

D i s s e r t a t i o n , Stanford U n i v e r s i t y , November 1369.

11. Cady, G.V., B i l h a r t z , H.L., and Ramey, H.J., J r . , "Model Studies of

Geothermal Steam Production," AlChE Symposium Series "Water," 1972.

12. S t r o b e l , C.J., "Model Studies o f Geothermal F l u i d s P r o d u c t i o n from

Consolidated Porous Media," E n g i n e e r ' s Thesis, Stanford U n i v e r s i t y ,
J u l y 1973.

13. White, D . E . , Truesdell, A . , and Donaldson, I . , Personal Communication.

14. Chicoine, S.D., ''A P h y s i c a l Model o f a Geothermal System--Its Design

and I t s Appl i c a t i o n t o R e s e r v o i r Engineering," Engineer's Thesis,
S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y , June 1975.

-30-
 Fig. 1. Schematic d i a g r a m of the l i n e a r
flow model a p p a r a t u s

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-31-
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-35-
 /

Dimensionless Length, X/L

-36-
 AN ATTEMPT TO CORRELATE Kh DISTRIBUTION WITH GEOLOGICAL
STRUCTURE OF LARDERELLO GEOTHERMAL FIELD

R. Celati and P. Squarci

C.N.R. - lstituto lnternazionale per le Ricerche Geotermiche
Pisa, ttaly
and
G. Neri and P . Perusini
ENEL - Gruppo Minerario Larderel lo
Larderel lo, Italy

Steam roduction in Larderello field is obtained from f tured rocks

having a very low matrix permeabil ity.

Fractured zones are irregularly distributed and their location is one

of the main objectives of present geophysical research and one of the
principal problems in field exploitation. This problem has also been
approached from a geological point o f view in an attempt at finding the
relationship between secondary permeability and the lithological and struc-
tural characteristics of the reservoir formations.

The first results, obtained by Cataldi --

et al. (1963), found a high
ratio of productive/unproductive wells. along the axes of the positive
structures.
The present study of the Kh distribution in Larderello fields should
permit a more detailed analysis of the different geological factors affect-
ing the productive capacity of the reservoir formations.

Kh Distribution

Kh values were obtained for about 50 wells in Larderello area from

pressure build-up analysis, using both the classical Horner imethod and dif-
ferent type-curve matches. Other methods of analysis for fractured media
were also considered.
Almost the same number of values were obtained from thle analysis of
back-pressure curves. A comparison, possible for several well,s, of the Kh
values obtained from both methods shows that a good agreement exists only
i f skin-effect i s taken into account. I f not, the values given by the
back-pressure curves are almost systematically higher (as mu'ch as 50 to
100%) than those given by the build-up curves.

The wells considered have a satisfactory distribution lover the entire

field area. In some marginal zones the majority of them are completely
unproductive, due to lack of permeability, so that no tests were performed
on them.
I n other zones with unproductive wells, despite the faict that these
have crossed permeable horizons, only a few data from injection tests are
available.

-37-
 The Kh distribution in these zones is not we 1 defined.

The wells with similar transmissivity values are usual ly grouped

together, with a few rare exceptions.
The contour lines in Figure 1 refer to Kh va ues taken in a geometrical
progression as the curves are better defined in th s way. The 1 ine corres-
ponding to 1 Darcy-metre is not reported due to the lack of data in the
ma rg i na 1 zones,

Comparison with Geological Structures

Figure 2 shows the elevation of the top of the formations forming the
.
poten t i a 1 reservo i r

This map was obtained by geornetrlcal interpolation between the

elevations observed in the wells: the fault planes are not indicated.
From Figures 1 and 2 there i s enough evidence of a correspondence
between the high transmissivity zones and the structural highs, thus proving
that tectonics plays a very important part in determining secondary permea-
bility in the reservoir formations.

Other factors contribute to this permeability and they are thought to

explain the observed anomalies in transmissivity distribution where this is
not attributable to the structures.

Among these, lithology, lithostatic and f uid pressure must be taken

into account.

Other important factors, such as dissolut on and depos tion, are the
object of geochemical studies.

Discussion
The sequence of terrains in the Larderello zone are commonly known to
be, as follows, from top to bottom:

a) the shaley cap rock formation;

b) sandstones that are irregularly distributed in the productive areas and

usually separated from the lower formations by an rnperrneable layer of
sha 1 es ;
c) Competent, stratified and massive 1 imestones distr buted irregularly
over the productive area;

d) alternations of dolomites and anhydrites, not always present in the

productive area, quite plastic if taken as a whole;

-38-
e) a s e r i e s o f t e r r a i n s c o m p r i s i n g incompetent s l a t e l a y e r s and competent
quartzi tes.

The p o t e n t i a l ' r e s e r v o i r i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be made up o f c) , d) and e ) .

The c o n t a c t between t h e d i f f e r e n t formations i s g e n e r a l l y t e c t o n i c

and caused by m a i n l y h o r i z o n t a l - t y p e movements.

The c o n t a c t zone, t h e r e f o r e , (and e s p e c i a l l y t h a t between t h e cap

r o c k f o r m a t i o n and a l l t h e u n d e r l y i n g ones) a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by i n t e n s i v e
f r a c t u r i n g and have a h i g h secondary p e r m e a b i l i t y .

Furthermore, t h e whole r e g i o n was s u b j e c t e d t o compressive s t r e s s

d u r i n g t h e l a s t phases o f orogenesis thus r e s u l t i n g i n t h e f o l d i n g o f t h e
l a y e r s forming t h e p o t e n t i a l r e s e r v o i r . The p e r m e a b i l i t y i n t h e c r e s t
zone of t h e a n t i c l i n e s t r u c t u r e s may be s a i d t o have increased due t o
t e n s i o n cracks and f i s s u r e s . C a v i t i e s may a l s o have formed a l o n g t h e c r e s t s
due t o t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l movements o f t:he beds.

These f a c t s may have g i v e n t h e g r e a t e s t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o f r a c t u r i n g

t h e upper p a r t s o f t h e p o s i t i v e s t r u c t u r e s .

F ut u r e Deve 1opmen-t s
T h i s research w i l l now be aimed a t s t u d y i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p l a s t i c
and competent l a y e r s i n s i d e f o r m a t i o n e ) , t h e e x i s t e n c e o f o v e r t h r u s t s
w i t h i n t h e formations d e s c r i b e d and e s p e c i a l l y i n e ) , and t h e r o l e o f t h e
d i r e c t f a u l t s formed a f t e r f o l d i n g and t h r u s t movements. A s t u d y w i l l a l s o
be made o f f l u i d and l i t h o s t a t i c pressure.

REFERENCES

C a t a l d i , R.; S t e f a n i , G.; T o n g i o r g i , M . : "Geo ogy o f L a r d e r e l l o r e g i o n

(Tuscany). C o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e s t u d y o f geothermal basins." In:
Nuclear Geology on Geothermal Areas. Ed : E. Tongiorlgi,
L a b o r a t o r i o d i Geologia Nucleare, P i s a , 963, P. 235.

-39-
 Monterotondo

0 1 2km
t-----L.

-40-
 1 2 Itrn

- 41-
 FLUID FLOW I N GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIRS

J . C. M a r t i n
Chevron O i l F i e l d Research Company
La Habra, C a l i f o r n i a 90631

A d i s c u s s i o n i s p r e s e n t e d o f t h e m a t e r i a l c o n t a i n e d i n Reference 1 .
T h i s r e f e r e n c e p r e s e n t s t h e r e s u l t s o f an i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e f l u i d f l o w
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p r e s s u r e d e p l e t i o n i n those geothermal r e s e r v o i r s which a r e
s i m i l a r t o o i l and gas r e s e r v o i r s . Geothermal r e s e r v o i r s a r e o f t e n c l a s s i -
f i e d as e i t h e r steam o r h o t w a t e r a c c o r d i n g t o s t a t e o f r e s e r v o i r b r i n e .
These c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s i m p l y t h e presence o f o n l y one phase; however, i t i s
recognized t h a t b o t h l i q u i d and vapor phases may be p r e s e n t i n i t i a l l y o r
may develop as t h e p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e s . T h i s c o n d i t i o n may i n v o l v e t h e s i m u l -
taneous f l o w o f steam and h o t w a t e r .

For two phase f l o w o f steam and h o t w a t e r t h e assumptions o f small

temperature and p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t s w i t h i n t h e r e s e r v o i r a1 low t h e simp1 i f i -
c a t i o n o f t h e e q u a t i o n s o f h e a t and f l u i d f l o w . ] T h i s leads t o a r e l a t i o n
between t h e f l u i d pressure and t h e l i q u i d s a t u r a t i o n . S i m i l a r assumptions
f o r s i n g l e phase f l o w l e a d t o an a p p r o x i m a t e l y c o n s t a n t r e s e r v o i r tempera-
t u r e w i t h f l u i d pressure d e c l i n e .

The i n i t i a l temperature and p r e s s u r e i n a geothermal r e s e r v o i r d e t e r -

mine i t s type.2 The b o i l i n g p o i n t c u r v e f o r p u r e water i s presented by t h e
dashed l i n e i n F i g u r e 1 . D i s s o l v e d s a l t s i n geothermal b r i n e s cause m o d i f i -
c a t i o n t o t h i s curve.3 Hot w a t e r r e s e r v o i r s a r e represented by p o i n t s t o t h e
r i g h t and below t h e c u r v e as i l l u s t r a t e d by i n i t i a l p o i n t on curve A. Steam
o r s i n g l e phase vapor r e s e r v o i r s a r e represented by p o i n t s t o t h e l e f t of t h e
c u r v e and p o i n t s above t h e c r i t i c a l temperature, as i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e
i n i t i a l p o i n t s on curves B and C.

The s o l i d l i n e s i n F i g u r e 1 i l l u s t r a t e t h e behavior o f c l o s e d geo-

thermal r e s e r v o i r s produced by p r e s s u r e d e p l e t i o n w i t h no water i n j e c t i o n .
The behavior o f a h o t water r e s e r v o i r i s i l l u s t r a t e d by l i n e A . Initially
t h e h o t water p r o d u c t i o n causes r a p i d p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e s i n c e o n l y l i q u i d
expansion and rock p o r e volume c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y supply t h e d r i v i n g energy.
T h i s e s s e n t i a l l y isothermal b e h a v i o r c o n t i n u e s u n t i l t h e b o i l i n g c u r v e i s
reached. A t t h i s p o i n t t h e i n t e r n a l steam d r i v e begins and a steam phase
s t a r t s t o b u i l d up w i t h i n t h e r e s e r v o i r . The temperature and p r e s s u r e
decrease a l o n g t h e b o i l i n g curve. When t h e steam s a t u r a t i o n reaches t h e
e q u i l briurn s a t u r a t i o n , steam b e g i n s t o f l o w w i t h i n t h e r e s e r v o i r and h o t
w a t e r and steam a r e produced s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . The steam s a t u r a t i o n c o n t i n u e s
t o bu I d up as p r o d u c t i o n c o n t i n u e s w i t h an e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g steam-hot w a t e r
r a t i o o f t h e produced f l u i d . T h i s process c o n t i n u e s u n t i l t h e water s a t u r a -
t i o n s reduced t o t h e p o i n t where t h e h o t water becomes immobile arid hot
w a t e r p r o d u c t i o n stops. The b o i l i n g process c o n t i n u e s w i t h o n l y s a t u r a t i o n
steam p r o d u c t i o n u n t i l a l l t h e w a t e r i s b o i l e d away. A t t h i s p o i n t t h e
temperature d e p a r t s from t h e b o i l i n g c u r v e and remains e s s e n t i a l l y c o n s t a n t
as t h e pressure c o n t i n u e s t o d e c l i n e , as i l l u s t r a t e d by c u r v e A i n F i g u r e 1 .
The produced steam becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y more superheated as t h e p r e s s u r e

-42-
d e c l i n e s . The r e l a t i v e l y h i g h temperature a t t h e end o f pressure d e p l e t i o n
i n d i c a t e s t h a t c o n s i d e r a b l e h e a t remains i n t h e r e s e r v o i r .

Curve B represents a steam r e s e r v o i r which remains e s s e n t i a l l y i s o -

thermal w i t h pressure d e c l i n e . Only a small amount o f heat i n i t i a l l y i n
t h i s type o f r e s e r v o i r i s produced. Curve C represents a steam r e s e r v o i r
which i s i n i t i a l l y above t h e c r i t i c a l temperature and pressure. The tempera-
t u r e d e c l i n e w i t h p r e s s u r e i s s l i g h t l y g r e a t e r than r e s e r v o i r B, b u t the
o v e r a l l temperature drop i s small and most o f the i n i t i a l heat remains i n
the reservoir a t pressure depletion.

The s i m p l i f i e d equations o f Ref. 1 do n o t s t r i c t l y a p p l y t o c o n d i t i o n s

o f g r a v i t y s e g r e g a t i o n of t h e steam and h o t water. However, t h e i n s i g h t
o b t a i n e d from t h e c a l c u l a t e d r e s u l t s , coupled w i t h t h e experilence gained
from o i l and gas s e g r e g a t i o n i n petroleum r e s e r v o i r s , suggests t h e f o l l o w i n g
behavior. G r a v i t y s e g r e g a t i o n o f the steam and h o t water begins as soon as
t h e steam phase begins t o f l o w . Steam accumulation a t the toip o f the r e s e r -
v o i r increases t h e amount o f steam produced from w e l l s completed h i g h i n the
r e s e r v o i r . Correspondingly, w e l l s completed low i n the r e s e r v o i r produce
more h o t water and l e s s steam. Since t h e produced steam c o n t a i n s more heat
than an equal mass of h o t water completing w e l l s h i g h i n the r e s e r v o i r tends
t o increase the t o t a l h e a t produced under pressure d e p l e t i o n .

REFERENCES
1. M a r t i n , J. C.: " A n a l y s i s o f I n t e r n a l Steam D r i v e i n Geothermal
Reservoirs." Presented a t the 45th Annual C a l i f o r n i a Regional
Meeting, SOC. Pet. Engr., Ventura, CA., A p r i l 1975. To be
p u b l i s h e d i n J o u r . Pet. Tech.

2. Whiting, R. L., and H. J. Ramey, J r . : " A p p l i c a t i o n o f M a t e r i a l and

Energy Balances t o Geothermal Steam Production," J. Pet. Tech.
( J u l y 1969), PP. 893-900.

3. Hass, J. L.: "The E f f e c t o f S a l i n i t y on t h e Maximum Thermal

Gradient o f a Hydrothermal System a t H y d r o s t a t i c Pressure,"
Econ. Geology, Vol. 66 (1971), pp. 940-946.

-43-
 I I
1 1

\
\

I 4

8 0
43
0
(0 8 0
0
hl
 FRACTURE FLOW I N GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIRS

Gunnar Bodvarsson
School of Oceanography
Oregon State University
Corvallis, OR 97331

The following is a very brief summary of research in sane topics of

geothermal reservoir engineering and related matters which has been carried
out by the writer during the past few years. A number of field data from
geothermal reservoirs in Iceland will also be reported on.

Type of Reservoir Flow

Geological formations exhibit mainly two types of fluid conductivity
or permeability, viz., ( 1 ) micropermeability due to very small intergranular
openings and (2) macropermeabi 1 i ty due to individual fractures and other
major openings. The first type of permeability is associated with the Darcy
type of flow which prevails in unfractured porous clastic sediments. It i s
characterized by laminar flow in the small openings and hence a linear
relation (Darcy's law) between the pressure gradient and the specific mass
flow. Fracture flow due to macropermeability prevails in igneous rocks,
limestones and fractured sediments and is well known to be the most important
type of flow in the majority of known geothermal reservoirs. A considerable
literature exists on the theory of Darcy type of flow whereas much less
attention has been devoted to fracture flow.

Borehole Productivity and Pressure Drawdown in Fracture Flow

Consider the case of a vertical borehole producing liquid phase flow

from a horizontal fracture of constant width which is assumed to be small
compared to the diameter of the hole. The solution of the differential equa-
tion for the pressure field in the fracture around the borehole is a simple
task and gives the following result

P(r) = Po r > d/2

hr

where

p(r) = pressure in the fracture at the distance r from t:he borehole axis
p0 = undisturbed formation pressure
q = mass flow of the borehole
d = diameter of the borehole
h = width of the fracture
P = density of the liquid produced
f = friction coefficient (dimensionless) of the fracture

-45-
 At a given borehole pressure pb , equation ( 1 ) gives for the mass flow

Equations ( 1 ) and (2) reveal two important facts. First, the pressure
drawdown is very local. In most cases, the full formation pressure po pre-
vails at a distance less than 2 meters from the borehole axis. Second,
fractures of very small widths give a high productivity. For example, a bore-
hole of d = 0.25 meters cutting a fracture of h = 10 millimeters can at a
pressure differential of pomp), = 1 atm produce about 100 kg/sec of water.
These data are based on the assumption o f turbulent flow. The above results
can easily be extended to gas phase flows. Two-phase flows can be discussed
on the basis of similar methods, but there is greater uncertainty as to the
friction coefficient f.

Overall Permeability of Fracture Flow Formations

Flow in fractures is laminar at sufficiently small Reynold numbers.

Slow large scale flow within fractured reservoirs with a sufficiently high
fracture density can therefore quite often be treated on the basis of Darcy
flow concepts and methods. Although the flow will generally be turbulent in
the production zones around boreholes, these deviations are usually unimpor-
tant due to the small radius of the pressure drawdown.
There are some difficulties encountered in measuring or estimating the
overall Darcy type permeabi 1 i ty of fracture flow reservoirs. Nevertheless,
useful estimates can often be obtained in the cases where borehole production
is sufficiently variable to cause measurable fluctuations in the drawdown of
the ground water surface. To illustrate the methodology involved, we will
consider the following much simplified case.
Given a half-space of homogeneous and isotropic Darcy type permeability
k and porosity 4 , containing a stationary fluid with a horizontal surface and
constant kinematic viscosity u . A vertical well i s drilled into the solid
and pumping of the fluid is initiated at time t=O from the depth H. Let the
total volume of fluid produced during a given time interval be V , the result-
ing drawdown of the fluid surface at the well be d and the total drawdown
volume be D. Assuming that d is very small compared with H, simple potential
theoretical methods give the following estimate for the porosity of the solid

The permeabil i ty can be estimated by discontinuing pumping and observing

the rate of recovery or velocity of upward movement of the fluid surface. Let
the recovery process start with a drawdown d and an initia'l upward velocity u
both measured at the well. Simi lar methods as used to obtain equation (3)
give the following estimates for the permeability

k = uHv4/2gd (4)

-46-
 A v a r i a n t o f t h e method i n d i c a t e d has been used t o e s t i r m t e t h e perne-
a b i 1 i t y o f the r e s e r v o i r f o r m a t i o n s o f t h e R e y k j a v i k geothermal system i n
Iceland. The r e s e r v o i r t h e r e i s embedded i n f l o o d - b a o a l t s and has a base
temperature o f around 1 4 O O C . Since pumping i s c a r r i e d o u t i n a group o f
f a i r l y w i d e l y spaced w e l l s , t h e r i g h t hand s i d e o f e q u a t i o n ( 3 ) cannot be
used to e s t i m a t e t h e p o r o s i t y . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e a r e i n s u f f i c i e n t we1 1
d a t a t o e s t i m a t e t h e t o t a l drawdown volume D d i r e c t l y . However, t h e average
p o r o s i t y o f t h e f l o o d - b a s a l t s can be e s t i m a t e d by o t h e r means and values of
l e s s than one % have been o b t a i n e d . Using a value o f 1/2% and t h e ground
w a t e r surface recovery d a t a from a s i n g l e w e l l , an e s t i m a t e o f t h e permeabil-
i t y o f 3 . 1 0 - ) 2 m 2 (MKS u n i t ) o r t h r e e Darcy i s o b t a i n e d . Thi!; i s an apparent
p e r m e a b i l i t y which g i v e s o n l y an o r d e r o f magnitude o f t h e f o r m a t i o n perme-
ability.

Well S t i m u l a t i o n

Equation (2) above shows t h a t borehole p r o d u c t i o n from f r a c t u r e d rock

can be s t i m u l a t e d by m a i n l y two methods. F i r s t , by t h e l o w e r i n g o f t h e
w e l l pressure pb which can be achieved by pumping. Second, by i n c r e a s i n g
t h e p r o d u c t i o n opening o r f r a c t u r e w i d t h h a t t h e w e l l w i t h t l i e h e l p o f
v a r i o u s types o f f r a c t u r i n g techniques. Equation (2) i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e
l a t t e r method i s l i k e l y t o be e f f e c t i v e .

Both s t i m u l a t i o n methods have been used w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e success by

t h e R e y k j a v i k D i s t r i c t Heating System i n Iceland. P r a c t i c a l 1.y a l l producing
w e l l s o f t h e system a r e now pumped. I n many cases, hydraulic fracturing
increases the w e l l p r o d u c t i o n by a f a c t o r o f t h r e e to four.

Reservoir Stirnulation

The p r o d u c t i v i t y o f geothermal r e s e r v o i r s can be s t i m u l a t e d t o a v a r y i n g

degree by t h e i n j e c t i o n o f water i n t o t h e h o t f o r m a t i o n s . D e c l i n i n g f o r m a t i o n
p r e s s u r e and p r o d u c t i v i t y o f a r t e s i a n r e s e r v o i r s can be p a r t i a l l y r e s t o r e d
b y a simple r e l a t i v e l y low- pressure r e i n j e c t i o n of e f f l u e n t thermal waters.
P a r t i a l s t i m u l a t i o n o f t h i s t y p e has t h e advantage o f p r o v i d i n g an e f f i c i e n t
method o f e f f l u e n t water d i s p o s a l . Moreover, geoheat p r o d u c t i o n can be
i n i t i a t e d from f o r m a t i o n s o f low o r n e g l i g i b l e p e r m e a b i l i t y by t h e i n j e c t i o n
of water a t s u i t a b l e l o c a t i o n s , O f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i s t h e i n j e c t i o n i n t o
l o c a l permeabil i t i e s p r o v i d e d by n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s , f o r m a t i o n c o n t a c t s , f a u l t
zones and d i k e s . The water i s subsequently recovered by w e l l s a f t e r having
been i n c o n t a c t w i t h a s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e surface area o f h o t formations.
T o t a l l y f o r c e d geoheat p r o d u c t i o n o f t h i s t y p e w i l l i n general r e q u i r e a more
advanced technology. The economic f e a s i b i l i t y has y e t t o be e s t a b l i s h e d and
no such systems a r e now i n o p e r a t i o n .

From t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p o i n t o f view, r e s e r v o i r stimulatimon, whether

p a r t i a l o r t o t a l , i n v o l v e s a number o f processes which have mot been g i v e n
much a t t e n t i o n . E l a s t i c , t h e r m o e l a s t i c and c o n v e c t i v e e f f e c t s a r e q u i t e
i m p o r t a n t b u t r a t h e r comp 1 ex,

-47-
 The geoheat productivity of fractures in formations of a given tempera-
ture can be estimated by fairly elementary means. Assuming operation times
of 10 to 20 years and production temperatures within 10% to 20% of the forma-
tion temperature, a total o f 10 to 20 metric tons of thermal water can be
produced per square meter fracture area.

Pattern of Subsurface Flow

A very comprehensive survey of the isotope chemistry of natural waters
in iceland has provided interesting and important results on the overall
pattern of ground water flow in the flood-basalt plateau of Iceland. The
results indicate the location of the recharge areas of many geothermal sys-
tems in the country and show that isotope chemistry can be a very bmportant
tool in geothermal reservoir mechanics.

REFERENCES

Reservoir mechanics and related topics:

Bodvarsson, G., 1970, An estimate of the natural heat resources in i3 thermal
area in Iceland. United Nations Symposium on the Development and Util-
ization of Geothermal Resources, Pisa, Italy.
1970, Report on an investigation concerning the subsurface di!jposal of
effluent thermal waters from a 30 MW geothermal power plant a t Ahuanchapan,
El Salvador. UN Development Programme Siirvey o f Geothermal Resources in
El Salvador. Tech Report.
1972, Thermal problems in the siting o f reinjection wells. gzothermics
-1 (2) :63-66.
1974, Geothermal resource energetics. Geothermic5 2_(3).
1974, Dikes as fluid conductors in the extraction o f terrestrial heat.
Geothermal Energy -
2(9):42-50.

Bodvarsson, G. and G. Reistand, 1975, Econometric analysis of forced geoheat

recovery for low-temperature uses in the Pacific Northwest, Second U . N .
Symposium on the Development & Use of Geothermal Resources, San
Francisco, CA.
Bodvarsson, G., 1975, Estimates of the geothermal resources of Iceland,
Second U.N. Symposium on the Development & Use o f Geothermal Resources,
San Francisco, CA.
1975, Thermoelastic phenomena in geothermal systems, Second U . N .
Symposium on the Development & Use of Geothermal Rejources, San
Francisco, CA.
Bodvarsson, G. and Axel Bjornsson, 1975, Hydroelastic cavity resonators,
Jokull, 25.-
-48-
R e y k j a v i k geothermal system:

Bodvarsson, G., 1961, P h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f n a t u r a l heat resources i n

Iceland. UN Conf. on New Sources o f Energy, Rome, Jokiull 11:29-38. -_L -
Thorsteinsson, T h o r s t e i n n , 1975, Development and e x p l o f t a t i o n o f t h e R e y k i r
Hydrothermal System, Second UN Symposium on t h e Development and Use
o f Geothermal Resources, San Francisco, CA.

Tomasson, Jens and T. Thorsteinsson, 1975, Use o f i n j e c t i o n packer f o r hydro-

thermal w e l l s t i m u l a t i o n i n Iceland, Second UN Symposium on t h e Devel-
opment & Use of Geothermal Resources, San Francisco, Ci4.

Isotope chemistry:

Arnason, B., 1975, Ground water systems i n I c e l a n d t r a c e d by deuterium,

Science I n s t i t u t e , U n i v e r s i t y o f I c e l a n d .

Bodvarsson, G., 1962, The use o f i s o t o p e s o f hydrogen and oxygen f o r

-
h y d r o l o g i c a l purposes i n I c e l a n d , J o k u l l , 12:49-54.

-49-
 RESERVOIR FACTORS DETERMINING THE FRACTION OF STORED ENERGY
RECOVERABLE FROM HYDROTHERMAL CONVECTION SYSTEMS

Manuel Nathenson
U.S. Geological Survey
Menlo Park, Cal i f o r n i a 94025

The r e c o v e r a b i l i t y f a c t o r s used t o e s t i m a t e resources o f hydrothermal

c o n v e c t i o n systems i n Nathenson and M u f f l e r (1975) a r e based 'on e x t r a c t i n g
t h e s t o r e d h e a t from a volume o f porous and permeable rock, n e g l e c t i n g
recharge o f heat by e i t h e r c o n d u c t i o n o r movement o f water (Nathenson,
1975). The p o t e n t i a l f o r heat recharge by conduction i s neglected because
i t i s v e r y small compared t o expected r a t e s o f p r o d u c t i o n from any volume
o f r o c k g r e a t e r than a few c u b i c k i l o m e t e r s . Likewise, f o r most o f t h e h o t -
water systems o f t h e U n i t e d States, the n a t u r a l d i s c h a r g e o f thermal waters
i s low compared t o reasonable p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s , and, a c c o r d i n g l y , t h e p o t e n t i a l
f o r h e a t recharge by u p f l o w o f h o t water t o most r e s e r v o i r s i s p r o b a b l y low
and can be neglected. The v a l i d i t y o f t h i s assumption can be assessed o n l y
a f t e r e x t e n s i v e p r o d u c t i o n h i s t o r i e s have been o b t a i n e d f o r a r e s e r v o i r . In
those systems i n which heat recharge by u p f l o w o f h o t water i s shown t o be
i m p o r t a n t , r e c o v e r a b i l i t y f a c t o r s w i l l have t o be r a i s e d a c c o r d i n g l y . Although
t h e recharge p o t e n t i a l o f h e a t i s neglected, t h e p o t e n t i a l and, i n f'act, t h e
need f o r c o l d water recharge a r e n o t .

Two p o s s i b l e methods f o r e x t r a c t i n g energy from a l i q u i d - f i l l e d volume

o f porous and permeable rocks a r e analyzed. The f i r s t method assumes t h a t
t h e porous, permeable volume i s v i r t u a l l y c l o s e d t o i n f l o w of water and i s
produced by b o i l i n g t o steam by u s i n g t h e energy i n t h e rock. The second
method assumes t h a t n a t u r a l and a r t i f i c i a l recharge o f c o l d water i s used
t o recover much o f t h e heat from t h e r e s e r v o i r by means o f a sweep process.

The f r a c t i o n o f s t o r e d energy recovered i n t h e process o f b o i l i n g t h e

water i n a porous volume of r o c k depends on t h e amount and pressure o f t h e
produced steam, which i n t u r n a r e determined by t h e p o r o s i t y and t h e . i n i t i a 1
temperature o f t h e system. The p r e s s u r e o f t h e produced steam must lie h i g h
enough t o d r i v e the steam through t h e porous medium and up t h e w e l l a t a
s i g n i f i c a n t r a t e ; a reasonable assumption i s t h a t t h e pressure o f t h e steam
must be a t l e a s t 8 bars. A t a g i v e n r e s e r v o i r temperature, t h i s r e s t r i c t i o n
c o n s t r a i n s t h e range o f p o r o s i t y f o r which b o i l i n g i s a v i a b l e recovery scheme.
A t 2OO0C, the upper l i m i t f o r t h e p o r o s i t y i s about 0.05, and t h e f r a c t i o n o f
s t o r e d energy o b t a i n e d i s about 0.2. A t 250°C, t h e upper l i m i t f o r t h e poros-
i t y i s about 0.12, and the f r a c t i o n o f s t o r e d energy o b t a i n e d i s about 0.4.
A t p o r o s i t i e s below t h i s l i m i t t h e f r a c t i o n of s t o r e d energy o b t a i n e d
decreases w i t h decreasing p o r o s i t y i n a n e a r l y l i n e a r f a s h i o n . T h i s produc-
t i o n scheme i s s e v e r e l y l i m i t e d i f t h e r e i s s i g n i f i c a n t recharge o f water t o
t h e r e s e r v o i r ; recovery by b o i l i n g i s then p o s s i b l e o n l y i f steam i n t h e
d r i e d zone and water i n t h e recharge zone a r e produced simultaneously i n
o r d e r t o keep t h e zone o f b o i l i n g moving i n t o new r e g i o n s .of t h e r e s e r v o i r .
I n summary, t h e r e s t r i c t e d range o f p o r o s i t y , temperature, and recharge o v e r
which t h e b o i l i n g method w i l l work l i m i t s i t s a p p l i c a t i o n t o r a t h e r s p e c i a l *
circumstances, i n p a r t i c u l a r t o vapor-dominated systems (see below).

- 50-
 The second p r o d u c t i o n scheme i n v o l v e s t h e use o f n a t u r a l and/or a r t i -
f i c i a l recharge of c o l d water t o d r i v e h o t water i n a r e s e r v o i r t o the
producing w e l l s . As t h e water sweeps through the h o t rock, i t s temperature
i s r a i s e d by removing energy from the rock. The i n f l u e n c e o f heat conduction
on t h i s process takes p l a c e on two l e n g t h scales. On the m i c r o s c a l e o f pores
f i l l e d w i t h water i n a r o c k m a t r i x , conduction makes the temperature o f t h e
r o c k and t h e pores come t o e q u i l i b r i u m i n a m a t t e r o f a few minutes. On the
s c a l e o f a volume o f r o c k several hundred meters on a s i d e having one zone of
c o l d water and rock and a second zone o f h o t water and rock, conduction w i t h
no f l u i d movement spreads o u t an i n i t i a l l y sharp change in temperature t o a
smooth t r a n s i t i o n o f o n l y 60 m t h i c k n e s s i n a p e r i o d o f a decade. As c o l d
water sweeps i n t o a h o t r e s e r v o i r , conduction may be analyzed t o a f i r s t
approximation by s u p e r p o s i t i o n o n t o the movement o f the temperature f r o n t ,
r e s u l t i n g i n the premature breakthrough o f c o o l e r water i n t o the h o t zone.
Another f a c t o r i n t h e sweep process i s the r o t a t i o n o f an i n i t i a l l y v e r t i c a l
i n t e r f a c e between c o l d water and h o t water i n a porous medium, owing t o t h e
d i f f e r e n c e i n h y d r o s t a t i c pressure on the two sides o f t h e i n t e r f a c e .
Although t h i s r o t a t i o n i s r e t a r d e d by the energy s t o r e d i n t h e r o c k , i t a l s o
tends t o cause premature breakthrough o f c o l d water i n t o the h o t zone. These
processes can be combined q u a l i t a t i v e l y t o y i e l d an e s t i m a t e o f energy t h a t
can be recovered from a r e s e r v o i r o f porous, permeable rock i n a hot- water
s ys t em.

Vapor-dominated r e s e r v o i r s a r e assumed t o c o n t a i n steam a s the pressure-

c o n t r o l l i n g phase, w i t h l i q u i d water immobilized i n the pores by surface
forces ( T r u e s d e l l and White, 1973). P r o d u c t i o n r e s u l t s primairi l y from the
b o i l i n g o f t h i s pore water t o steam, a l t h o u g h i n l a t e r stages t h e r e may be
some b o i l i n g from an i n f e r r e d deep water t a b l e . Because the l i q u i d f r a c t i o n
i n a vapor-dominated r e s e r v o i r i s smal 1 , the pressure and temperature o f
steam produced i n t h e b o i l i n g process a r e g e n e r a l l y c l o s e enough t o the
i n i t i a l values f o r t h e system t h a t ample pressure remains t o d r i v e t h e steam
t o and up t h e w e l l . The f r a c t i o n o f s t o r e d energy t h a t may be recovered,
c a l c u l a t e d by c o n s i d e r i n g an energy balance f o r the b o i l i n g process, i s
c r i t i c a l l y dependent on t h e average l i q u i d s a t u r a t i o n .

REFERENCES

Nathenson, Manuel, " Physical f a c t o r s d e t e r m i n i n g the f r a c t i o n o f s t o r e d energy

r e c o v e r a b l e from hydrothermal c o n v e c t i o n systems and conduction
dominated areas," U.S. Geol. Survey o p e n - f i l e r e p o r t 75-525, 38 pp., 1975.

Nathenson, Manuel and L . J . P. M u f f l e r , "Geothermal resources i n hydrothermal

c o n v e c t i o n systems and conduction- dominated areas," i n (D. E. White
and D. L. W i l l i a m s , eds.) Assessment o f the Geothermal Resources o f
o f the U n i t e d S t a t e s - - l 9 7 5 , U . S . Geol. Survey C i r . 726, pp. 104-121 1975.

T r u e s d e l l , A. H., and D. E. White, " Production o f superheated steam from

vapor-dominated geothermal r e s e r v o i r s , " Geothermics, V . 2, pp. 145- 64.

-51 -
 UTILIZATION OF GRAVIMETRIC DATA FOR ESTIMATION
OF HYDROTHERMAL RESERVOIR CHARACTERISTICS
IN THE EAST MESA FIELD, IMPERIAL VALLEY, CALIFORNIA
1
Tsvi Meidav,' Russell James,' and Subir Sanyal

This paper presents an attempt at correlating the observed phenomena

of small positive gravity anomalies and self-sealing in some geothermal
systems with possible geochemical, thermal and flow properties o f Such
systems. In particular, the East Mesa geothermal area in the Imperial
Valley, California shows up to 6 milligal positive residual gravity anomaly.
Calculations show that the maximum depth to the center of gravity of the
anomalous mass is a few kilometers, which is less than the depth to the
basement in the area. We hypothesize that the presence of this gravity
anomaly in the midst of a reasonably regular alluvial basin is due to
deposition of minerals in pore spaces o f sediments by upward rising plumes
of geothermal water over geological time.
Facca and Tonani (1967) have explained the origin of hard, impervious
caps in some geothermal systems, as being the result of precipitation of
minerals in a water-convective system. Briefly restated, thermal water at
depth has a certain dissolving power which is dependent upon temperature,
pressure, pH and the nature o f the rock. Because of the reduced density of
the hot water which forces it to flow up, a convection system is created.
The term "convection" is used loosely here, to signify heat transfer by this
movement and not necessarily motion around a loop. Gravity data considera-
tions favor either a once-through flow or a convective flow which has very
larger horizontal components (Figure 1). As the water flows up through pro-
gressively colder and lower-pressure strata, it precipitates part of the ions
which are carried in solutions. Such precipitates consist primarily of silica
and calcite. Detailed investigations o f the Dunes Anomaly (Elders, 1973) in
the same geological basin, show that a series o f quartzite layers occurs in
the central part of the Dunes geothermal anomaly. No significant silica
deposition has been reported in the East Mesa area, the subject of this study.
However, the lithologic data gathered in the holes indicate increased calcite
precipitation in the pore space (R. Fournier, personal communication).
Clear evidence for hydrothermal convection in the East Mesa Field is
seen in any of the temperature-depth plots obtained by the U . S . Bureau of
Reclamation in the various holes which were drilled in the East Mesa Field
(Figure 2 ) . The temperature gradient graphs show a sudden flattening at a
depth of about 700 m. This may be interpreted as indicating the existence
of a cap layer into that depth. Above the cap, the dominant heat transfer
mechanism i s conductive heat flow. Below this depth, convection predominates.
This s i tuat ion is in concordance with the model s of Facca and Tonan i (19671,
or White (1965).

'Geonomics, Inc., 3165 Adel ine Street, Berkeley, .CA. 94703.

'Chemistry Division, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research,
Taupo, New Zealand.
-52-
 A d e t a i l e d g r a v i t y survey o f t h e East Mesa Anomaly has been c a r r i e d
o u t by B i e h l e r (1971) from which a r e s i d u a l g r a v i t y map ( F i g u r e 3) has been
prepared. The g r a v i t y h i g h corresponds t o t h e temperature g r a d i e n t h i g h i n
the same area ( F i g u r e 4 ) .

Mass-excess C a l c u l a t i o n s from G r a v i t y Data

Hammer (1945) has shown t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e from g r a v i t y

d a t a t h e t o t a l anomalous mass g i v i n g r i s e t o t h e g r a v i t y anomaly, w i t h o u t
regard t o t h e geometry o r depth o f t h e anomalous body, by peirforming a
surface i n t e g r a t i o n over t h e g r a v i t y anomaly area.

Performing t h a t c a l c u l a t i o n w i t h regard t o t h e r e s i d u a l r a v i t y anomaly

a t East Mesa, we e s t i m a t e a n e t excess mass of about (10+2)x10I ! m e t r i c tons.
T h i s excess mass o f about 10 b i l l i o n tons of m a t t e r i s b e l i e v e d t o have been
deposited i n t h e a l l u v i a l s t r a t a d i r e c t l y as a r e s u l t o f t h e c o o l i n g e f f e c t
o f t h e shallower a l l u v i u m on t h e r i s i n g h o t plumes o f water. The b a s i s f o r
t h i s a s s e r t i o n comes from t h e g r a v i t y data i t s e l f : t r i a l h a l f - w i d t h d e p t h
d e t e r m i n a t i o n s show t h a t t h e c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y o f t h e anomalous mass must be
w i t h i n t h e sedimentary column. These d e t e r m i n a t i o n s do n o t p r e c l u d e however,
t h a t a t l e a s t p a r t o f t h e g r a v i t y anomaly i s due t o basement u p l i f t or due
t o d e n s i t y changes w i t h i n t h e upper p a r t o f t h e basement r o c k s . V i s u a l
comparison w i t h an unpublished aeromagnetic map o f t h e area :shows t h e absence
of a magnetic anomaly a t East Mesa. Such an anomaly would have been expected
had the cause f o r t h e g r a v i t y anomaly been a basement u p l i f t . One can a t t r i b -
u t e t h e absence o f a magnetic anomaly t o hyper- Curie- point temperature i n t h e
basement. We c o n s i d e r such a p o s s i b i l i t y as u n l i k e l y . Thus, we conclude
t h a t t h e g r a v i t y anomaly i s l a r g e l y due t o hydrothermal m i n e r a l d e p o s i t i o n
w i t h i n t h e sedimentary column, due t o hydrothermal convection.

Assuming t y p i c a l numbers f o r average p o r o s i t y (20%) i n t h e sedimentary

column and r o c k m a t r i x d e n s i t y (2.65 g/cm3), we c a l c u l a t e t h a t t h e excess
mass has been d e p o s i t e d w i t h i n a t o t a l volume o f 19 km3 o f s cad iments. The
East Mesa anomaly has an a r e a l e x t e n t o f 200 sq. km. Thus, over t h i s area,
t h e t o t a l t h i c k n e s s o f t h e d e n s i f i e d l a y e r s i s estimated t o be 95 meters o r
311 ft., which i s g e o l o g i c a l l y reasonable.

Mass Convection o f Water

Q u a r t z s o l u b i I i t y d a t a i n d i c a t e t h a t up t o 0.44 gram per 1 i t e r o f

s i 1 i c a c o u l d p r e c i p i t a t e o u t o f s o l u t i o n when an o r i g i n a l l y : s i 1 i c a - s a t u r a t e d
s o l u t i o n p r e c i p i t a t e s t h e excess s i l i c a as i t c o o l s down from 250' t o 100°C.
Likewise, a s i g n i f i c a n t amount o f carbonate c o u l d p r e c i p i t a t e o u t of a
b i c a r b o n a t e - r i c h s o l u t i o n as i t decompresses. Assuming a mean of .4 gm/l i t e r
p r e c i p i t a t i o n , a mass excess o f 10 b i l l i o n tons o f p r e c i p i t a t e would have
r e q u i r e d about 25 t r i l l i o n tons o f thermal water t o have c i r c u l a t e d through
t h e system. The water f l o w must be p r i m a r i l y v e r t i c a l , t o account f o r the
observed r e s i d u a l g r a v i t y anomaly. As t h e r i s i n g plume o f water encounters
an impermeable boundary, i t i s d e f l e c t e d l a t e r a l l y i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s . The

-53-
upward flow o f t h e geothermal w a t e r r e s u l t s i n d e p o s i t i o n o f m i n e r a l s , e i t h e r
due t o c o o l i n g ( s i l i c a ) o r t o decrease i n p r e s s u r e ( c a l c i t e ) . The z e r o
c o n t o u r on t h e r e s i d u a l g r a v i t y anomaly i s an e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e outermost
p o s s i b l e l i m i t o f t h e l a t e r a l e x t e n t of p r e c i p i t a t i o n . The a c t u a l l i m i t s
m i g h t be c l o s e r t o t h e c e n t e r o f t h e r i s i n g plume.

A f l o w model o f " once- through" i s p r e f e r r e d t o a model o f t o r o i d a l

circulation. The "once-through model" i s based upon t h e assumption t h a t h o t
w a t e r , m o b i l i z e d i n t h e igneous basement o r i n t h e deeper p a r t o f t h e s e d i -
mentary s t r a t a , moves t h r o u g h f r a c t u r e s and shear zones upward above t h e
h o t spot, i n a heat- pump- like process. Having reached i t s apex, t h e water
flow i s dissipated l a t e r a l l y i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s . The t o r o i d a l c i r c u l a t i o n
model, on the o t h e r hand, may pose t h e problem o f mass balance, which
t h e o r e t i c a l l y a t l e a s t would m i n i m i z e t h e s i z e o f any r e s i d u a l g r a v i t y
anomaly. T h i s i s because i n such a model, t h e d i s s o l v e d m a t t e r a t t h e base
of t h e c o n v e c t i n g c e l l i s d e p o s i t e d above i t , hence no mass i s gained o r
l o s t . O f course, t h e s h a l l o w excess mass would g i v e r i s e t o a h i g h e r
g r a v i t a t i o n a l a t t r a c t i o n , b u t Gauss' theorem shows t h a t i f t h e i n t e g r a t i o n
of t h e s u r f a c e i n t e g r a l i s c a r r i e d o v e r t h e a r e a o f t h e source and t h e s i n k ,
t h e mass loss and d e f i c i e n c y would balance o u t . On t h e o t h e r hand, i f t h e
source of t h e mass i s from a v e r y l a r g e area, i t would n o t a f f e c t Hammer's
s u r f a c e i n t e g r a l which i s c a r r i e d o u t o v e r a s m a l l e r area.

F i g u r e 5 shows t h e r a t e o f w a t e r c o n v e c t i o n o v e r t h e e n t i r e E:ast Mesa

Anomaly f o r d i f f e r e n t assumed ages o f t h e system. The minimum upward f l o w
i s about 0.8 m3/sec. f o r a one- mil 1 i o n year o l d system, t o 80m3/sec.. f o r a
10,000 year o l d geothermal system. I n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f o t h e r geothermal
systems suggest t h a t t h e l i f e o f a geothermal system l i e s t y p i c a l l y i n t h e
range o f 10,000-50,000 y e a r s (White, 1965; E l 1 i s , 1970). For a 50,000 year
o l d system t h e v e r t i c a l c o n v e c t i o n r a t e had t o be o f t h e o r d e r o f 8,600,000
b a r r e l s / d a y (1,400,000 tons/day). Even i f we assumed t h a t t h e r e i s an
o r d e r o f magnitude e r r o r i n o v e r e s t i m a t i n g t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of t h e sediments
t o t h e t o t a l g r a v i t y anomaly, t h e s e numbers remain q u i t e impressive. These
numbers i n d i c a t e t h a t v e r t i c a l p e r m e a b i l i t y i s a major f a c t o r i n t h e f l o w
regime o f a geothermal system.

I f t h i s v e r t i c a l f l o w had taken p l a c e o v e r 50,000 years across t h e

e n t i r e h o r i z o n t a l e x t e n t (200 square km) o f t h e East Mesa anomaly, average
macroscopic v e l o c i t y should have been O.8xlO'5cm/sec. An average v a l u e
of t h e v e r t i c a l p e r m e a b i l i t y can then be c a l c u l a t e d from D a r c y ' s law as:

k = - ( i n Darcy u n i t s ) , where
92
dz
k = v e r t i c a l permeabil i t y (Darcy)
v = macrosopic v e l o c i t y = O.8xlO-5cm/sec.
p = v i s c o s i t y = 0.2 c e n t i p o i s e (a v a l u e t y p i c a l f o r t h e s a l i n i t y ,
temperature and p r e s s u r e o f t h e East Mesa f o r m a t i o n water)

*=
dz
v e r t i c a l p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t due t o buoyancy of h o t water s u r -
rounded by c o l d w a t e r = -0.0002 a t d u n ( g r a d i e n t caused by t h e
maximum temperature d i f f e r e n c e o f 150°C between h o t and c o l d
water).

- 54-
T h i s g i v e s a v a l u e k = 8 m i l l i d a r c y . However, c o n v e c t i v e f l o w must have
taken p l a c e across a f a r s m a l l e r c r o s s - s e c t i o n than t h e e n t i r e 200 sq. km.
Assuming t h a t o n l y one p e r c e n t o f t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n was i n v o l v e d i n convec-
t i v e f l o w , t h e average v e r t i c a l p e r m e a b i l i t y i s c a l c u l a t e d t o be 800 m i l l i -
darcy. A v e r t i c a l p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h i s magnitude through a f a u l t e d o r
f r a c t u r e d c o n d u i t i s n o t i n c o n c e i v a b l e . I f t h e estimated f l o w r a t e (Q) of
Ib.Omj/sec takes p l a c e through a v e r t i c a l f a u l t o f l a t e r a l e x t e n t L, then
t h e r e q u i r e d f r a c t u r e w i d t h (h) along the f a u l t i s g i v e n by:

For L = 1 k i l o m e t e r , u s i n g c o n s i s t e n t u n i t s , we c a l c u l a t e h =E 2.6 mm. Thus,

a one k i l o m e t e r long v e r t i c a l f a u l t along which an average f r a c t u r e w i d t h
o f 2.6 m i l l i m e t e r s c o u l d have been an adequate f l o w c o n d u i t .

No h o t s p r i n g s o r o t h e r geothermal s u r f a c e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s e x i s t a t t h e
East Mesa Anomaly. I t i s p o s s i b l e , however, t h a t h o t springs, have flowed t o
t h e s u r f a c e i n t h e g e o l o g i c p a s t . We conclude from t h e f o r e g o i n g d i s c u s s i o n
t h a t a l t h o u g h geysers, h o t s p r i n g s and fumaroles may perhaps be a s p e c t a c u l a r
demonstration o f t h e g r e a t heat r e s e r v o i r s which a r e l o c a t e d a t a s h a l l o w
depth below t h e e a r t h ’ s s u r f a c e , t h e absence o f these geothermal manifesta-
t i o n s need n o t be taken as a s i g n o f absence o f tappable geot:hermal energy
a t an economic depth o f e x p l o r a t i o n . Very l a r g e thermal water f l o w s , o f t h e
same o r d e r o f magnitude as t h e more s p e c t a c u l a r geysers, may be c i r c u l a t i n g
a t s h a l l o w depths below t h e e a r t h ’ s surface, when hydrogeologiical c o n d i t i o n s
do n o t f a v o r o u t f l o w t o t h e surface.

Convective Heat T r a n s f e r

We can c a l c u l a t e t h e amount o f heat c o n v e c t i v e l y t r a n s f e r r e d by t h e

above system. Assuming t h a t t h e temperature drop r e q u i r e d far p r e c i p i t a t i o n
of t h e excess mass a t t h e East Mesa Anomaly i s 150°C, t h e t o t a l heat t r a n s -
f e r r e d c o n v e c t i v e l y w i t h t h e water s i n c e t h e b i r t h o f t h e East Mesa geo-
thermal ystem i s about 3 . 8 ~ 1 0 2 1 c a l o r i e s , t a k i n g t h e mass f l o w o f water as
25 x 10’’ tons. T h i s i s much g r e a t e r than t h e v a l u e g i v e n by White (1965)
f o r t h e heat s t o r e d t o a depth o f 3 km i n some t i c a l h o t s p r i n g s systems,
which he c a l c u l a t e s t o be o f t h e o r d e r of 2 x 10 $6 calories.

The area o f t h e East Mesa geothermal anomaly i s about 200 sq. km.
Hence, t h e c o n v e c t i v e h e a t t r a n s f e r o f t h e geothermal anomaly has been about
1 . 9 ~ 1 0cal/cm2
~ from t h e b i r t h o f t h e East Mesa geothermal system t o t h e
present.

F i g u r e 5 c o n t a i n s a l s o a p l o t o f heat f l o w (p cal/cm2/sec) versus

p o s s i b l e age f o r t h e East Mesa Anomaly. I t i s noted from t h i s f i g u r e t h a t
f o r an assumed age of 50,000 years f o r t h e East Mesa system, t h e c o n v e c t i v e
heat flow would be 1200 heat f l o w u n i t s (HFU). T h i s i s about 200 times t h e
estimated present c o n d u c t i v e heat f l o w f o r t h e anomaly.

-55-
 The reported conductive heat flows for the geothermal anomalies in the
Imperial Valley vary between 7-17 HFU (Rex, 1966; Helgeson, 1968). For the
East Mesa Anomaly, the conductive heat flow is estimated to be 4-6 HFU
(Combs, 1971). The difference between the lower observed heat flow and the
estimated high convective heat flow rate may be due to the possibility that
as self-sealing progresses, the vertical component of convective water flow
becomes minor, while lateral dissipation o f heat becomes more important.
Eventually heat may be totally dissipated laterally into large aquifers at
great depth without substantially increasing observed heat flow rate at the
ground surface.

REFERENCES
Biehler, S., 1971. Gravity Studies in the Imperial Valley, in: Cooperative
Geological-Geophysical-Geochemical Investigations of Geothermal
Resources in the Imperial Valley Area of California, University of
California, Riverside, July 1.
Combs, J., 1971. Heat Flow and Geothermal Resources Estimates for the
Imperial Valley, in: Cooperative Geological-Geophysical-
Geochemical Investigation of Geothermal Resources in the Imperial
Valley Area of California, University of California, Riverside, July 1 .
Elders, W . , 1973. Petrology of the Cores, in: Preliminary Findings of an
Investigation of the Dunes Anomaly, Imperial Valley, California,
Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics, U.C. Riverside.
Ellis, A. J., 1970. Quantitative Interpretation of Chemical Characteristics
of Hydrothermal Systems, in: Proceedings of the United States
Symposium on the Development and Utilization of Geothermal Resources,
Geothermics Special Issue, Vol. 2, Part 1.
Facca, G., and Tonani , F., 1967. The Self-sealing Geothermal Field,
Bull. Volcanolog que, v. 30:271.
Hammer, S . , 1945. Est mating Ore Masses in Gravity Prospecting, in:
Geophysics, Vol. 10:50-62.

-56-
 GRAVITY AND THERMAL
ANOMALIES

Groundwater FI o

.-

HEAT SOURCE

Figure 1. Conceivable f l o w model f o r a s e l f - s e a l i n g hydrothermal

system, with the associated gravity and thermal gradient anomalies.

-57-
 TEMPERATURE - O F
1000 I
C 1
I

IOOC
.- . . ..-

200c
- -

300C

- .
I-
W

-
W
LL

X
t-
4000

A
5000

a Ternperc re [ 12 -12 - 7 2 )
0 Pressure ( 12- 12 - 72)
Woler Level 4 7 3 ' Below Ground Surface
0000

..

I
7000
..

so00 I

0 500 too0 I500 2000 2500 :woo 3500

PRESSURE - PSI

TEMPERATURE & PRESSURE IN WATER COLUMN

MESA 6-1, IMPERIAL VALLEY, CALIFORNIA
Fig. 2
 R I7

t
_i-

____
R 17

Figure 3 . R e s i d u a l g r a v i t y map of t h e Mesa a r e a ( B i e h l e r , 1 9 7 1 ) .

Contour Interval 0 . 5 mgal. C J = .5 mgal.

-59-
 r HOLTVILLE OUTLYlNG FIELD

15 S
I6 S

Figure 4, Temperature gradient map of the East Mesa anomaly

(Combs, i 9 7 1 ; based partially on data by Rex, 1970).

- 60-
 - 1000
3
LL
r
h

6,
-cI
a
L

-100
3
c 0
0
.c1
CI

6,
9-r
cg
L

’ 10

__I

io5 1o6

Age, years.
Estimated water and convective heat
rates of East Mesa hydrogeothermal s y s t e m

F i g u r e 5.

-61-
 AN INVESTIGATION OF SCREENING GEOTHERMAL PRODUCTION
WELLS FROM EFFECTS OF REINJECTION

C. F. Tsang and P . A. Witherspoon

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
University of California
Berkeley, C a l i f o r n i a 94720

R e i n j e c t i o n o f used geothermal l i q u i d s i n t o the producing r e s e r v o i r

has been proposed by several i n v e s t i g a t o r s as an e f f e c t i v e way t o a,void
d i s p o s a l problems and t o reduce t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f land subsidence i n t h e
r e s e r v o i r area.

However, a f t e r a l e n g t h of time, t h e r e i n j e c t o o n water w i l l break

through a t the p r o d u c t i o n w e l l , which w i l l no longer be a b l e t o maiintain
i t s o r i g i n a l temperature. G r i n g a r t e n and S a u t y l have developed a s i m p l e
s t e a d y - s t a t e model t o study such a system o f many p r o d u c t i o n and i n , j e c t i o n
w e l l s , capable o f c a l c u l a t i n g t h e temperature decrease as f u n c t i o n s of time.
The p r e s e n t paper d e s c r i b e s a p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e t a r d i n g t h e breakthrough t i m e
and reducing t h e temperature drop by means o f screening w e l l s .

The b a s i c p h y s i c a l idea i s as f o l l o w s . Consider a d o u b l e t of one

p r o d u c t i o n and one i n j e c t i o n w e l l . Streamlines w i l l go from t h e i n j e c t i o n
t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n w e l l . The e a r l i e s t s t r e a m l i n e s t h a t reach t h e p r o d u c t i o n
w e l l w i l l correspond t o those c l o s e t o t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e l e a d i n g from t h e
i n j e c t i o n t o the production w e l l . Now i f we have an e x t r a screening w e l l on
t h i s l i n e i n between t h e two w e l l s , which e x t r a c t s f l u i d and p u t s i t back
i n t o t h e i n j e c t i o n w e l l , then these e a r l i e s t s t r e a m l i n e s w i l l be ' ' p i c k e d up''
by t h e screening w e l l and prevented from a r r i v i n g a t t h e p r o d u c t i o n w e l l .
I n t h i s way, n o t o n l y i s t h e breakthrough t i m e increased, b u t a l s o t h e r a t e
of temperature drop i s reduced. Besides t h e temperature d i f f e r e n c e of t h e
r e i n j e c t e d water and the r e s e r v o i r , two dimensionless parameters e n t e r i n t o
t h e problem, t h e r a t e o f e x t r a c t i o n o f t h e screening w e l l r e l a t i v e t o t h a t
o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n w e l l , y, and t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e screening w e l l , C Y , defined
as t h e d i s t a n c e of screening w e l l from t h e p r o d u c t i o n w e l l d i v i d e d by t h e
s e p a r a t i o n of t h e d o u b l e t . I t i s easy t o see t h a t t h e screening e f f e c t w i l l '
increased w i t h an increase o f y and a decrease o f a.

We have c a l c u l a t e d t h e breakthrough t i m e as a f u n c t i o n of a and y,

w i t h CL ranging from 0.1 t o 0.9 and y from 0 t o 1.5, and we found t h a t i t i s
p o s s i b l e t o increase t h e breakthrough t i m e by as much as a f a c t o r of 2 i n
c e r t a i n cases. Hence, g i v e n a case o f a d o u b l e t whose breakthrough t i m e i s
20 years, i t i s p o s s i b l e t o p l a c e a screening w e l l o f a p p r o p r i a t e f l o w r a t e
such t h a t t h e p r o d u c t i o n temperature i s n o t a f f e c t e d a t a i ? f o r 40 years.

I t i s easy t o extend t h e problem t o i n c l u d e e f f e c t s of t h e nat:ural a r e a l

f l o w i n t h e r e s e r v o i r . We c o n s i d e r a case t h a t G r i n g a r t e n and Sauty s t u d i e d ,
i n which they looked a t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f s i t i n g a d o u b l e t i n a h e a v i l y -
b u i l t area f o r space h e a t i n g and c o o l i n g . There i s a s t r o n g a r e a l f l o w and

-62-
by placing the injection well downstream, they found that there will be no
interflow (i.e., infinite breakthrough time) if the two wells are placed 965
meters apart. But the maximum practical separation is only 300 meters in
the direction of areal flow. Thus they have to employ other techniques.
However, by our calculations with a separation of 300 meters, we found that
it is possible to obtain zero interflow with the production well by placing
a screening well 90 meters from the producing well with a fllow rate 1.4
times the producing rate.
Further calculations are made on the steady-state flow model of
Gringarten and Sauty t o study the temperature decrease rate for systems
with screening wells. Not only are we able to calculate the streamlines and
thermal fronts, but the temperatures at the wells as a function of time are
calculated. Figure 1 illustrates a simple example of a doublet with and
dithout the screening well. It can be seen from the top half of the figure
that the effect of the screening well is to intercept the streamlines, thus
pulling the thermal fronts toward it. The lower half of the figure illus-
trates the temperature curves. The energy extracted is proportional to the
flow-rate times the area under these curves above a certain given temperature
below which the water will not be useful. To make a comparison which is some-
what meaningful, we take a case of a doublet without screening in which the
production and reinjection rates are each 24, t o be comparedl with a case with
screening in which the production and screening wells are ealch at a flow-rate
Q and the injection at 2Q. It is found that the accumulative extracted energy
of the system with the screening well (for y = 1 and a = 0.1) after 50, 100
and 80 years are respectively 1.6, 2.0, and 4.8 times larger than that for the
unscreened system.
We have also made calculations on the same model for a system of many
production and reinjection wells with screening wells in between. A gain
in the energy extracted is also obtained, but the amount depends on the
distribution of wells in each given case.
In conclusion, we believe that a retardation of breakthrough time and
a reduct on of the rate of temperature drop at the production well can be
obtained by means of an (extraction) screening well. In our calculations,
we found that a very significant factor in energy gained can be realized.
However, we have not yet made a detailed economic feasibility study taking
into consideration the expenses o f digging the extra screening well. Initial
discussions indicate that with certain arrangements and parameters, such
screened systems may have significant economic advantages.

Reference

1
-
A. C. Gringarten, J . T . Sauty, to be published in the Journal o f Geophysical
Research (1975).

-63-
 I I

0
0
- a
0
- w
0"og -
'I, b II

7
I r I ' l 0
o
U
I",
0
2
0
(I! r!
0
-
0 E!
0
3 338930

Figure 1. The t o p h a l f o f t h e f i g u r e i n d i c a t e s t h e stream1 ines ( d o t t e d 1 i n e s )

and t h e thermal f r o n t s ( s o l i d l i n e s ) o f t h e d o u b l e t system w i t h and w i t h o u t
screening. The 1,ower h a l f shows t h e temperature a t t h e p r o d u c t i o n w e l l as a
. f u n c t i o n o f t i m e i n t h r e e cas.es, (a) no screening w e l l , (b) s c r e e n i n g w e l l '
half- way between p r o d u c t i o n and i n j e c t i o n w e l l s a t a f l o w r a t e equal t o
p r o d u c t i o n , and (c) same as (b) b u t w i t h screening w e l l a t 1/10 t h e separa-
t i o n d i s t a n c e from t h e p r o d u c t i o n w e l l .

-64-
 LAND SURFACE SUBSIDENCE ASSOCIATED WITH
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY PRODUCTION

S. K. Garg
Systems, Science and Software
P . O . Box 1620
La J o l l a , C a l i f o r n i a 92038

Land subsidence, sometimes observed d u r i n g o i l f i e l d p r o d u c t i o n , i s

p o t e n t i a l l y a s e r i o u s problem i n geothermal energy p r o d u c t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y
of l i q u i d - d o m i n a t e d hydrothermal and geopressured f i e l d s . I n the Imperial
Valley- - one o f t h e most p r o m i s i n g l i q u i d - d o m i n a t e d geothermal r e g i o n s i n
t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s - - e x t e n s i v e subsidence c o u l d damage i r r i g a t i o n canals and
o t h e r surface s t r u c t u r e s . Even i f t h e subsidence i s c o n f i n e d t o t h e produc-
t i o n area, s p e c i a l measures may be necessary t o p r o t e c t t h e geothermal
e x t r a c t i o n and e l e c t r i c a l g e n e r a t i n g equipment. Subsidence i s , i n g e n e r a l ,
caused by t h e compaction o f t h e semi- consolidated and unconsolidated s t r a t a
of t h e r e s e r v o i r as the e f f e c t i v e overburden s t r e s s i s increalsed due t o f l u i d
withdrawal. I n some o i l f i e l d s (e.g., t h e Wilmington o i l f i e l d i n t h e Los
Angeles b a s i n ) , i n j e c t i o n o f water i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n has been s u c c e s s f u l l y
employed t o reduce subsidence. Subsidence i s p o t e n t i a l l y a more s e r i o u s
t h r e a t i n geothermal p r o d u c t i o n due t o t h e much l a r g e r volume o f f l u i d
r e q u i r e d t o produce a g i v e n amount o f energy. Fluid reinjection, while
undoubtedly u s e f u l , i s n o t a u n i v e r s a l remedy t o subsidence, f o r s e v e r a l
reasons. F i r s t , w h i l e some o f t h e compaction i s e l a s t i c and may be recovered,
i t i s w e l l known t h a t i r r e v e r s i b l e pore c o l l a p s e (permanent dleformation) a l s o
accompanies f l u i d w i t h d r a w a l . Second, due t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e e l e c t r i c a l
g e n e r a t i n g process, o n l y a f r a c t i o n o f t h e produced f l u i d s w i l l be a v a i l a b l e
f o r r e i n j e c t i o n ; t h e r e i n j e c t i o n f l u i d may, o f course, be aug,mented by s u r f a c e
water t o make up t h e volume d e f i c i t . T h i r d , r e i n j e c t i o n ( e s p e c i a l l y of con-
c e n t r a t e d b r i n e s which a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f some I m p e r i a l V a l l e y geothermal
anomalies) may n o t always be p r a c t i c a l a t ( o r near) t h e same h o r i z o n t a l and
v e r t i c a l l o c a t i o n as p r o d u c t i o n . R e i n j e c t i o n a t a s u f f i c i e n t l a t e r a l d i s t a n c e
from t h e producing w e l l may r e s u l t i n uneven s u r f a c e displacement. Further-
more, subsurface f l u i d i n j e c t i o n may, by i n c r e a s i n g pore pressures, tend t o
increase l e v e l s o f s e i s m i c a c t i v i t y . Many geothermal r e s e r v c i i r s ( i n c l u d i n g
those i n t h e I m p e r i a l V a l l e y and t h e geopressured systems i n t h e Gulf Coast)
l i e i n r e g i o n s o f e x t e n s i v e f a u l t i n g - - t h u s , t h e danger of earthquake
t r i g g e r i n g cannot be discounted.

MATHEMATICAL MODEL

A l l o f t h e g e o h y d r o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s d e s c r i b e d above i n v o l v e mechanical
i n t e r a c t i o n s between t h e r o c k and f l u i d components. The t h e o r e t i c a l model,
developed w i t h i n t h e framework o f t h e Theory o f I n t e r a c t i n g Continua,
d e s c r i b e s t h e thermomechanical response o f t h e r o c k and f l u i d (water and/or
steam) composite m a t e r i a l i n terms o f t h e i s o l a t e d components. The s t r e s s -

-65-
strain equations for the rock matrix are coupled with the diffusion equations
for the fluid. The microscale details of the pore/fracture network in the
rock are ignored, but the fluid pressures and the stress field in the rock
matrix are permitted to assume distinct values within each computational
region for the composite. The fluid flow equations and their solution is
discussed elsewhere (Pritchett, --
et al., 1975). In this paper, we shall
confine our attention to rock response under a given fluid pressure history.

Assuming that ( 1 ) the rock matrix undergoes only small deformations

and ( 2 ) the reservoir behaves in a quasi-static manner during production/
injection, the equation expressing momentum balance for the rock matrix can
be written as follows:

where

3 = Acceleration due to gravity

p = Fluid pressure
Ps = Sol id pressure

S = Relative vapor volume [=Vv/(Vv + V,)].

2 = Deviatoric stress tensor for porous rock.

V,(VR) = Vapor (liquid) volume.

pi = Density (i=s, solid; i=L, liquid; i=v, vapor)
$ = Porosity

It i s necessary to complement Eq. (1) with suitable constitutive relations

for the rock matrix.

The bulk strain-rate tensor for rock i is given by:

5
where denotes the deviatoric part of the strain-rate tensor. Bulk volu-
metric strain E is related to the rock grain (or effective) volumetric
strain through the relation:

The rock grain may be assumed to be a linear thermoelastic material over the
range of temperatures and pressures encountered in geothermal reservoirs.

-66-
where Ks (TI ) denotes the bulk modulus (coefficient of 1 ineai- thermal expansion)
for the roc2 grain. Additionally, we will postulate that the shear stresses S
are linearly related to shear strains e through Hookels law: 'L
%

S=2pp: (5)
'L

where p is the shear modulus o f the porous rock.

P
Posority Q, depends in a complex manner on the current state of stress
(us, P), stress history, temperature and the rock type. Consolidated rocks
ggneral ly exhibit greater compaction at elevated temperatures than they do at
lbwer temperatures; the effect of temperature is not, however, so significant
in loose or unconsolidated sands. Shear stresses , depending upon the rock
type, may contribute to compaction, may lead to di atancy, o r may have not
significant effect upon $. Let us consider the case when 4 does not appreciably
depend on $; in this case porosity 4 depends on a close approximation only
-
upon Pc P (Garg and Nur, 1973):

0 = Q,o [I + dPC - P)1 (6)

where

CY, 3 c1 (Pc-P) =
1
- -- -
+C) 1s;
1 -+()

1 (7)

Here K(Pc - P) is the bulk modulus of the porous rock and has different values
during loading (increase in effective pressure Pc - P) and unloading (decrease
in effective pressure Pc - P).
The theoretical model discussed above requires K, p Ks and q s as
empirically determined input functions. Although most ofP'these properties
can be obtained from standard laboratory tests on cores, it should be noted
that the reservoir behavior is frequently governed by fractures, formation
inhomogeneities, and other large scale features such as fau1t.s. It, therefore,
becomes important to supplement the laboratory measurements tiy suitable field
data. In particular, the bulk and shear moduli (K, p ) of reservoir rocks
should be obtained from seismic measurements. P

-
COMP TER CODE AND APPLICATIONS
To solve the rock response equations (1-7), a finite element solid
equ i ibrium code, STAGR (STatic Analysis of Geothermal Reservoirs) has been
deve oped. Like any suchfiniteelement code, it is basically a program for
solv ng the problem of a loaded linear elastic continuum; however, materially
non 1 near prbblems may be solved by iteration, using effective elast i c
mod u i ("tangent" or "secant" moduli) in the elements. Due t o the very sma 1
matr x displacements expected in geothermal reservoir calculat ons, only

-67-
material nonlinearity, and not geometric nonlinearity, has been included. I n
addition to the usual features found in finite element continuum clodes, STAGR
can solve problems involving nonsymmetric stress-strain relations (necessary
for problems involving incremental loading of materials which undergo plastic
deformat i o n ) . This requires the use of a nonsymetric stiffness matrix.
Further details o f the finite element code are given elsewhere (Pritchett,
--
et al., 1975).

The STAGR equilibrium code has been used to perform 2-0 calculations
of the rock response t o production of a hypothetical geothermal reservoir.
Detai 1s of the reservoir geometry and elastic properties, and the assumed
production strategy are given in Pritchett, et al. (1975). We will here
I-

merely summarize the significant results.

For the present reservoir, the principal stress directions at t = 0

(i.e., prior to fluid production) were almost coincident with the x (horizontal)
and Y (vertical) directions. Changes induced in ux, o and o by the prod-
uction of reservoir fluids were monitored as a functiox of t i i % . It was
found that both MAX IOU I and MAX IAa 1 are much smal let than MAX /Aoxl.
Y
Thus, as a result of fluid production:yo8 becomes much less compressive
whereas 0Y is essentially unaltered. Thts has interesting imp1 ications for
reservoi r stabi 1 i ty. Large reduct ions in the magnitude of ax without
corresponding reductions in u can lead to rock failure and growth of
normal faults. Surface manifestation o f these phenomena may be local ized
reservoir slumping, and increased seismic activity.
Surface displacement contours show that the central portion of the
reservoir subsides almost uniformly. Elsewhere, the vertical motion is accom-
panied by significant horizontal movement. Experience from oilfiellds (e.g.,
Wilmington oil field in Los Angeles basin) indicates that horizontal motion
may cause even more severe damage to surface installations (e.g., roads,
bridges, and buildings) than that caused by vertical subsidence. Thus, in
order t o assess the possible environmental impact of fluid productlon from
geothermal reservoirs, it is necessary to take into account both horizontal
and vertical motions of the ground surface.

REFER EN C E S
Garg, S . K. and A . Nur, "Effective Stress Laws for Fluid-Saturated Porous
Rocks," Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 78, p. 591 1, 1973.
Pritchett, J. W., S . K. Garg, D. H. Brownell, Jr., and H. B . Levine,
"Geohydrological Environmental Effects o f Geothermal Power Production
- Phase I , " Systems, Science and Software Report SSS-R-75-273'3,
September 1975.

- 68-
 PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE BUILDUP I N GEOTHERMAL klELLS

M. S. G u l a t i
Union O i l Company o f C a l i f o r n i a
Brea, Ca. 92621

Two-phase f l o w and heat t r a n s f e r i n f l u e n c e t h e pressure-time response

o f hot- water w e l l s . 'The methods developed f o r pressure b u i l d u p analyses i n o i l ,
gas, and c o l d water r e s e r v o i r s a r e n o t completely a p p l i c a b l e i n hot- water
reservo ir s .
Mathematical s y n t h e s i s i s necessary t o b u i l d e x i s t i n g two-phase f l o w
t h e o r y , h e a t t r a n s f e r t h e o r y and steam thermodynamics i n t o ai system f o r
a n a l y z i n g hot- water w e l l p r e s s u r e t r a n s i e n t s t h a t i s e q u i v a l e n t t o methods
a G a i l a b l e f o r o i l and gas r e s e r v o i r s .

HOT WATER FLASHING IN THE RESERVOIR CAUSES TEMPERATURE CHANGiES c

When f l o w i n g r e s e r v o i r pressure f a l l s below t h e s a t u r a t i o n pressure

corresponding t o t h e r e s e r v o i r temperature, h o t water f l a s h e s i n t h e r e s e r v o i r .
As t h e h o t water f l a s h e s , f l u i d temperature drops i n response t o t h e p r e v a i l -
i n g pressure. Consider c o n d i t i o n s p r e v a i l i n g i n a hot- water w e l l :
S t a t i c reservoir temperature = 5 9 3 T
Static reservoir pressure = 1823 p s i a
Steam s a t u r a t i o n pressure
corresponding t o 593'F = 1464 p s i a
Because t h e r e s e r v o i r pressure i s g r e a t e r than t h e s a t u r a t i o n p r e s s u r e ,
t h e r e is no steam i n t h e s t a t i c r e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s .
Bottom- hole f l o w i n g pressure = 450 p s i a
The bottom- hole f l o w i n g pressure i s l e s s than t h e s a t u r a t i o n pressure;
t h e r e f o r e , as i t f l o w s toward t h e w e l l , p a r t o f t h e h o t water f l a s h e s i n t o
steam. From thermodynamic c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , t h e temperature of t h e steam-water
m i x t u r e must correspond t o 450 p s i a .
S a t u r a t i o n temperature
corresponding t o 450 p s i a = 456OF
Thus t h e f l u i d temperature has d e c l ined from 593OF t o 456'F. But t h e r o c k
temperature was 593OF. The d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r o c k and t h e f l u i d temperature
causes t h e heat t o f l o w from t h e r o c k t o t h e steam-water m i x t u r e s .

RATE OF HEAT TRANSFER FROM TEMPERATURE BUILDUP

During p r e s s u r e b u i l d u p measurement i n a hot- water w e l l , temperature

u s u a l l y i s measured a l o n g w i t h t h e pressure. An i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e tempera-.
t u r e b u i l d u p can g i v e us t h e r a t e o f heat t r a n s f e r i n t h e rock, by conduction,
toward t h e w e l l b o r e .

Fig. 1 shows temperature b u i l d u p graph i n a hot- water we1 1 . The s l o p e

on t h i s graph i s g i v e n by t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n :

-69-
where q = r a t e o f heat t r a n s f e r , B t u / h r
k = thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e rock, Btu/hr-ft-OF
h = formation thickness, f t
m = s l o p e on t h e semi- log paper, OF/cycle

The s l o p e on F i g . 1 i s 480F/cycle. Using k = 2 Btu/hr-ft-OF:

= (48) (4a) (2)/2.303

= 525 B t u / h r - f t .

T h i s p r o v i d e s evidence o f h e a t t r a n s f e r . During t h e p r o d u c t i o n p e r i o d , t h i s
h e a t i s a v a i l a b l e t o r a i s e t h e e n t h a l p y o f t h e produced f l u i d .

The above c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e heat t r a n s f e r r a t e assumes heat t r a n s f e r

t o t h e w e l l b o r e by c o n d u c t i o n o n l y . I n f a c t , t h e heat i s t r a n s f e r r e d b o t h
by conduction and by t h e f l u i d t r a n s p o r t . Thus t h e component o f heat
t r a n s f e r r e d by conduction a l o n e w i l l be l e s s than 525 B t u / h r - f t .

FLASHING I N THE RESERVOIR G I V E S R I S E TO A REGION OF TWO-PHASE FLOW

The bottom- hole f l o w i n g pressure o f t h i s hot- water w e l l i s (450 p s i a

whereas t h e steam s a t u r a t i o n p r e s s u r e corresponding t o t h e s t a t i c r e s e r v o i r
temperature o f 593OF is 1464 p s i a . The r e s e r v o i r pressure increases away
from t h e w e l l b o r e from 450 p s i a t o t h e o r i g i n a l pressure o f 1823 p s i a . A t
some d i s t a n c e from t h e w e l l b o r e , t h e pressure w i l l exceed 1464 p s i a and t h a t
p o i n t w i l l mark t h e boundary between two-phase and single- phase f l o w .

FOR PRESSURE ANALYSIS, A STRAIGHT LINE CANNOT BE FOUND

F i g . 2 presents p r e s s u r e t r a n s i e n t data, measured a t t h e same t i m e

as t h e temperature data, F i g . 1. Pressure, on F i g . 2, i s p l o t t e d as a
f u n c t i o n o f l o g [ ( t + A t ) / A t ] f o r an o i l r e s e r v o i r Horner- type a n a l y s i s . For
t h i s a n a l y s i s , a s t r a i g h t - l i n e p o r t i o n o f t h e graph i s s e l e c t e d ; i t i s s l o p e
i s inversely proportional t o reservoir permeability.

T h i s b u i l d u p l a s t e d 550 hours. But we see a curve r a t h e r than a

straight line. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e a r e gaps i n t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s . But
d a t a g a t h e r i n g i s a p a r t o f t h e problem i n hot- water w e l l s .

The b u i l d u p data presented i n F i g . 2 do n o t show w e l l b o r e f i l l up

o r l i n e a r f l o w e f f e c t s on a l o g - l o g t y p e curve match. T h i s makes i t
d i f f i c u l t t o f i n d t h e onset o f r a d i a l f l o w o r , i n o t h e r words, t h e s t a r t o f
a semi- log s t r a i g h t l i n e . One c o u l d draw more than one s t r a i g h t l i n e through
t h e d a t a on F i g . 2. Although I have drawn a l i n e o f slope 121 p s i / c y c l e , I
cannot f i n d sound j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h i s l i n e .

STEAM-WATER INTERFACE TENDS TO MASK THE END OF THE STRAIGHT LINE

Drainage areas i n h o t - w a t e r w e l l s g e n e r a l l y have two boundaries. The

f i r s t boundary i s t h e steam-water i n t e r f a c e which i s c r e a t e d as a r e s u l t o f
t h e f l o w i n g r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e f a l l i n g below the s a t u r a t i o n pressure. The
e x t e n t of the steam-water boundary i s c o n t r o l l e d , among o t h e r f a c t o r s , by t h e

-70-
f l o w i n g pressure, t h e i n i t i a l r e s e r v o i r pressure and temperature, and t h e
r a t e o f heat t r a n s f e r from t h e r o c k t o t h e f l u i d . The second boundary i s
t h e drainage boundary o f the system; i t c o u l d be closed, h e l d a t a constant
pressure, o r a mixed boundary.

Pressure b u i l d u p i s a f f e c t e d more by the steam-water i n t e r f a c e than

by t h e drainage boundary. I f t h e steam-water i n t e r f a c e i s nost f a r from t h e
wellbore, i t w i l l probably i n t e r f e r e w i t h the s t r a i g h t l i n e p o r t i o n o f the
buildup. I t h i n k t h a t i s what i s happening i n t h e b u i l d u p presented i n F i g . 2.

HEAT TRANSFER INTERFERES WITH DRAINAGE BOUNDARY EFFECTS

Under f l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s , t h e f l u i d temperature i s less than t h e r e s e r -

v o i r temperature. The r e s u l t i n g heat t r a n s f e r causes temperature g r a d i e n t s
i n t h e rock. As t h e w e l l i s shut i n , we have t h e phe'nomenon o f temperature
b u i l d u p i n t h e r o c k a l o n g w i t h t h e pressure b u i l d u p i n t h e f l u i d . A f t e r some
time, when t h e temperature and pressure have s t a b i l i z e d , t h e f l u i d i n t h e
w e l l b o r e b o i l s . The b o i l i n g causes t h e temperature t o drop, which, i n t u r n
w i l l g i v e r i s e t o a new b o i l i n g c y c l e when t h e temperature has s t a b i l i z e d .

The pressure f l u c t u a t i o n s caused by b o i l i n g i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e

drainage boundary e f f e c t s . T h i s does n o t mean t h a t t h e drainage boundary
e f f e c t s can be observed w i t h c e r t a i n t y i f t h e b o i l i n g d i d n o t occur. I
t h i n k steam-water boundary e f f e c t s w i l l dominate any drainage boundary e f f e c t s .

HOT-WATER BUILDUPS DIFFER FROM GAS/OIL BUILDUPS

There a r e s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e b u i l d u p s i n hot- water

and g a s / o i l w e l l s . These a r e some o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s :

1. Gas/oil systems g e n e r a l l y a r e porous and have w e l l - d e f i n e d upper

and lower boundaries. Most o f t h e w e l l s have cornplete p e n e t r a t i o n .
On t h e o t h e r hand, h o t water g e n e r a l l y f l o w s through f r a c t u r e s .
Wells have p a r t i a l p e n e t r a t i o n . We have two phaljes f l o w i n g near
t h e w e l l b o r e and o n l y s i n g l e phase f l o w i n g some d i s t a n c e away
from t h e w e l l b o r e . A f t e r s h u t - i n , t h e two phaselj tend t o become
s i n g l e phase a l l over.

2. I n hot- water r e s e r v o i r s , heat t r a n s f e r i n t e r a c t s w i t h t h e

r e s e r v o i r pressures and s a t u r a t i o n s . I t i s o f no consequence
i n t h e oil/gas r e s e r v o i r s .

3. B o i l i n g tends t o mask t h e boundary e f f e c t s i n hot- water w e l l s .

FURTHER WORK I S NEEDED

We need t o have an i n t e r p r e t a t i v e method f o r use i n hot- water w e l l s .

A n a l y t i c a l s o l u t i o n s t o t h e f l u i d and heat d i f f u s i v i t y equations a r e n o t
l i k e l y t o answer a l l t h e q u e s t i o n s . We p r o b a b l y w i l l need t h e h e l p of a
two- dimensional r a d i u s - h e i g h t computer model t o develop r e q u i r e d i n f o r m a t i o n .
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-72-
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-73-
 WELL LOG ANALYSIS AND WELL TESTING
IN THE HEBER GEOTHERMAL FIELD

Lloyd Mann
Chevron Oil Company
San Francisco, CA. 94105

Detailed studies of the reservoir performance and operating conditions

of the Heber geothermal field have been completed. These studies indicate
that a minimum development at the Heber site would be 200 MW utilizing a two-
stage flash process. This paper summarizes part of the investigations which
have occurred with attention given to log analysis and well performance.

Geology

Nine wells have been drilled to date. The deepest wells penetrate to
6,000 feet and have encountered a1 ternat ing sand-shale sequences. Structural
markers have not been encountered thus far. Representative core has been
retrieved from seven to the nine wells drilled. Porosity from core analysis
has been correlated with available density logs. The combination of core
analysis and logs has permitted the assignment of both porosity and permeabil-
ity to each foot of sand which was drilled.

Individual sand members had permeability changes between one and two
orders of magnitude as sands were traced from well to well. A vertical layer-
ing approach was used to calculate an average permeability over 4,000 feet
of section.

The log correlations showed that permeability deteriorated with depth

(characteristic of increasing overburden), but that the reservoir still had
favorable porosity and permeability at a depth of 6,000 feet.

Well Tests

A total of 19 drill stem tests, two 48-hour tests and three 90-day tests
were conducted to evaluate reservoir performance. The drill stem tests were
performed over a net sand interval which varied from 48 feet to 156 feet. .
All the drill stem tests are characterized by essentially instantaneous build-
up after shut-in. Therefore, permeabilities could not be calculated by build-
up analysis. From a qualitative standpoint, the rapid buildup to final
pressure and low drawdowns suggest a reservoir of very high quality.

The two wells which were tested for 48 hours achieved high flow rates.
The buildup was complete for both these wells within 45 seconds of shut-in
and did not permit a calculation to be made.

Three wells were tested for a minimum of 90 days. Two of these wells
were producers, with the third well operating as an injector for fluid from
the two producers.

Injection well permeability was calculated from a falloff curve. A

density log was not available for this well, so no comparison can be made.
However, the composite layered geologic model gave close agreement to the
falloff test over the same interval.
-74-
 Two buildup tests were analyzed for one of the producers. Calculated
permeabilities compared favorably with indicated permeabilities from density
logs. Calculations on this well suggested significant wellbore damage.

Permeabilities determined using multiple rate tests on the third well

were compared with log calculated values and steady state flow rate data.

The long-term pressure history of the three wells followed the pressure
calculated theoretically by assuming an infinite aquifer with no influx at
the outer boundary. It is possible that the real data might fit an aquifer
of some finite size with a constant pressure boundary.

All the buildup data was characterized by a single straight line. This
would suggest that boundaries were not encountered by the pressure transients
and corroborates the producing pressure history.

The injection well was completed in a lower interval than the two pro-
ducers. The producing and injecting wells (separated by one mile) were iso-
lated from each other by continuous shales (conjecture). The long-term
pressure history corroborates this picture as injection did not influence
the producing well pressure. The two producers were completed in the same
interval and were also one mile apart. The pressure history at the producers
shows some minor slope variations which occur when rates are changed, but
these are only qualitative indications o f well interference. Rate changes
were made frequently at both wells, and these tend to mask any interference
effects which may have occurred.

During the well testing, wellhead temperatures were recorded. For all
flow rates which were encountered at the producing wells, flow was single
phase water from approximately 3,000 feet deep. It was observed that wellhead
temperatures approached equilibrium very quickly. At flow rates between
5,000 and 10,000 B/D, wellhead temperatures were within 7 O F of the average
bottom hole temperature after only 7 days. At flow rates above 15,000 B/D,
surface temperatures were only 2OF below bottom hole conditions after 5 days,
and 1°F after 25 days. It can be concluded that heat loss in the wellbore
in single phase flow will be negligible during actual production operations.
Geothermal well production rates are expected to be generally in excess of
30,000 B/D.

Conclusion

The geology and information gained from well testing was used as the
foundation for a reservoir simulation to predict reservoir performance. The
rationalization of information gained from these two sources plays a very
important role in giving reliability to performance predictions. In the case
of the Heber field, the log data, core data and well test data correlate satis-
factorily. The reservoir performance prediction of 200 MW is therefore
realistic.

The observation of negligible heat loss in the wellbore during norma

production operations in water systems is significant. Wells may be direc
tionally drilled such that a larger percentage of the total flow path is
covered in the wellbore, rather than in surface flow lines.

-75-
 I t i s worth n o t i n g t h a t t h e o v e r a l l a n a l y s i s used f o r t h i s geothermal
r e s e r v o i r was s i m i l a r i n n a t u r e t o t h a t used t o p r e d i c t o i l r e s e r v o i r
response. The d a t a g a t h e r i n g procedure, a n a l y s i s and o v e r a l l method of
approach used f o r many y e a r s i n e v a l u a t i n g o i l r e s e r v o i r s have d i r e c t a p p l i c a -
b i 1 it y t o geothermal r e s e r v o i r s .

- 76-
 GEOTHERMAL WELL TESTING AT
ROOSEVELT KGRA, BEAVER COUNTY, UTAH

D. C . Harban
P h i l l i p s Petroleum Company
B a r t l e s v i 1 l e , OK 74002

T h i s paper d e s c r i b e s t e s t i n g procedures used by P h i l l i p s Petroleum

Company a t t h e Roosevelt KGRA prospect. The equipment and techniques d e s c r i b e d
h e r e i n a r e n o t a l l o r i g i n a l o r new ideas b u t r e p r e s e n t a combination of e l e -
ments chosen a f t e r an i n t e n s i v e review o f t h e s t a t e o f t h e a r t . Special
acknowledgment should be g i v e n t o J e r r y Jones o f Union O i l Company and D i c k
B o l t o n o f the New Zealand M i n i s t r y o f Works f o r t h e i r c o o p e r a t i o n and advice.

During t h e s p r i n g o f 1975, P h i l l i p s Petroleum engaged L . o f f l a n d B r o t h e r s

t o d r i l l several geothermal e x p l o r a t i o n w e l l s on t h e Roosevelt KGRA prospect
i n Beaver County, Utah. I n May we encountered geothermal hot water i n our
KGRA 3- 1 w e l l . A three- hour f l o w from t h i s w e l l through an open p i p e i n d i -
cated f l o w s i n excess o f 600,000 pounds p e r hour o f f l u i d a t wellhead pressures
approaching 400 p s i g . The f l o w was measured u s i n g t h e technique described by
Russell James f o r measuring f l o w d i s c h a r g i n g a t t h e speed o f sound t o t h e
atm0sphere.l Concern about t h e accuracy o f t h i s t y p e o f measurement ( f l o w
c o n d i t i o n s a r e w e l l o u t s i d e t h e l i m i t s d e s c r i b e d by James) arid t h e prudence
of continued t e s t i n g w i t h o u r crude t e s t i n g f a c i l i t i e s l e d us t o seek a s a f e r
and more a c c u r a t e means o f f l o w t e s t i n g t h e w e l l .

A f t e r r e v i e w i n g t h e technology a v a i l a b l e f o r measuring two-phase steam/

water f l o w , i t was decided t h a t t h e most accurate method would p r o b a b l y be t o
separate t h e steam and water phases and measure them s e p a r a t e l y . A survey of
c u r r e n t p r a c t i c e revealed t h a t t h e Bottom O u t l e t Cyclone was t h e most popular
design i n c u r r e n t use, and f o r t h a t reason we chose t o use i t : f o r o u r geo-
thermal t e s t i n g . Conversations w i t h Dick B o l t o n o f t h e M i n i s t r y of Works and
Development, New Zealand, l e d us t o a paper by P . Bangma on t h e development
and performance o f a steam-water separator f o r use on geothermal bores. In
i t he d e t a i l e d t h e development o f t h e steam s e p a r a t o r used a t Wairakei which
i n c o r p o r a t e s a s p i r a l i n l e t (as opposed t o a t a n g e n t i a l i n l e t ) t o p e r m i t a
s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e i n i n l e t v e l o c i t y w i t h o u t a corresponding i n c r e a s e i n
l i q u i d c a r r i e d over i n t o t h e steam phase. Our d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h D i c k B o l t o n
l e d us t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e s p i r a l e n t r y would indeed p e r m i t 11s t o n e a r l y
double t h e i n l e t v e l o c i t y a l l o w a b l e i n t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l t a n g e n t i a l design.
A s a r e s u l t o f t h i s research we s e t t l e d on t h e f o l l o w i n g design parameters:

Maximum working p r e s s u r e 550 p s i g

Design steam f l o w @ 200 p s i g 200,000 # / h r .
Design water f l o w @ 200 p s i g 800,000 # / h r .
Design temperature 6 0 0 ~ ~

These parameters r e s u l t i n a 154 f t / s e c s u p e r f i c i a l i n l e t v e ' l o c i t y f o r a 36"

I . D . separator w i t h a 12" diameter i n l e t . (Superficial i n l e t v e l o c i t y i s the

'Measurement of Steam-Water M i x t u r e s Discharging a t t h e Speed o f Sound t o t h e

Atmosphere, R u s s e l l James, New Zealand Engineering, 21 (10) :1+37-31 (Oct. 1966).

-77-
v e l o c i t y c a l c u l a t e d c o n s i d e r i n g o n l y t h e vapor phase i n t h e i n l e t m i x t u r e . )
I t i s important t o remember when s e l e c t i n g a s e p a r a t o r t h a t i n c r e a s i n g f l o w
r a t e s and decreasing f l o w i n g p r e s s u r e each increase t h e r e q u i r e d s e p a r a t o r
s i z e , i . e . , w h i l e t h e vessel must be designed f o r t h e maximum expected work-
i n g p r e s s u r e i t must be s i z e d f o r t h e minimum expected f l o w i n g pressure. The
s e p a r a t o r , f a b r i c a t e d by WKM-Brewster, i n c l u d e s an i n t e g r a l water drum separ-
a t e d i n t e r n a l l y from t h e s e p a r a t o r s e c t i o n . The drum was i n c l u d e d t o t r y t o
m i n i m i z e f l a s h i n g o f water i n t h e water m e t e r i n g l i n e .

The p i p i n g scheme shown f o r t h e w e l l t e s t i n g f a c i l i t y ( F i g s . 1 & 2) was

designed t o be simple t o e r e c t , a b l e t o accommodate a n t i c i p a t e d thermal expan-
s i o n s a f e l y , and r e s i s t a n t t o e r o s i o n a t t h e p i p e t u r n s . To accommodate
thermal expansion, t h e system i s designed t o i n c l u d e a l a r g e h o r i z o n t a l l o o p
supported i n t h e v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n and f r e e t o move i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l plane.
I n a d d i t i o n , t h e s e p a r a t o r base i s f r e e t o s l i d e and a WKM-Brewster i n t e r n a l
expanding wellhead i s used t o absorb t h e expansion o f t h e w e l l b o r e casing.

A f t e r t h e i n i t i a l o p e r a t i o n o f t h e f a c i l i t y we added several guy w i r e s

t o support t h e vessel and p i p i n g . These r e s t r a i n t s a r e k e p t s l a c k u n t i l t h e
system i s h o t and a r e then t i g h t e n e d er,mgh t o snub any v i b r a t i o n which may
occur i n t h e course o f o p e r a t i o n . Even w i t h t h e s p e c i a l wellhead design,
t h e wellhead rose about 4 inches when t h e w e l l g o t h o t and i n t h e i n i t i a l
t e s t appeared t o p l a c e an u n d e s i r a b l e s t r a i n on t h e p i p i n g . The use o f a
one and o n e - h a l f t o n h y d r a u l i c j a c k under t h e f i r s t p i p e support o f f t h e w e l l -
head appeared t o a l l e v i a t e t h e problem. As a s a f e t y p r e c a u t i o n , t h i s was
v e r i f i e d by p i p e s t r e s s c a l c u l a t i o n s u s i n g p i p i n g displacements a c t u a l l y meas-
ured d u r i n g i n i t i a l t e s t s . These c a l c u l a t i o n s show t h a t t h e use o f a h y d r a u l i c
support can p r o v i d e a safe, inexpensive and r e l i a b l e means o f compensating f o r
p i p e displacement due t o expansion. S e l e c t i n g an a p p r o p r i a t e s i z e j a c k f o r
t h e j o b a l l o w s an o p e r a t o r t o support t h e p i p i n g d u r i n g w e l l t e s t s w i t h a
c o n t r o l l e d amount o f t h r u s t and l i t t l e f e a r o f overcompensating f o r thermal
expansion.

I n s p i t e o f o u r s a t i s f a c t o r y o p e r a t i o n o f t h i s f a c i l i t y as designed,
o p e r a t o r s c o n s i d e r i n g t e s t i n g w e l l s a t r a t e s i n excess o f one m i l l i o n pounds
per hour would be w e l l advised t o c o n s i d e r r i g i d l y anchoring a l l major p i e c e s
o f t h e f a c i l i t y and u s i n g some form o f expansion j o i n t . Barco D i v i s i o n o f
Aeroquip C o r p o r a t i o n has a s e r i e s o f b a l l - t y p e j o i n t s f o r steam s e r v i c e t h a t
m i g h t be s u i t e d f o r t h i s t y p e o f s e r v i c e . A l l changes o f d i r e c t i o n i n t h e -
p i p i n g except those immediately upstream o f t h e s e p a r a t o r and t h e meter runs
a r e accomplished u s i n g tees w i t h t h e r u n end enclosed w i t h a p l a t e . T h i s p r o -
v i d e s a h y d r a u l i c cushion a t each t u r n and i t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h i s w i l l m i n i -
mize t h e e r o s i o n n o r m a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h elbows used i n t h i s t y p e o f system.

System C o n t r o l s

The system i s c o n t r o l l e d by r e g u l a t i n g t h e pressure w i t h a p r e s s u r e con-

t r o l v a l v e on t h e steam l i n e and by r e g u l a t i n g t h e l e v e l i n t h e s e p a r a t o r w i t h
a l e v e l c o n t r o l o p e r a t i n g a diaphragm- actuated v a l v e i n t h e water l i n e . In
s i z i n g t h e water c o n t r o l v a l v e , one has t o be c a r e f u l t o s i z e t h e v a l v e f o r
f l a s h i n g l i q u i d across t h e v a l v e . I n o u r a p p l i c a t i o n , t h e use of an 8" F i s h e r
type 657ED w i t h an equal percentage, 3" t r a v e l cage has p r o v i d e d v e r y s a t i s -
f a c t o r y s e r v i c e and appears t o o f f e r a reasonable margin f o r c a p a c i t y i n excess
of design.

-78-
F 1ow Measurement

The f a c i l i t y i n c l u d e s equipment t o measure pressures and temperatures a t

t h e wellhead, t h e steam meter l i n e and t h e water meter l i n e . I n addition,
pressures a r e measured a t t h e separator and downstream o f the steam and water
c o n t r o l v a l v e s (measure back pressure of m u f f l e r ) . Steam and water f l o w s a r e
measured u s i n g standard o r i f i c e p l a t e s i n t h e meter runs and recorded on
American Meter Recorders. The q u a l i t y o f t h e separated stearri i s measured
u s i n g a t h r o t t l i n g c a l o r i m e t e r as described i n t h e ASME Power Test Code PTC
19:ll-1940. Connections f o r t a k i n g samples a r e p r o v i d e d a t t h e wellhead f o r
t o t a l f l o w and downstream from t h e separator f o r t h e separated steam and water.

Flow Discharge

. Steam and water i n t h e system a r e discharged t o a p i t through t h e m u f f l e r

shown i n F i g . 3. Design
Caldera and does an exce
t o t a l open area o f t h e s
feeding i t . I t i s espec
p i p e o n l y and t o arrange
i s based upon m u f f l e r s used by Union O i l a t V a l l e s
l e n t j o b o f s i l e n c i n g and d i s s i p a t i n g t h e f l o w . The
o t s i s approximately f o u r times t h e area of t h e p i p e s
a l l y important t o p l a c e t h e s l o t s on t h e sides o f t h e
them so t h a t t h e t h r u s t s a r e balanced d u r i n g use.

F a c i l i t y Operations

I n o p e r a t i o n thus f a r , t h e f a c i l i t y has p r o v i d e d us w i t h a c c u r a t e meas-

urements and r e l i a b l e s e r v i c e . One area which i s s t i l l n o t p r o v i d i n g us w i t h
t o t a l l y s a t i s f a c t o r y i n f o r m a t i o n , however, i s t h e measurement o f water flow.
The small pressure drop experienced between t h e separator and t h e meter and
t h e pressure drop across t h e meter i s s u f f i c i e n t t o cause f l a s h i n g o f small
amounts o f water i n t o steam i n t h e system. T h i s f l a s h i n g causes a 10 t o 20
percent e r r o r i n t h e separated water measurement. At t h e present t i m e we a r e
producing w i t h a r e l a t i v e l y c o n s t a n t e n t h a l p y up t h e w e l l b o r e s o an a c c u r a t e
c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e t o t a l f l o w can be made from our separated !steam f l o w meas-
urement. I n t h e f u t u r e , however, i t may become necessary t o lower t h e e l e v a -
t i o n of t h e water meter p i p i n g r e l a t i v e t o t h e separator t o e l i m i n a t e t h i s
flashing. I n t e s t s run t o d a t e t h e f a c i l i t y has p r o v i d e d s a t i s f a c t o r y opera-
t i o n over t h e f o l l o w i n g range o f c o n d i t i o n s :

Wellhead pressure 385 p s i g 294 p s i g

Pressure drop wellhead t o separator o u t l e t 20 p s i 35 p s i
Total flow r a t e 720,000 # / h r 925,000 # / h r
Separated steam q u a l i t y 100% 99%
M u f f l e r back p r e s s u r e 25 p s i

Measuring Reservoir Pressure

A l l f l o w t e s t i n g u s i n g t h i s f a c i l i t y has been performed on Well 54- 3 i n

t h e Roosevelt KGRA p r o s p e c t . T h i s w e l l was d r i l l e d a d j a c e n t t o t h e 3- 1 w e l l
when 3-1 was judged t o be u n s u i t a b l e f o r f l o w t e s t i n g due t o c:asing problems.
KGRA 3- 1 was used as an o b s e r v a t i o n w e l l f o r these f l o w t e s t s and p r o v i d e d us
w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n concerning t h e r e s e r v o i r . T h i s w e l l was instrumented w i t h a
Sperry-Sun Permagauge r e c o r d i n g system. The Permagauge s u r f a c e r e c o r d e r was

-79-
connected to a downhole system consisting of a Permagauge concentric expand-
able chamber suspended to the well bottom by a .020" 1.D x .094" OD stainless
steel capillary tube. This tube and chamber were filled with nitrogen and
the Permagauge recorder measures the surface pressure of this column and
calculates the corresponding bottom hole (reservoir) pressure. This test
resulted in agreement between a wellhead monitor and the recorder tied to
the downhole system within a range of less than . 2 psi. The data we were
able to gather using this system were of excellent quality and provided plots
for the various solutions o f reservoir calculations which required virtually
no adjustments to the measured data. The system is capable of providing the
quality of data needed to perform accurate reservoir calculations but not
without some difficulties:

1. The elements of the system are not entirely reliable. Leaks

in the gas column and calibration problems brought on by the
harsh environment are the major factors causing unreliable
operation.

2. The system requires extensive attention prior to, during and

after the test to provide continuous operation.

3. Some means o f protecting the surface elements of the system

from the environment must be provided.

4. The system requires an external power source to sustain opera-

tion during the measuring period.

In conclusion, the facility used by Phillips at the Roosevelt KGRA has

demonstrated the capability of providing accurate data in a safe fashion in
the testing done to date. Further testing will no doubt result in refinement
of the equipment and methods used. The most important single factor to be
considered in designing and operating such a facility m u s t be the safety of
the people involved in the testing. Every effort should be made to insure
the integrity and safety of the system.

-80-
 r.

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-81 -
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-82-
m$
 SHELL'S ACTIVITY IN THE GEYSERS AREA

E . L. Fehlberg
S h e l l O i l Company
Houston, Texas 77001

S h e l l has d r i l l e d one d r y h o l e and one comnercial d i s c o v e r y i n The

Geysers area o f n o r t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a . The d r y h o l e was h o t ( 2 447°F) b u t
f a i l e d t o encounter f r a c t u r e s necessary f o r commercial steam recovery. The
d i s c o v e r y producer, l o c a t e d one and one- half m i l e s south o f The Geysers
f i e l d , encountered d r y steam f l o w i n g a t r a t e s of about 200,000 l b / h r . A
c o n f i r m a t i o n w e l l i s c u r r e n t l y being d r i l l e d .

Temperature g r a d i e n t s range from 2-4"F/100 f t . above 3,000 f t . and

from 6-8"F/100 f t . from 3,000 f t . t o t h e steam r e s e r v o i r . The r e s e r v o i r
temperature (+465"F) and pressure (2500 p s i a ) a r e t y p i c a l o f The Geysers
area. Local c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f hydrogen s u l f i d e i n excess o f 3,000 ppm were
encountered i n one w e l l .

S h e l l s t a r t e d a c q u i r i n g acreage i n 1971, and now holds 15,000 acres

(Fig. 1 ) . Two Federal leases, U . S . One (2477 acres) and U . S . Two (1600
acres) were acquired i n January 1974 i n t h e f i r s t Federal geothermal competi-
t i v e lease sale.

U.S. Geothermal Two-1 was d r i l l e d t o e x p l o r e f o r f r a c t u r e d r e s e r v o i r

c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e o b j e c t i v e Franciscan graywacke i n t e r v a l below s e r p e n t i n e
s e a l i n g rocks. Two s e r p e n t i n e beds were encountered a t depths o f 2,300 f t .
and 4,000 f t . i n t h e o r i g i n a l h o l e . Graywacke and interbedded v o l c a n i c
rocks were penetrated below these beds. Several steam shows were noted below
4,000 f t . and a s t a t i c temperature o f 325°F was c a l c u l a t e d from a w i r e l i n e
survey a t 4,070 f t . However, s t u c k p i p e f o r c e d abandonment o f t h e h o l e a t a
t r u e v e r t i c a l depth o f 6770 f t . *

The w e l l was then r e d r i l l e d from 2,770 f t . t o 8125 f t . Several non-

commercial steam shows were encountered i n t h e r e d r i l l e d h o l e below a serpen-
t i n e bed a t 4170 f t . A w i r e l i n e survey i n d i c a t e d a f o r m a t i o n temperature o f
447°F a t 6,150 f t . (Fig. 2 ) . The average s t a t i c temperature g r a d i e n t i n t h e
i n t e r v a l from 3,000 f t . t o 6,150 f t . i s 5.8"F/100 f t . The w e l l was plugged,
and abandoned a t 8120 f t . and no temperatures were obtained below 6,150 f t . *
Geologic and temperature c o n d i t i o n s encountered i n t h i s h o l e i n d i c a t e commer-
c i a l steam reserves should be present on t h i s U . S . Geothermal leasehold.

Our d i s c o v e r y w e l l , U . S . Geothermal One-1, spudded i n June 1975 and

encountered commercial steam on J u l y 10, 1975, a t 4920 f t . i n t h e f r a c t u r e d
Franciscan graywacke ( F i g . 3 ) . Bad h o l e c o n d i t i o n s prevented our o b t a i n i n g
s t a t i c temperature d a t a from t h e w e l l . However, n i n e separate readings were
taken w i t h maximum reading thermometers. T h i s data shows a g r a d i e n t o f about
8.l0F/1O0 f t . i n t h e i n t e r v a l from 3000 f t . t o 3870 f t . ( F i g . 2 ) . This well
has a low geothermal g r a d i e n t (2.3"/lOO f t . ) above 3000 f e e t which may be
t h e r e s u l t s o f shallow groundwater movement.

* A l l depths a r e t r u e v e r t i c a l depths.

-84-
 Shell-U.S. Geothermal One-1 was f l o w t e s t e d u s i n g t h r e e d i f f e r e n t
o r i f i c e plates. Average f l o w d a t a a r e as f o l l o w s :

O r i f i c e Size Pressure Tempera t u r e Rate Qual it y

(in.) (psia) ("0 MLB/HR

6 149 353 183 .96

7 1/2 96 320 191 .99
8 3/4 75 306 195 1.00

Flow t e s t and c a l o r i m e t e r d a t a i n d i c a t e t h e w e l l has an a b s o l u t e open

f l o w p o t e n t i a l o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 200,000 l b s / h r d r y steam. However, t h e range
of o r i f i c e p l a t e s i z e s was t o o narrow t o a c c u r a t e l y determine t h e maximum
r a t e o r AOFP c o e f f i c i e n t and exponent. A f l o w stream sample had t h e f o l l o w i n g
composition:

Mol e
C o n s t i t u e n t Gas Per Cent PARTIAL GEOCHEMICAL ANAILYSI S (Water)
Hydrogen 2.292 S u l f a t e , mg/l 10
N i t rogen 9.712 C h l o r i d e , mg/l 14
Oxygen 0.012 B icarbonate , mg/ 1 88
Carbon D i o x i d e 48.783 B o r a t e , mg/l 26
Hydrogen S u l f i d e 0.000 Organic Acids, mg/l 110
Carbon Monox ide 0.000
Oxides o f N i t r o g e n 0.000 S p e c i f i c G r a v i t y 1.003 I@ 60°F.
Methane 28.598 R e s i s t i v i t y 5,150 Ohm Cm @ 75°F.
Ethane 0.020 pH Value 7.20
Benzene 0.015
To1 uene 0.017
Xy 1 ene 0.008
Water 10.543

Our c o n f i r m a t i o n w e l l , Shell- U.S. Geothermal One-2 was spudded 7/31/75

and d r i l l e d t o 7680 f t . The temperature g r a d i e n t ( F i g . 2) i n t h i s w e l l was
3.8"F/100 f t . above 3000 f t . and 8 . 1 " ~ / 1 0 0 f t . i n t h e i n t e r v a l from 3000 f t .
t o 4490 f t . A s m a l l steam f l o w o f 50,000 l b s / h r was encountered a t a depth
o f 6780 f t . The f l o w stream c o n t a i n e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y 80 ppm hydrogen s u l f i d e .
T h i s b o r e was plugged back from 7680 f t . and s i d e t r a c k e d from 4560 f t .
Another small steam f l o w o f 12,000 l b s / h r . was encountered i n t h e r e d r i l l a t
4840 f t . Hydrogen s u l f i d e c o n t e n t exceeded 3000 ppm so t h e r e d r i l l b o r e h o l e
was plugged a t 5250 f t . and a second r e d r i l l commenced a t 2080 f t . We a r e
c u r r e n t l y d r i l l i n g below 6000 f t .

-85-
 c

Li
0
w
55
a
5

-1
x 2
5 $g?
........
..............
........
.............

-86- FIGURE 1
 3
3
n

i": K 0
P
rf
I

P
B
t9
Lo

0
0

f-
MLg

-
u,
0
u
a
3
I-
Q
U
W
e
E
/ e
W

7"-- N

1,

O
2

0
0 0
0 0
0
CYI *
0

('Id)Hld3Q
FIGURE 2
-87-
 SHELL OlL COMPANY
U.S. GEQFHERMAL ONE # I

ELEV. 3204 FT.

SURFACE

13 '3/8"
OPHlOLiTE 9
(PERIDOTITE & SERPENTINE) 1070 FT.

2365
r
GRAY WAC KE
2620
GREENSTONE

3150

9 518"

3925 FT.

4600
FRACTURED GRAYWACKE
(STEAM ZONE) I

T.D. 4925 FT.

SEQUENCE OF ROCK TYPES

FIGURE 3
-88-
 WATER ENTRY BELOW STEAM PRODUCTION:
A CASE HISTORY AT THE GEYSERS

George F r y e
Burmah O i l and Gas Company
Santa Rosa, CA. 95406

Burmah O i l and Gas Company has d r i l l e d over twenty h o l e s i n t h e south-

e a s t p o r t i o n o f The Geysers steam f i e l d ; t o d a t e o n l y one has proved non-
p r o d u c t i v e . T h i s r e p o r t documents a case h i s t o r y unique t o E3urmah o f a
water e n t r y below steam p r o d u c t i o n .

History

A 12-1/4" h o l e was d r i l l e d t o 3000' and 9-5/8" OD c a s i n g was cemented

t o t h e s u r f a c e . Burmah t h e n d i r e c t i o n a l l y d r i l l e d an 8-3/4" h o l e w i t h a i r
and encountered minor steam e n t r i e s a t 5120', 6335', and 645;7', as shown on
Fig. 1. No a d d i t i o n a l steam e n t r i e s were found below these depths. T o t a l
steam f l o w measured l e s s t h a n 20,000 pounds per hour.

A t 7580' an i n c r e a s e o f a i r pressure on t h e stand p i p e from 420 p s i g t o

580 p s i g was noted. The w e l l s t a r t e d making 128 b a r r e l s per hour of water
having a temperature o f 188-190°F measured a t t h e s u r f a c e . The p a r t i a l
chemical a n a l y s i s o f t h i s water i s l i s t e d on F i g . 2, Column 11. Air drilling
continued t o 7665' w i t h no decrease i n water p r o d u c t i o n . D r i i 1 1 p i p e was
p u l l e d o u t o f t h e h o l e t o 4363' and a i r c i r c u l a t e d f o r f o u r hours. The w e l l
produced o n l y steam, no w a t e r . No temperature o r pressure survey was run.
The l a c k o f water a t 4363' i n d i c a t e s a water pressure o f les:; than 1355 p s i g .

Since t h e h o l e produced a sub-commercial r a t e o f steam, Burmah decided

t o p l u g t h e h o l e and d i r e c t i o n a l l y r e d r i l l t h e h o l e i n a more w e s t e r l y l o c a -
t i o n . Steam e n t r i e s were encountered a t 4 2 5 9 ' , 4 3 6 2 ' , 5 4 8 0 ' , 5 6 6 0 ' , 5 9 4 3 ' ,
6731', 6858', and 6 9 8 0 ' . F i g . 1 shows t h e l o c a t i o n o f these steam e n t r i e s .
The h o l e produced approximately 120,000 pounds of steam p e r hour a f t e r t h e
l a s t steam e n t r y . Again t h e h o l e produced water, b u t a t a lower r a t e o f approx-
i m a t e l y 80 b a r r e l s an h o u r . The a n a l y s i s o f t h i s water i s shown on Column 2
on F i g . 2. The water e n t r y i n d i c a t e d by t h e i n c r e a s e o f standpipe a i r pressure
was a t 7138'. No p r e s s u r e o r temperature survey was run. The h o l e was plugged
w i t h 43 sacks of cement. The d r i l l p i p e s t u c k w h i l e p u l l i n g o u t o f t h e h o l e .
The b e s t e s t i m a t e o f t h e t o p of t h e p l u g i s 6830' measured by t h e f r e e p o i n t
i n d i c a t o r on t h e s t u c k p i p e . The s t u c k d r i l l p i p e was p a r t i a l l y recovered t o
6062'. F u r t h e r recovery a t t e m p t s proved unsuccessful.

A f t e r t h e d r i l l i n g r i g was r e l e a s e d , t h e s u r f a c e w e l l head pressure

s t a b i l i z e d a t 484 p s i g . A s t a t i c pressure and temperature survey stopped
a t 3515'. The survey i n d i c a t e d e s s e n t i a l l y s a t u r a t e d steam. A t a l a t e r d a t e
t h e w e l l , when f i r s t opened f o r a f l o w t e s t , produced water a l o n g w i t h steam.
Column 3 of F i g . 2 l i s t s t h e p a r t i a l chemical a n a l y s i s . Subsequent f l o w s a t
h i g h e r r a t e s produced s a t u r a t e d steam w i t h no e n t r a i n e d w a t e r . The i s o -
c h r o n a l t e s t i n g i n d i c a t e d a f l o w r a t e o f 86,000 pounds o f steam p e r hour.
An a n a l y s i s o f t h e steam condensate produced a t t h i s f l o w r a t e i s shown i n
Column 4 of F i g . 2 .

-89-
Discussion

The chemical analyses of t h e two water e n t r i e s a r e s i m i l a r b u t n o t

i d e n t i c a l even g i v e n allowances f o r sampling and t e s t i n g e r r o r s . The samples
a r e d i s s i m i l a r enough t o p r e c l u d e t h e p o s i t i v e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t they a r e t h e
same water. I t i s p l a u s i b l e t h a t t h e two waters, though s h a r i n g a common
o r i g i n , a r e l o c a t e d i n separate f r a c t u r e systems. Both water e n t r i e s a r e
i n s i 1 i c i o u s a r g i 1 1 ites.

The water produced on t h e f i r s t t e s t (Column 3 ) i n d i c a t e s c o n t a m i n a t i o n

from cement (pH and c h l o r i d e ) and a l s o some e v a p o r a t i o n o f t h e deep water a s
i n f e r r e d from t h e increased boron c o n c e n t r a t i o n . The a n a l y s i s o f t h e steam
condensate i s t y p i c a l o f steam condensate analyses o f w e l l s i n t h e surround-
i n g area. A p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y a n a l y s i s has n o t been attempted t o determine
i f t h e chemical c o n s t i t u t e n t s o f t h e water and steam a r e i n e q u i l i b r i a .

A review o f t h e w e l l s i n t h e surrounding area shows t h i s w e l l t o be

bounded by commercial p r o d u c t i o n 2100' t o t h e n o r t h , 4000' t o t h e west, 1100'
t o t h e south and 3700' t o t h e e a s t . None o f these w e l l s showed any i n d i c a t i o n
of deep water e n t r i e s . I t should be noted, however, t h a t none o f these w e l l s
reached t h e e q u i v a l e n t v e r t i c a l d e p t h o f t h e water e n t r i e s i n t h e o r i g i n a l
h o l e o r r e d r i l l o f t h e s u b j e c t w e l l . Other w e l l s a t g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e s always
have been d r i l l e d t o a t l e a s t 700 v e r t i c a l f e e t below t h e deepest water e n t r y .
The v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l d i f f e r e n c e between t h e two water e n t r i e s o f 407'
and 540', r e s p e c t i v e l y , i n d i c a t e s a p o s s i b l e s t r u c t u r a l r a t h e r than an hydro-
l o g i c a l c o n t r o l o f t h e water i n t h i s l o c a l i z e d area. Because temperature and
pressure surveys were n o t conducted w h i l e the holes were producing w a t e r ,
conclusions about steam-water communication and e q u i l i b r i u m a r e d i f f i c u l t .

Due t o t h e p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n o f t h e h o l e (apparent sharp dog l e g and

p i p e l e f t i n t h e h o l e ) , i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o p o s i t i v e l y demonstrate by
temperature and pressure surveys t h a t t h e water has been shut o f f by t h e
cement plug. However, i t i s c e r t a i n l y i n f e r r e d i n d i r e c t l y by t h e q u a l i t y
of t h e steam produced d u r i n g t h e w e l l t e s t . The loss o f steam f l o w r a t e
i n d i c a t e s a l s o t h a t a t l e a s t t h e bottom two steam e n t r i e s were e f f e c t i v e l y
p 1 ugged .

-90-
 ORIGINAL HOLE 72&lo

REDRILL

6651'V.D

6 8 3 0 ' TOP OF PLUG

\
\
\
4
SCALE: I"= lOd
6467',!!, 6378'V.D.

5 6 60'

5 480'
4s
56 04' V. D.

542 7'V. D.

bI v D.

--
LEGEND
A STEAM ENTRY

0 WATER €"TRY

0 SURVEY POfNT
FIGURE 1
-91-
 C H E M I C A L ANALYSES

-
1 -
2 -
3 -
4

PH 5.3 5.1 8.4 5.7

Spec i f i c Conductance
p m h o s / c m @ 25OC 650.0 1000.0

Calcium, mg / 1 <10.0 10.0 < .1

Magnesium, m g / l 37.0 .005

Ammonia, m g / 1 43.1 25.2

Sodium, m g / l 146.0 117.0 C . 1

Iron, m g / l 1.0

Boron, m g / l 82.8 24.1 142.0 2.4

Potassium, m g / l 110.0 86.0 < .01

Aluminum, m g / l < .02 c.1

Mercury, p g / l 54.0 1.5 2.4

Sulfate, m g / l 414.0 10.0

Chloride, m g / l 41.0 10.0 26.0 2.0

Fluoride, m g / l 8.0 c.01

Bicarbonate, m g / l 12.2 80.0

N i t r a t e , mg/l 2.2 15. 5

Silica, mg/l 400.0 1.2

Sulfide, m g / l 100.0

1. W a t e r e n t r y of o r i g i n a l hole.
2. W a t e r e n t r y of r e d r i l l .
3. W a t e r p r o d u c e d on initial w e l l flow.
4. S t e a m c o n d e n s a t e at 8 5 , 0 0 0 pounds p e r h o u r flow r a t e .

FIGURE 2
-92-
 AN INTERFERENCE TEST I N ALFINA GEOTHERMAL FIELD
(NORTHERN LATIUM, ITALY)

A n t o n i o B a r e l l i and Graziano M a n e t t i
ENEL; Centro d i Ricerca Geotermica
Piazza B. da S a s s o f e r r a t o , 14 P i s a , I t a l y

A f i n a f i e l d i s s i t u a t e d i n c e n t r a l I t a l y near t h e Lake o f BOI sena. 1

I t s geo o g i c a l - s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l sequence i s as f o l l o w s :

a A t h i c k (>500 m) Cretaceous-Eocene sedimentary s e r i e s n f l y s c h

f a c i e s c o m p r i s i n g m a i n l y c l a y s and m a r l s . T h i s f l y s c h s e r i e s f o r m s
t h e cap rock;

b. A Mesozoic sedimentary s e r i e s , s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l l y q u i t e r e g u l a r , of
more than 400 m t h i c k n e s s , comprising m a i n l y carbonates ( 1 imestones,
m a r l y limestones and c a l c a r e n i t e s ) . T h i s s e r i e s forms t h e geo-
thermal a q u i f e r , having a h i g h p e r m e a b i l i t y as a r e s u l t o f t h e
presence o f f r a c t u r e d zones.

F i g . 1 shows t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e w e l l s . F i g . 2 g i v e s a c r o s s - s e c t i o n
of t h e r e s e r v o i r a l o n g t h e A-A l i n e shown i n F i g . 1 , u s i n g t h e g e o l o g i c a l d a t a
from w e l l s 13, 1 B I S , 2 and 4 which l i e almost on a s t r a i g h t l i n e on t h e
cross- section.

The f i e l d produces C02 i n t h e h i g h e s t p a r t of t h e r e s e r v o i r ( w e l l s ALF 1 ,

ALF 1 B I S , ALF 13) w h i l e i t produces water where t h e cap r o c k i s lower ( w e l l s
ALFZ, ALF 4, ALF 5--Fig. 3 ) . T h i s f a c t , t o g e t e r w i t h t h e v a r i o u s pressure and
l e v e l measurement f r o m a l l t h e w e l l s , which w i 1 be discussed l a t e r , have l e d ,
t o t h e schematic c r o s s - s e c t i o n shown i n F i g . 2 a gas cap l y i n g o v e r a water-
table.

The temperatures found i n t h e f o r m a t i o n s have a g r a d i e n t o f about 0.2"C/m

i n t h e cap r o c k down t o t h e t o p o f t h e r e s e r v o r; f o r about 400 m below t h a t ,
t h e temperature increases s l o w i y from 130 t o 150°C.

ALF 1 B I S w e l l produced C02 from t h e t i m e o f i t s e x p l o s i o n on 20 May

1974 t o 8 September 1974 when i t began c a r r y i n g w a t e r . During t h i s p e r i o d
t h e w e l l was s h u t - i n on v a r i o u s occasions t o check t h e p r e s s u r e behavior i n
t h e r e s e r v o i r . A t t h e same t i m e t h e water l e v e l was recorded i n ALF 2 w e l l ,
which, a l t h o u g h s t e r i l e , i s i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e r e s e r v o i r .

Pressure and Water Level Analysis

The graph shown i n F i g . 4 g i v e s t h e w a t e r - l e v e l versus t i m e f o r ALF 2.

We can see t h a t each s i n g l e p r o d u c t i o n phase causes t h e l e v e l t o decrease.
The c o n s t a n t l e v e l seen i n t h e c o n t r o l w e l l (ALF 2) a t t h e end of each produc-
t i o n phase i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e system may be considered as a c l o s e d one a t
l e a s t f o r p e r i o d s o f some years. I f a raph i s drawn o f t h e l e v e l decrease
as a f u n c t i o n of t h e q u a n t i t y produced F i g . 5 ) , then a p r o p o r t i o n a l r e l a t i o n -
s h i p appears.

-93-
 By u t i l i z i n g t h e pressure d a t a i n t h e gas cap and a t a g i v e n depth
beneath t h e water t a b l e i n s t a t i c c o n d i t i o n s we can determine t h e l o c a t i o n o f
t h e gas- water i n t e r f a c e . I t i s i n i t i a l l y 120 ? 5 m from t h e r e s e r v o i r top.

The system i s made up o f water, r o c k and C02 i n t h e gas phase and

d i s s o l v e d i n water.

During p r o d u c t i o n ALF 1 B I S produces gas, t h e gas and water pressures

decrease, p a r t o f the C02 d i s s o l v e d i n water passes i n t o t h e gas phase, t h e
gas, water and r o c k expand as a consequence o f t h e pressure decrease and t h e
gas- water i n t e r f a c e r i s e s .

The r i s e i n t h e i n t e r f a c e was deduced from t h e f a c t t h a t t h e gas

pressure decrease was g r e a t e r than t h a t o f t h e water.

A t t h i s p o i n t we m i g h t c o n s i d e r t h e v a r i a t i o n s i n volume o f t h e system
as a r e s u l t of t h e p r e s s u r e decreases which, i n t h e i r t u r n , a r e a r e s u l t o f
t h e gas e x t r a c t i o n .

The volume o f gas e x t r a c t e d i n average r e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s can be

expressed as

Ve = - APWVW(CW+ Cf) -ApgVg(cg + Cf) -APg VJ (1)

where cw, c f and c a r e t h e c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y values o f water, r o c k and gas

r e s p e c t i v e l y (atm 4 - 1 ) .

VW and Vg a r e t h e volumes i n r e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e water and gas

c o n t e n t s of o u r system (m3).

Ve i s t h e gas volume e x t r a c t e d i n r e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s (m3).

Apw, Apg a r e t h e p r e s s u r e v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e l i q u i d and gas phases (atm).

A i s t h e volume of t h e gas d i s s o l v e d i n water p e r u n i t of water volume ( b o t h
i n r e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s ) f o r a u n i t pressure r i s e (atm'l ! ~ @ c o , ~ )
m3H20
I n t r o d u c i n g t h e experimental values e q u a t i o n 1 becomes

a Vw + bVg = Ve

where b o t h Vw and V a r e t h e unknown q u a n t i t i e s .

9
We can f i n d o n l y a range o f v a r i a t i o n s f o r t h e unknown gas and water
volumes.

The maximum v a l u e f o r Vw i s o b t a i n e d f o r Vg = 0.

V&he

The maximum gas v a l u e can be e s t i m a t e d l e t t i n g V, = 0.

-94-
 The d r i l l i n g d a t a f o r ALF 2 w e l l and an e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e area
permeated by water and gas have l e d us t o suppose t h a t

Vw 6 V g and from (2) Vw 2 6-' a +b b 'e "g 2- I

"e

Combining a l l t h e preceding i n e q u a l i t i e s we can d e f i n e a p o s s i b l e range f o r

Vw and V as:
9

6 . 1 1
GTE "e L 'wJL -
a- "e O < 'g2- 'e

The r a t i o between minimum and maximum values o b t a i n e d f o r Vw i s l e s s than 2.

Ttansient Analysis

The l e v e l t r a n s i e n t s i n ALF 2 caused by two p r o d u c t i o n p e r i o d s from

ALF 1 BIS were s t u d i e d .

F i r s t o f a l l , i t must be noted t h a t t h e common t r a n s i e n t a n a l y s i s

assumptions were n o t Val i d .

1. Our r e s e r v o i r i s n o t homogeneous n o r i s o t r o p i c b u t f r a c t u r e d w i t h an
u n k n w n p e r m e a b i l i t y and p o r o s i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n .

2. Two completely separate phases a r e p r e s e n t : one phase i s produced, b u t

t h e pressure i s c o n t r o l l e d i n t h e o t h e r . Reservoir c m p r - e s s i b i 1 i t y and
v i scos i t y a r e unknown f a c t o r s .

3. The producing w e l l does n o t p e n e t r a t e t h e r e s e r v o i r and t h e flow p a t t e r n

i s almost c e r t a i n l y n o t r a d i a l .

4. The bottom and l a t e r a l boundaries a r e n o t known.

However, we t r i e d t r a n s i e n t a n a l y s i s methods f o r homogeneous, i s o t r o p i c

medium and s i n g l e phase f l u i d 2 as a f i r s t s t e p and we hope t h a t f u r t h e r d i s -
c u s s i o n w i l l h e l p us t o f i n d more a p p r o p r i a t e models.

A f i r s t glance shows t h a t an e a r l y t r a n s i e n t p e r i o d was' f o l l o w e d by

t y p i c a l pseudo s t e a d y - s t a t e .

The l i n e source s o l u t i o n seems a p p r o p r i a t e i n t h e e a r l y p e r i o d (=SO hours)

w h i l e t h e pseudo s t e a d y - s t a t e c o n d i t i o n s a r e apparent a f t e r 100 hours, showing
evidence o f a c l o s e d boundary.

Dimensionless pressure p~ versus dimensionless t i m e t D A were generated

f o r a r e c t a n g u l a r r e s e r v o i r w i t h impermeable w a l l s .

A good match ( F i g . 6) was o b t a i n e d f o r t h e r e c t a n g l e shlown i n t h e map

(Fig. 7) f o r t h e f i r s t p r o d u c t i o n p e r i o d .

-95-
 The d a t a f o r t h e second p r o d u c t i o n p e r i o d a r e n o t i n agreement w i t h
those frm the f i r s t p e r i o d . T h e r e f o r e a good match i s n o t p o s s i b l e w i t h
t h e same type curve.

A r i s e i n t h e water t a b l e may be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h i s discrepancy.

The matchpoint g i v e s the f o l l o w i n g values:

-hk= 3500 darcy-meter/cp

u

Ref e ren ces

1. R. C a t a l d i , M. Rendina, 1973, "Recent d i s c o v e r y of a new geothermal

f i e l d i n I t a l y : Alfina." Geothermics, Vol. 2 , No. 3- 4, pp. 106-116.

2. C. S . Matthews, D. G. Russel, " Pressure b u i l d - u p and flow t e s t s i n

w e l l s . " S o c i e t y o f P e t r o l e u n Engineers o f AIME, 1967.

-96-
Nmenc 1 atu re

A = volume of the gas dissolved in water per unit of water volume both
in reservoir conditions) for a unit gas pressure rise (atm-l)

a = dimensionless constant

b = dimensionless constant

c = compressibi 1 i ty (atm-1)
cf = effective compressibility of the formation. Relative change in
pore volume per unit change in pressure (atm-1)

cg = gas compressibility (atm-1)

cw = water compressibi 1 i ty (atm-’)

h = formation thickness (m)

k = permeabil ity (darcy)

p~ = dimensionless pressure drop

Apg = change in gas pressure due to gas extraction (atm)

Apw = change in water pressure at a certain depth due to gas extraction (atm)

tDA = area-based dimensionless time

Ve = gas volume extracted measured in reservoir conditions (m3)

Vg = gas volume in the reservoir (m3) in reservoir conditions

Vw = water volume in the reservoir (m3) in reservoir conditions

$ = porosity
IJ = viscosity (cp)

-97-
fiq.1 - LOCATIOH OF THE WELLS 14 ALfIM ilEGlON

-98-
 r
4
.

CASTEL GIORGIO

~~

Fig 3 - CCYTOUR LlfiES OF THE RC,SEfiVCIA TO?

2co 3co 4dO

-99-
 .-

lo - - -I- '

10

10 / WELL P o ' H T

10

Fig.6 Typz curve natrh lor th: closed r m a n g l e c o n s i d e r d

f
, .

CASrEL C l o a r t i ~ i
#

fIG.7- CEO!AETAIC SHJPL CC:ISiDEREO FOR THk RESEUO1S

- 100-
 HORNER METHOD APPLIED TO BUILDUP TESTS ON TRAVALE 22 WELL

A. B a r e l l i , R. C e l a t i , G. M a n e t t i , and G . N e r i 2

Over a p e r i o d o f two years s e v e r a l Horner curves w i t h d i f f e r e n t produc-

t i o n times o b t a i n e d from T r a v a l e 22 w e l l were s t u d i e d w i t h a view t o i n v e s t i -
g a t i n g t h e k i n d of boundary c o n d i t i o n s e x i s t i n g i n t h e r e s e r v o i r .

Due t o t e c h n i c a l problems p r o d u c t i o n h i s t o r y has o f t e n been v e r y f a r

from i d e a l , t h u s r e s u l t i n g i n d i f f i c u l t i e s i n a n a l y s i s .

A t fixed 1 + nt
, pD increases w i t h an increase i n t D A , as expected f o r
a, we near imeermea6le boundaries, b u t a l l PD approach zero when At- .

A c o n t r i b u t i o n t o p r e s s u r e b u i l d u p from t h e b o i l i n g o f a l i q u i d phase
cannot be excluded.

T r a v a l e 22 w e l l was d r i l l e d i n 1972 i n T r a v a l e area, Tuscany, I t a l y ,

a few k i l o m e t e r s away from an area where some non-commercial w e l l s had
-
a l r e a d y been i n e x i s t e n c e f o r s e v e r a l years (Burgassi e t -.a l . , 1975).

T h i s t h e r e f o r e was t h e f i r s t w e l l t o be d r i l l e d i n t h e new area. During

1972 and 1973 t h e r e were s e v e r a l a l t e r n a t i n g p e r i o d s o f p r o d u c t i o n and s h u t -
i n . Changes i n p r o d u c t i o n were o f t e n t h e r e s u l t o f t e c h n i c a l problems and
i n s t a l l a t i o n and maintenance o p e r a t i o n s so t h a t t h e b u i l d u p (data had t o be
gathered i n n o n - i d e a l c o n d i t i o n s .

Application o f superposition p r i n c i p l e

Several b u i l d u p s a r e a v a i l a b l e from t h i s p e r i o d , w i t h d i f f e r e n t produc-

t i o n times, so t h a t Horner p l o t s

t+A t

w i t h d i f f e r e n t “t” can be drawrr.

A comparison between these curves and those taken from t h e a v a i l a b l e

l i t e r a t u r e for many t h e o r e t i c a l models ( F i g s . 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5) can h e l p towards
an understanding o f t h e n a t u r e , geometry and boundary conditiions o f t h e
actual reservoir.

There i s one d i f f i c u l t y when drawing these Horner p l o t s f o r T22 w e l l :

p i i s n o t c l e a r l y determined i n a l l t h e b u i l d u p s , except f o r t h e f i r s t one.
Every p r o d u c t i o n p e r i o d a f t e r t h i s one began b e f o r e s h u t - i n p r e s s u r e had
s t a b i l i z e d so t h a t t h e s u p e r p o s i t i o n p r i n c i p l e must be a p p l i e d .

“;A. B a r e l l i and G. M a n e t t i , ENEL, Centro d i R i c e r c a Geotermica, P i s a , I t a l y .

R. C e l a t i , C.N.R., l s t i t u t o l n t e r n a z i o n a l e p e r l e Ricerche Geotermiche, P i s a .
G. Neri,.ENEL, Gruppo M i n e r a r i o L a r d e r e l l o , I t a l y .

-101-
 L e t us assume the e x i s t e n c e o f a f u n c t i o n P D ( t ) t h a t remains unchanged
throughout e x p l o i t a t i o n . So we can w r i t e ( F i g . 8)
n
(4
where A q l = 41, A42 = 92-41, .... , A q j = qj-qj-l, and IC
j
i s t h e moment when t h e f l o w r a t e changes t o q
j*

I f a l o g a r i t h m i c approximation f o r P D is adequate, ( 1 ) becomes

and a c l a s s i c a l s e m i l o g a r i t h m i c graph i s o b t a i n e d by p l o t t i n g

F o r o u r system t h e v a l i d i t y of t h e l o g a r i t h m i c approximation was d o u b t f u l

f o r t h e whole s h u t - i n p e r i o d (Figs. 6 & 7).

As we wanted t o compare our T.22 Horner graphs w i t h those a v a i l a b l e f o r

t h e o r e t i c a l cases, we t r i e d a d i f f e r e n t approach.

L e t us c o n s i d e r , as i n F i g . 8, two consecutive s h u t - i n s and l e t Pext(T)

be t h e value assumed by t h e p r e s s u r e i f t h e f i r s t s h u t - i n were t o c o n t i n u e
t o t i m e T.

I n t h i s case we have

and
C o m b i n i n g these two equations we obtain

j =h-t
or, i f q i s the l a s t f l o w r a t e

w i t h t and A t defined i n F i g . 8. For gas w e l l s , eq 5 becomes

The t h e o r e t i c a l Horner p l o t gives P D ( t + At)-PD(At) v s log(--

t+At
At
I f we a r e able t o e x t r a p o l a t e the previous b u i l d u p curve so t h a t a s u f f i -
c i e n t l y approximate value is obtained f o r p e x t ( T ) , w e can use t h e l e f t h a n d
side o f eq. (6) t o construct Horner p l o t s from f i e l d data. These can then
b e compared w i t h the a v a i l a b l e Horner p l o t s o f t h e o r e t i c a l cases t o obtain
information on t h e most s u i t a b l e model f o r t h e real s i t u a t i o n .

Horner Plots f o r Travale 22 Well

The curves shown i n F i g . 9 were p l o t t e d according t o the above proce-

dure. Some b u i l d u p curves were excluded t h e r e being no p o s s i b i l i t y o f obtain-
i n g r e l i a b l e values f o r P e x t ( T ) ; f o r t h i s same reason some other curves were
shortened i n t h e i r f i n a l p a r t although f u r t h e r shut- in pressure data were
avai lable.

Production time t is reported as a parameter instead of t D Aas the

hydraulic d i f f u s i v i t y and reservoir area a r e not known.

- 103-
 2 2
Tt-IKMW
-
The kh v a l u e used t o c a l c u l a t e G ~ Z R T(Pext - pws
was o b t a i n e d by c o n v e n t i o n a l Horner p l o t s and type- curve matching (Bare1 1 i
--
e t a l . , 1975).

Some v e r y s h o r t d e l i v e r y d u r i n g l o n g s h u t - i n s and very s h o r t s h u t - i n s

d u r i n g long p r o d u c t i o n p e r i o d s have been ignored.

From F i g . 9 we can observe t h a t :

-- t h e r e i s a r e g u l a r displacement of t h e curves changing t;
t h i s displacement i s such thtt,t& dimensionless Ap2 i s an i n c r e a s i n g
f u n c t i o n o f t f o r any g i v e n at
-- (Pext - PWS) -f 0 when t +-.
T h i s is n o t so c l e a r i n F i g . 9 as some curves a r e n o t complete, due t o t h e
d i f f i c u l t y i n e x t r a p o l a t i n g t h e p r e v i o u s curve.

The t r e n d t o recovery o f i n i t i a l p r e s s u r e i s e v i d e n t i n F i g . 7 which

r e p r e s e n t s a v e r y long b u i ldup o c c u r r i n g about n i n e months a f t e r we1 1 blow- out.

S i m i l a r r e s u l t s were found by C e l a t i and G a l a r d i (1975) w i t h a s i m p l i -

f i e d a n a l y s i s , assuming f o r p i a constant v a l u e o r t h e maximum v a l u e reached
i n t h e l a s t long b u i l d u p .

From a comparison o f T 22 curves w i t h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l cases g i v e n i n

F i g s . 1 t o 5, we see t h a t downward displacement i s g e n e r a l l y o b t a i n e d as t h e
e f f e c t o f impermeable boundaries as i n F i g . 1 and+ f o r a l i m i t e d range of t D A
i n F i g . 3. The same k i n d o f t-dependence o f t h e curve p o s i t i o n i s o b t a i n e d
f o r an i n f i n i t e r e s e r v o i r w i t h l i n e a r o r r a d i a l d i s c o n t i n u i t y when the w e l l
i s p l a c e d i n t h e h i g h e r m o b i l i t y zone. The l i m i t i n g h y p o t h e s i s o f c o n s t a n t
d i f f u s i v i t Y . t h r o u g h o u t t h e reSerV0i r-was formed f o r these cases, The curves
i n F i g s . 4 and 4 a r e t h e most s i m i l a r t o those o f T 22, as they a l s o have
s i m i l a r t r e n d s f o r At-. I n the case o f a c l o s e d r e s e r v o i r t h e a s y m p t o t i c
values f o r A t - a r e p o s i t i v e , i n c r e a s i n g w i t h an i n c r e a s e i n t and, i n t h e
case o f recharge through a l i m i t e d s e c t i o n i n t h e boundary, t h e curves i n t e r -
s e c t one another i n t h e f i n a l p a r t o f t h e b u i l d u p .

However, t h e l a t t e r e f f e c t i s much l e s s e v i d e n t f o r s m a l l e r values o f t ,

and i n o u r case i t c o u l d be masked by e x p e r i m e n t a l e r r o r s and t h e f a c t t h a t
the curves a r e n o t g e n e r a l l y extended t o very long A t values.

-
D i s c s s i o n and Conclusion

Some hypotheses can be drawn from these o b s e r v a t i o n s , a l t h o u g h t h e

res u t s a r e i n s u f f i c i e n t t o draw d e f i n i t e c o n c l u s i o n s .

From t h e g e o l o g i c a l p o i n t o f view, T r a v a l e 22 i s l o c a t e d i n a s t r u c t u r a l
h i g h o f t h e r e s e r v o i r f o r m a t i o n connected w i t h the recharge area t o the west
and bounded on i t s N , E, S s i d e s by f a u l t s ; the l a t t e r lower than the r e s e r -
v o i r f o r m a t i o n and p u t t i n g t h e upper p a r t o f t h e s t r u c t u r e i n l a t e r a l c o n t a c t
w i t h impermeable f o r m a t i o n s .

- 104-
 G e o l o g i c a l h y d r o l o g i c a l and chemical data, o b t a i n e d from o t h e r w e l l s i n
t h e zone, have shown:

-- an i n t e r f e r e n c e between t h e vapor-dominated system f e e d i n g T 22 and

t h e water- dominated system i n t h e o l d w e l l s area,

-- sudden decreases i n permeabi 1 i t y o u t s i d e T 22 area,

-- a l i m i t e d connection between t h e s t r u c t u r a l h i g h and t h e deeper

--
surrounding r e s e r v o i r (Burgassi e t a l . , 1975).

The hypothesis o f a h i g h p e r m e a b i l i t y zone surrounded by lower permeabil-

i t ' y zones agrees b o t h w i t h t h e g e o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e and t h e s i m i l -
a r i t y between t h e curves o f T 22 w e l l and those o f F i g s . 4 and 5. The
t h e o r e t i c a l case considers a 1 i n e a r o r r a d i a l d i s c o n t i n u i t y , i n mobi 1 i t y and
a u n i f o r m d i f f u s i v i t y , whereas t h e a c t u a l s i t u a t i o n , a l t h o u g h n o t completely
known, may c e r t a i n l y be considered r a t h e r more complex. The. complex geometry
may be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e shape o f t h e b u i l d u p curves. However, we consider
i t v e r y l i k e l y t h a t a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e pressure b u i l d u p comes from t h e b o i l -
i n g of l i q u i d w a t e r b o t h on t h e boundary o f , and i n s i d e , t h e vapor dominated
zone.

The r e d u c t i o n i n pressure can f a v o r t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n o f l i q u i d water

from t h e r e l a t i v e l y c o l d boundaries toward t h e warmer p a r t s o f t h e r e s e r v o i r .

These o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e based on two- dimensional models. As t h e r e a r e

doubts as t o t h e v a l i d i t y o f p u r e l y r a d i a l f l o w models, a three- dimensional
model i s now b e i n g c o n s t r u c t e d .

For a u a n t i t a t i v e comparison of t h e v a r i o u s models w i t h t h e f i e l d d a t a

we a r e g o i n g t o use l o g - l o g i n s t e a d o f conventional semi l o g Horner graphs.
A match o b t a ned w i t h v e r t i c a l displacement o n l y w i l l l e t us choose t h e most
s u i t a b l e fam l y o f curves and determine kh and tDA.

-105-
Nmencl ature

a = distance from we 1 to the linear discontinuity

A = reservoir area

c = compressibi 1 ity

Fs = storage capacity rat io

G = mass production rate

h = reservoir thickness
k = permeabi 1 ity

M = mobility ratio

Mw = molecular weight

p = pressure

PD = dimensionless pressure

Pex t
= extrapolated shut-in pressure
p i = initial pressure

pws = shut-in pressure

q = volume production rate (reservoir condition)

R = gas low constant

t = production time

t ~ 't~~ = dimensionless time

T = absolute temperature
z = compressibility factor

*P = Pi'P,
At = shut-in time

@ = porosity

1-I = viscosity

T = time

- 106-
Ref e r e n ce s

Bare1 1 i, A., R. C e l a t i , G. M a n e t t i , G. N e r i , "Bui ld- up and back- pressure

t e s t s on 1 t a l i a n geothermal wells." Second Symposium on Development
and U t i l i z a t i o n o f Geothermal Resources, San Francisco, CA., May 1975.

B i x e l , H. C . , B. K. L a r k i n , and H. K. van P o o l l e n , " E f f e c t o f L i n e a r

D i s c o n t i n u i t i e s on Pressure Bui ld- up and Drawdown Behavior.''
J. Pet. Tech. (Aug., 1963)- 885-895.

B i x e l , H. C. and H. K. van P o o l l e n , " Pressure Drawdown and b u i l d u p i n t h e

Presence o f R a d i a l D i s c o n t i n u i t i e s . " Paper SPE 1516 presented a t 41st
Annual SPE F a l l Meeting, D a l l a s , Texas (Oct. 2- 5, 1966).

Burgassi, P. D., R. C a t a l d i , A. Rossi, P. S q u a r c i , G. S t e f a n i , and L. T a f f i ,

"Recent developments o f geothermal e x p l o r a t i o n i n Travale-Radicondol i
a r e a . ' ' Second Syinposium on Development and U t i 1 i z a t i o n o f Geothermal
Resources, San Francisco, CA., May 1975.

C e l a t i , R . , and L. G a l a r d i , "Applicazione d e l metodo d i Horrier a l l e curve

d i r i s a l i t a d e l pozzo T r a v a l e 22." Unpublished r e p o r t , l s t i t u t o
l n t e r n a z i o n a l e p e r l e Ricerche Geotermiche, P i s a , 1975.

Ramey, H. J.,,Jr., and W. M. Cobb, " A g e n e r a l p r e s s u r e b u i l d u p t h e o r y f o r a

w e l l i n a square drainage area.'' J. Pet. Tech. (Dic. 1971), 1493-1505.

Ramey, H. J., J r . , A. Kumar, M. S . G u l a t i , "Gas w e l l t e s t a n a l y s i s under

w a t e r - d r i v e c o n d i t i o n s . " American Gas A s s o c i a t i o n , A r l i n g t o n , Va.
(1973), 312 pp.

-107-
 1 10 lo3 r+Ar 104

Fig. 1 - H o r n e r plot for a x e l l i n the centre of a closed square.

Kt . ( R a m e y e t al., 1 9 7 1 ) .
= GxcA
* /

61t
Q

3 I- i

-I_- I I .
1
1 10 lo2 lo4
At
Fig. 2 - Horner plot f o r 8 wei! i n t h e zei-itre of a constant p r e s s u r e
square - Kt
tPp,= (Raniey e t al., 1973).
d si;?
L I

-108-
 0
I

2 - t,,= 0.01
I

1I

4
GI3

r\c

IO
-ctosed -.5
- _ _ _constarit
_ pressure

12 I I I

1 10 lo2 IO3 t+dt

-- io4
dt

Fig. 3 - FIorner plot for a were in 8 I? : 1 rectangle with one short side
at constant p r e s s u r e (well position: see f i g . , \,-= Yt 1
+y=A
(Ramey et al,a 1973!.

0
a = 3048 cm
rw= 7.62 crn
7, = q 2 = 1000 Icgs,l

15 I I I

1 10 . lo2 lo3 t+nt lo4

At

Fig. 4 - Homer plot i'or l i n e a r 6iscc)ntinuity

\
case (Bixel et a l . , 19F3)
- K-I t ; ( Kf;4
- - 12
).
(b-d

6
' ! i LLi,3,2
1
( i i / L1 L f i
- 1 og-
- 110-
 _-

1 10

I
I I I I I
1 I
I
I
I
I I I
I I I I
I
I I Pc x t

I
I
 I

-
-
- --T-- -r------- 1-----r---r---i
r3 M N m v in \3 b a

-112-
 .-

STUDY OF A GEOTHERMAL FIELD I N THE ASAL ACTIVE VOLCANIC R I F T ZONE

(FRENCH TERRITORY OF AFARS AND ISSAS, EAST AFRICA)

A. C. G r i n g a r t e n and L. S t i e l t j e s
Bureau de Recherches Geologiques e t M i n i e r e s
Orleans, France

The Asal r i f t , l o c a t e d 80 km west o f D j i b o u t i , i s one o f t h e a c t i v e

" r i f t s - i n - r i f t " s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e Afar depression, a t r a n s i t i o n between t h e
G u l f o f Aden and t h e Red Sea r i d g e s ( F i g . 1 ) .

A t t e n t i o n was drawn t o t h i s zone because o f t h e presence o f a graben

s t r u c t u r e , and o f geochemical p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s o f v a r i o u s h o t s p r i n g s . Two
w e l l s were d r i l l e d on t h e S- W margin o f t h e r i f t , a t l o c a t i o n s chosen m a i n l y
from g e o l o g i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . The f i r s t h o l e reached a h o t water geo-
thermal r e s e r v o i r , t h e second, one k i l o m e t e r away, was d r y .

Both w e l l s found, from t o p t o bottom, a r e c e n t b a s a l t i c s e r i e s , then a

t h i c k r h y o l i t i c v o l c a n i c s e r i e s , and f i n a l l y an o l d t e c t o n i c , t i l t e d , b a s a l t i c
s e r i e s , where t h e r e s e r v o i r i s l o c a t e d . The f i r s t w e l l was d r i l l e d t o a
d e p t h o f 1130 m, where heavy mud losses o c c u r r e d , w h i l e t h e second w e l l
reached 1550 m. An i m p o r t a n t normal f a u l t appears t o separate t h e two w e l l s .

The f i r s t w e l l , which had t o be induced i n t o p r o d u c t i o n by a i r - l i f t ,

was used f o r e x t e n s i v e w e l l t e s t i n g .

P e r m e a b i l i t y i n f o r m a t i o n was o b t a i n e d p r i o r t o p r o d u c t i o n by i n j e c t i o n
o f c o l d w a t e r . Although t h e bottom h o l e p r e s s u r e was p e r t u r b a t e d by thermal
e f f e c t s from m i x i n g w i t h i n t h e t u b i n g o f i n j e c t i o n and r e s e r v o i r w a t e r ,
a n a l y s i s c o u l d be performed w i t h t h e serni-log s t r a i g h t l i n e method, and y i e l d
a k h v a l u e o f 2 darcymeters. B u i l d u p and drawdown t e s t s were a l s o performed,
b u t p r o v i d e d unusual p r e s s u r e responses ( F i g . 2 ) . Although t h e r e s e r v o i r was
expected t o be f r a c t u r e d , no f r a c t u r e e f f e c t was apparent on a l o g - l o g p l o t .
Pressure a t t h e bottom o f t h e w e l l s t a b i l i z e d r a t h e r a b r u p t l y w i t h i n 10 min-
u t e s a f t e r t h e b e g i n n i n g o f e i t h e r a b u i l d u p o r drawdown t e s t , which m i g h t
i n d i c a t e t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a recharge boundary nearby.

Numerous temperature and pressure logs were run i n t h e w e l l , b e f o r e and

during roduction (Fig. 3 ) . These i n d i c a t e d i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s o f 253°C and
3
77kg/cm a t 1050 m, which was t h e maximum d e p t h reached w i t h t h e Kuster
r e c o r d e r . Pressure and temperature l o g s d u r i n g p r o d u c t i o n c l e a r l y showed
the existence o f a f l a s h i n g f r o n t w i t h i n the wellbore.

The w e l l p r o d u c t i o n r a t e was v a r i e d by means o f p i p e s o f d i f f e r e n t diam-

e t e r s a t t h e wellhead. Sampling o f t h e geothermal f l u i d a t t h e wellhead
f a i l e d t o p r o v i d e reasonable values o f f l o w r a t e and e n t h a l p y . These were
o b t a i n e d by comparison w i t h t h e o r e t i c a l r e s u l t s from a numerical model p r o -
v i d e d by M. Nathenson ( F i g . 4 ) . Although t h e f l o w system a t t h e Asal f i e l d
seemed t o be d i f f e r e n t from t h a t considered i n t h e model, agreement between
measured and computed v a l u e s was v e r y good. I t was concluded t h a t t h e maximum

-113-
production of the well was of the order of 135 t/hr, with 20% steam at the
wellhead. This, with a wellhead temperature of 170°C could provide 1 or 2 MW
of electric power.

Chemical analyses of the geothermal fluid indicated very high salt

content, of the order of 190 g/l, which was also found to increase with
production time. This, and other evidences, might indicate the existence
of an active convection cell.

interpretation of the various data collected on the field is continuing,

and results will be made available in the near future.

Refe rence

M. Nathenson, "Flashing flow in hot water geothermal wells." Jour. Res.

U . S . Geological Survey, Vol. 2, No. 6, Nov-Dec. 1974, p. 743.

-114-
 Y

-115-
mi- .---
..
. A

.
. .
iw w I .+:
*
4
4
A

-
%'k'
i
0. ¶00.00 m.00

- 1 16-
 RAFT R I VER GEOTHERMAL RESERVO I R ENG I N E E R I NG AND WELL STI WULATI ON

Jay F. Kunze, L.owe11 G. M i l l e r , and Roger C . Stoker

Idaho N a t i o n a l Engineering L a b o r a t o r y (INEL)
Idaho F a l l s , Idaho 83401

I n 1973 t h e Idaho N a t i o n a l Engineering L a b o r a t o r y (INEL) was funded by

t h e Energy Research and Development A d m i n i s t r a t i o n (ERDA) t o pursue a program
o f research and development i n t o t h e geothermal p o t e n t i a l o f t h e R a f t R i v e r
V a l l e y , Cassia County, Idaho. A c o o p e r a t i v e e f f o r t was then undertaken
i n v o l v i n g A e r o j e t Nuclear Company, U.S. G e o l o g i c a l Survey, S t a t e o f Idaho,
and t h e R a f t R i v e r Rural E l e c t r i c Cooperative.

The b a s i c g e o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s ( p r i n c i p a l l y t h e USGS) were com-

p l e t z d i n l a t e 1974. A meeting was then h e l d t o p r e s e n t a l l a v a i l a b l e d a t a
and s e l e c t a d r i l l i n g s i t e f o r RRGE- 1. The s i t e was f i n a l l y l o c a t e d i n t h e
m i d d l e o f S e c t i o n 23, ~ 2 6 115s. ~ , The second s i t e , RRGE-2, was l o c a t e d i n
t h e extreme n o r t h e a s t c o r n e r of S e c t i o n 23.

G eo 1 og i c S t r uc t u r e

The R a f t R i v e r V a l l e y i s a t y p i c a l downfaulted n o r t h - t r e n d i n g b a s i n
l y i n g i n t h e n o r t h e r n p o r t i o n o f t h e Basin and Range p r o v i n c e . The b a s i n i s
t e r m i n a t e d on t h e n o r t h by t h e Snake R i v e r P l a i n o f t h e Columbia R i v e r P l a t e a u
p r o v i n c e . The m a j o r l o c a l s t r u c t u r a l c o n t r o l c o n s i s t s o f t h e Narrows s t r u c -
t u r e (NE- SW) and t h e B r i d g e F a u l t (N-S) as d e p i c t e d i n F i g . 1 .

RRGE- 1 and RRGE-2 W e l l s

The Raft R i v e r V a l l e y i s composed o f young a l l u v i u m d e r i v e d from the

s u r r o u n d i n g mountain ranges, t u f f a c e o u s s i l t and c l a y o f t h e R a f t Formation;
tuffaceous s i l t and sandstone o f t h e S a l t Lake Formation and q u a r t z i t e and
q u a r t z monzonite o f t h e Pre-Cambrian basement complex. C r o s s - s e c t i o n a l views
o f R R G E - 1 and RRGE-2 a r e shown i n F i g s . 2 and 3.

The e s s e n t i a l i n f o r m a t i o n p e r t a i n i n g t o b o t h w e l l s i s l i s t e d below

RRGE- 1 RRGE-2
1. D r i l l s t a r t date 1-4-75 4-27-75
2. D r i l l completion date 3-31 - 75 6 - 2 7- 75 >k
3. Average f l o w 650 gpm 800 gpm
4. Maximum bottom temperature 294°F ( 146" C) 297°F ( 1 47°C)
5. T o t a l depth 4989 ft. 5988 f t *
6. Main p r o d u c t i o n 43SO-4900 f t 4300-5000 f t
7. "Hot" s h u t - i n p r e s s u r e si1 atm %IO atm
*RRGE-2 may be deepened by 500 f e e t i n an a t t e m p t t o f u r t h e r enhance
n a t u r a l a r t e s i a n production.

Reservoir Engineerinq

1. Downhole Logg i ng
Several s t a n d a r d and s p e c i a l w e l l logs were run i n b o t h w e l l s and i n c l u d e
the fo.1 l o w i n g :

-1 17-
 temperature, c a l i p e r , n a t u r a l gamma, Compensated n e u t r o n - f o r m a t i o n
d e n s i t y , dual i n d u c t i o n - l a t e r o l o g , s p o n t a n e o u s - p o t e n t i a l , dipmeter,
compensated gamma d e n s i t y , s o n i c , t e l e v i e w e r , and flowmeter.

2. Cor ng-Sample T e s t i n g

Sev r a l cores were taken a t d i f f e r e n t depths i n b o t h w e l l s . Permeability

v a r i e s from 0.002 m i l l i d a r c i e s f o r t i g h t caprock t o 5-10 m i l l i d a r c i e s f o r
sane p r o d u c i n g tuffaceous sediments as measured under " i n s i t u " c o n d i t i o n .
F u r t h e r p r e s s u r e t e s t i n g o f t h e a q u i f e r have i n c l u d e d f r a c t u r e permeabil-
i t y and i n d i c a t e much h i g h e r a q u i f e r permeabi 1 i t y .

3. F l o w Testing

Both RRGE- 1 and RRGE-2 have undergone e x t e n s i v e f l o w t e s t i n g o v e r extended

p e r i o d s o f t i m e ( 5 weeks a t 200-400 gpm). RRGE-2 discharges a p p r o x i m a t e l y
800 gpm j u s t p r i o r t o r e a c h i n g t h e f l a s h p o i n t a t t h e s u r f a c e , s t a r t i n g
from a subcooled c o n d i t i o n . Once f l a s h i n g begins, t h e back p r e s s u r e
generated i s a r e s u l t o f t h e d i s c h a r g e n o z z l e c o n f i g u r a t i o n and d e t e r -
mines t h e t o t a l mass f l o w . F o r i n s t a n c e : w i t h 275°F o u t l e t temperature
a t t h e w e l l h e a d , t h e maximum n a t u r a l f l o w i s o n l y about 400 gpm w i t h t h e
p r e s e n t p i p i n g and f 1 a s h e r - s e p a r a t o r equipment.
The w a t e r q u a l i t y remained v e r y c o n s t a n t d u r i n g t h e extended f l o w t e s t i n g
a v e r a g i n g 2,000 ppm s o l i d c o n t e n t .
A downhole temperature r e c o r d e r was run i n RRGE-2 s e v e r a l times under flow
and s t a t i c s h u t i n c o n d i t i o n s . Under s t a t i c c o n d i t i o n s , t h e temperature
was 250°F a t t h e bottom o f t h e c a s i n g (4230 f t ) and 297OF a t t h e bottom
o f t h e w e l l (5988 f t ) . P r i o r i n f o r m a t i o n had i n d i c a t e d v e r y l i t t l e produc-
t i o n from below 4800 ft. Such a temperature g r a d i e n t r e p r e s e n t s an unusual
s i t u a t i o n f o r a non- producing zone. The g r a d i e n t o f 7"F/1758 fr i s much
l e s s than even a normal g r a d i e n t o f 2'F/100 f t t h a t one would expect.
T h i s anomaly may be t h e r e - c l l t o f a " hot p l a t e l ' e f f e c t n e a r t h e bottom o f
t h e w e l l , w i t h c i r c u l a t i o n above t h a t i s a p p a r e n t l y n o t e n t e r i n g t h e w e l l
t o any g r e a t e x t e n t below 4800 f t .

4. USGS Data C o r r e l a t i o n

The c o r i n g , l o g g i n g , and d r i l l i n g i n f o r m a t i o n p r o v i d e d t h e d a t a necessary

t o make a c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e w e l l l i t h o l o g y and t h e USGS g e o p h y s i c a l
d a t a a c q u i r e d i n t h e area. The w e l l i n f o r m a t i o n agreed t o t a l l y w i t h t h e
i n t e r p r e t e d g e o p h y s i c a l d a t a e x c e p t f o r t h e basement r o c k type. i t was
l o g i c a l l y i n f e r r e d , from g e o p h y s i c a l data, t h a t t h e basement rock would
be P a l e o z o i c sediments. However, t h e P a l e o z o i c rock sequence, as w e l l as
Mesozoic, a r e a p p a r e n t l y m i s s i n g w i t h i n t h e b a s i n .

5. We1 1 - K i 1 1 i n g Technique

RRGE-1 was d r i l l e d i n t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n zone b e f o r e t h e p r o d u c t i o n c a s i n g

(13-3/8 in.) was emplaced. T h i s n e c e s s i t a t e d " k i l l i n g " t h e a r t e s i a n f l o w
from t h e w e l l i n o r d e r t o i n s t a l l t h e casing. Cold w a t e r i n j e c t i o n i n t o
t h e w e l l proved unsuccessful i n stemming t h e f l o w . The w e l l was f i l l e d
w i t h 881 f t o f sand and a cement p l u g (120 f t ) i n s t a l l e d which a l l o w e d
c a s i n g t o be s e t .

-118-
 R e s e r v o i r Model 1 i n g

From t h e l i m i t e d data, i t would appear t h a t the m a j o r i t y o f geothermal

w a t e r o r i g i n a t e s i n t h e Almo Basin ( n e x t v a l l e y west o f R a f t R i v e r ) and
feeds a l a r g e r e s e r v o i r i n t h e Raft R i v e r V a l l e y . Only about 22% o f t h e
annual p r e c i p i t a t i o n i n t h e Almo Basin can be accounted f o r by s u r f a c e
r u n o f f . F u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s c o n t i n u i n g t o a f f i r m t h i s model.

Power P l a n t Development

Geothermal power p l a n t s o p e r a t i n g f r o m medium temperature (about 150°C)

water can be expected t o generate 1 MW ( n e t e l e c t r i c ) f o r every 250,000
l b / h r o f geothermal w a t e r ( t h e b e s t o f we1 Is can be expected t o produce
1 m i 1 1 i o n l b / h r . o r 2000 gal/min. o r 120 1 i t e r s / s e c ) . Normal we1 1 spacing
w i l l d i c t a t e t h a t a power p l a n t f e e d i n g from a 4 t o 10 square m i l e area
o f r e s e r v o i r m i g h t g e n e r a t e t y p i c a l l y 50 MW(e). A l a r g e r p l a n t module
w i l l p u l l from a s t i l l l a r g e r area, needing l o n g e r p i p e l i n e s , and o f f s e t -
t i n g any c o s t advantage o f lower u n i t c o s t o f t h e power p l a n t equipment.
Thus, i t appears t h a t 50 MW i s t h e nominal optimum s i z e . Such a p l a n t
w i l l be r e j e c t i n g 300 t o 400 MW o f waste condenser h e a t ; and t h e q u e s t i o n
i s how t o b e s t accomplish t h i s r e j e c t i o n o f heat. Once-through condenser
c o o l i n g from t h e near s u r f a c e c o l d w a t e r a q u i f e r seems a l i k e l y method.
The n e t e f f e c t would then be t r a n s f e r o f h e a t from t h e geothermal a q u i f e r
t o t h e near s u r f a c e a q u i f e r , except f o r 10 t o 15% converted t o e l e c t r i c i t y .
The e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e power p l a n t would be s i g n i f i c a n t l y improved as t h e
condenser o p e r a t e d a t 20°C i n s t e a d o f 35 t o 45°C as w i t h c o o l ing towers.
R e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g o f t h e w i t h d r a w a l and r e i n j e c t i o n from t h e c o l d w a t e r
a q u i f e r has r e c e i v e d as much a t t e n t i o n i n t h e R a f t R i v e r Program as t h e
r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g f r o m t h e geothermal a q u i f e r . Fortunately, nature
u s u a l l y p r o v i d e s more and l a r g e r c o l d w a t e r a q u i f e r s than geothermal a q u i -
f e r s , s o s o l v i n g t h e condenser c o o l i n g requirements should n o t be as d i f -
f i c u l t as s u p p l y i n g t h e heat i n p u t t o t h e p l a n t . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t
such once- through condenser c o o l i n g i s o n l y p e r t i n e n t f o r small power
p l a n t modules ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 50 MW). F o r i n s t a n c e , a 2000 MW(th) h e a t
r e j e c t i o n requirement such as t h a t o f a l a r g e n u c l e a r p l a n t would need
t o draw and r e i n j e c t from t o o l a r g e an area t o make p i p i n g t h e w a t e r an
economic p r a c t i c a l i t y i n most s i t u a t i o n s .
Well p m p i n g t e s t s have been conducted o v e r t h e l a s t year, from which
t r a n s m i s s i v i t y and s t o r a g e c o e f f i c i e n t have been determined. Appl i c a t i o n
o f these t o a d i g i t a l computer r e s e r v o i r model show t h a t t h e c o o l i n g
requirements f o r a 50 MW power p l a n t can be s u p p l i e d w i t h a w e l l p a t t e r n
t h a t has drawdowns and "drawups" (from r e i n j e c t i o n ) o f l e s s t h a n an atriios-
p h e r i c e q u i v a l e n t p r e s s u r e head over many y e a r s o f o p e r a t i o n .

We1 1 S t i m u l a t i o n

1. Water D r i l l i n g - d r i l l i n g w i t h w a t e r through t h e p r o d u c t i o n zone i n b o t h

w e l l s has proven h i g h l y successful. T h i s method has e l i m i n a t e d t h e pos-
s i b , l e s e a l i n g o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n zone by mudcake.

-119-
2. Hydrofracturing -
RRGE- I was s u b j e c t e d t o l i m i t e d h y d r o f r a c t u r i n g
employing the d r i l l i n g r i g mud punps a t 550 gpm and 1400 s p i f o r s h o r t
p e r i o d s (up t o 3 hours). No n o t i c e a b l e e f f e c t was observed i n increased
product i on.

3. D r i l l Stem T e s t i n g -
a d r i l l stem t e s t was conducted on RRGE-2 a t the
bottom o f t h e h o l e (4247 f t ) b e f o r e p r o d u c t i o n casing was i n s t a l l e d .
The t e s t showed no f l o w from the bottom 90 f t o f the hole. D r i l l i n g was
conducted using mud t o t h i s depth. Immediately upon d r i l l i n g deeper
w i t h water, f l o w was encountered.

4. Side- Track D r i l l i n g - i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s being conducted a t present t o

e v a l u a t e the p o t e n t i a l p r o d u c t i o n b e n e f i t s t o be d e r i v e d from d r i l l i n g
two and t h r e e h o l e s o f f t h e main h o l e .

-1 20-
 m
1
m I
W
z a
0 cx
n:
t-
V
W
tn

(?,
0'

-121-
 170 psi Hol Shut - in 550 Collons / min.

0 ft-
C

iil.hYL'1

500 - and
Sand
---
Sandstone

1500

Sands t o n c

2000 - 1l g h t
grwn
tuff

2500

Sands t o n c
_I

S I 1t r tone
3ooo -_-
__
Sand._._
to c5 rl

1 n t c r ti r J J f.4
turr and

3500 -- rlltstonc

1I g h t
grcrn
tuff

4500

tooo-
I2.q - 4989 It

FIGURE 2 .

-122-
 RRGE NO, 2
150 PSI HOT SHUT-IF4 MIN

4035' A ~ O V E ~
S E A LEVEL

SAND
€i
GRAVEL
-
1000 11 TUFFACEOUS
SILT a C L A Y
PERFORATIOIJ A N D ~
S A N D 0 G-.f i A._
VEL
SQUEEZE 1530' TO 8 7 0 '
TUFFACEOUS
S I L T R CLAY
-__
S A t J D 8 GRAL'EL
2000 f t
I SILT 8. S A t i D

SILT

SAND

TUF FAC EOU S

3000 f t a- CORE # 1 SILT

4000 f I
13-3/8" CASING - Et- CORE # 2
S AN D

SILT

SAND
a SILT

TU F FACE0 US

Q- CORE # 3 a
290 O F 0- CORE # 4 GRAVEL
MAJOR PRODUCTION C A LC AREOUS
--
TUFF
QURTZITE &
e- CORE # 5 MINOR S C I i l S T
500011
QUARTZ
MINOR PRODUCTION
\12-1/4" OPEN HOLE MONZONITE

6000ft

FIGURE 3.
-123-
 INITIAL RESULTS OF R E S E R V O I R PRODUCTION TESTS,
RAFT R I V E R GEOTHERMAL PROJECT, I DAH0

T. N. Narasimhan and P. A. Witherspoon

Lawrence Be r k e 1ey L a b o r a t o r y
Berkeley, CA. 94704

Two geothermal t e s t w e l l s were d r i l l e d and completed i n R a f t R i v e r

V a l l e y , Southern Idaho by t h e Idaho N a t i o n a l Engineering L a b o r a t o r y between
January and August, 1975. Subsequently, h y d r a u l i c t e s t s were conducted on
these we1 Is t o make p r e l i m i n a r y e s t i m a t e s o f t h e geothermal r e s e r v o i r
parameters and r e s e r v o i r geometry. The purpose o f t h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n i s t o
discuss t h e d a t a o b t a i n e d from these t e s t s .

G e o l o g i c a l Setting_

The R a f t R i v e r geothermal area l i e s i n a n o r t h - t r e n d i n g , warped and

down f a u l t e d b a s i n , f i l l e d w i t h tufaceous sandstone, s i l t s t o n e , coarse-
g r a i n e d sandstone and s h a l e ( t h e S a l t Lake f o r m a t i o n of Mio-P1 iocene age).
I n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e t e s t w e l l s , the S a l t Lake formation o v e r l i e s a q u a r t z -
monzonite bed rock o f Precambrian age. I n b o t h t e s t w e l l s [RRGE # 1 , 4989
f e e t deep and RRGE #2, 5988 f e e t deep] h o t w a t e r a t approximately 294°F
(146°C) was tapped a t the base o f t h e S a l t Lake formation. Both a r e a r t e s i a n
w e l l s w i t h s h u t - i n w e l l - h e a d pressures of about 150 p s i . The bottom h o l e
pressures a t a depth o f 5000' were about 2200 p s i . I f opened t o t h e atmos-
phere, each w e l l can f l o w f r e e l y up t o 800 gpm. The d i s t a n c e between t h e
two w e l l s i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4000 f e e t .

The H y d r a u l i c T e s t s

The h y d r a u l i c t e s t s conducted on these w e l l s extended between mid-

September and e a r l y
e i t h e r o f the w e l l s
i n the flowing w e l l
ment i n these t e s t s
acy o f .OO1 p s i . A
November. The t e s t s p r i n c i p a l l y c o n s i s t e d of f l o w i n g
a t c o n t r o l l e d r a t e s and o b s e r v i n g p r e s s u r e changes e i t h e r
i t s e l f o r i n the non- flowing w e l l . A key p i e c e o f e q u i p -
was a s e n s i t i v e q u a r t z p r e s s u r e gauge capable o f an accur-
summary o f t h e t e s t s conducted i s c o n t a i n e d i n Table 1.

An i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e o f t h e pressure t r a n s i e n t data c o l l e c t e d , e s p e c i a l l y
dur ing t e s t s 2 and 3 , was t h e remarkable response of t h e r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e t o
t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l changes induced by t h e passage o f t h e moon. Comparison o f
t h e observed pressure changes w i t h t h e e a r t h t i d e computations made by Dr.
Howard O l i v e r o f t h e U.S.G.S. a t Menlo Park f o r t h e p e r i o d o f o b s e r v a t i o n i n -
d i c a t e d a maximum e a r t h t i d e - i n d u c e d p e r t u r b a t i o n o f about 0.2 p s i i n r e s e r -
v o i r pressure w h i l e t h e maximum change i n g r a v i t y o v e r t h e same p e r i o d was
about 0.25 m g a l . I n o r d e r t o use t h e d a t a f o r r e s e r v o i r n t e r p r e t a t i o n
a p p r o p r i a t e c o r r e c t i o n s had t o be made f o r t h e e a r t h t i d e - nduced p e r t u r b a -
tions. A q u i c k way t o e l i m i n a t e such p e r t u r b a t i o n s was t o c o n s i d e r o n l y those
pressure measurements corresponding t o the times a t which he e a r t h - t i d e s had
z e r o magn i tude.
 The long d u r a t i o n i n t e r f e r e n c e t e s t ( t e s t 2) i n d i c a t e d t h a t between
t h e two t e s t w e l l s t h e r e s e r v o i r has an o v e r a l l kH = 2.28 x l o 5 md f e e t and
an o v e r a l l (pCH o f 1.2 x 10-3 f t / p s i . C a r e f u l s t u d y o f the e a r l y p r e s s u r e
b u i l d u p d a t a f a i l e d t o i n d i c a t e t h e presence o f u n i t s l o p e o r h a l f - s l o p e
l i n e segments on t h e l o g - l o g paper, suggesting t h e absence o f e i t h e r w e l l -
bore s t o r a g e e f f e c t s o r t h e e f f e c t s due t o prominent f r a c t u r e s . The system
appears t o behave, i n a b u l k sense, as a homogeneous r e s e r v o i r .

T e s t 1 i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e p o s s i b l y e x i s t one o r two b a r r i e r boun-

d a r i e s c l o s e t o w e l l No. RRGE #2. T e s t 2 i n d i c a t e d t h e p o s s i b l e presence
o f one b a r r i e r boundary. W i t h o n l y two t e s t w e l l s i t has n o t been p o s s i b l e
t o l o c a t e these b a r r i e r boundaries.

The r e s u l t s o f t h e h y d r a u l i c t e s t s conducted so f a r suggest t h a t t h e

geothermal r e s e r v o i r i n R a f t R i v e r V a l l e y i s f a i r l y l a r g e and permeable
and i s o f c o n s i d e r a b l e p r a c t i c a l i n t e r e s t .

TABLE 1

TEST DATA FOR RRGE WELLS

Test No. Description Duration RRGE Flow Rate Max. Pressure Depth,
(hours) Well No. (gpm) - D (feet)

1 S h o r t Term 17 2 210 39 5200

Test

2 Long Term 615.5 2 400 3.6 1000

Test

3 Short Term 30 1 26 1.1 4700

Test

-125-
 AN APPROACH TO GEOTHERMAL DEVELOPMENT

R. A. Wooding"
A p p l i e d Mathematics D i v i s i o n
Dept. o f S c i e n t i f i c E I n d u s t r i a l Research
W e l l i n g t o n , New Zealand

A f t e r about twenty years o f geothermal energy development i n New

Zealand, p r o g r e s s i s s t i l l hampered by incomplete knowledge. I n sane cases,
t h i s has l e d t o unnecessary c a p i t a l e x p e n d i t u r e . Lack o f a c c e s s i b i l i t y o f
t h e medium and i t s c o m p l e x i t y a r e m a j o r o b s t a c l e s t o a c h i e v i n g a b e t t e r
understanding, and t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f f i e l d g e o p h y s i c a l surveys i s o f t e n
t e d i o u s and may be open t o a m b i g u i t y . There i s no s u b s t i t u t e f o r a p r o p e r l y
logged d r i l l - h o l e , w i t h backup s t u d i e s on t h e geology and geochemistry
encountered, b u t e x p l o r a t o r y d r i l l i n g i s expensive and o f t e n d i f f i c u l t t o
j u s t i f y t o an i n d u s t r y geared t o " p r o d u c t i o n psychology."

Most o f t h e advances made i n New Zealand have been achieved by com-

promise. Boreholes i n t e n d e d f o r p r o d u c t i o n have been used as research h o l e s
d u r i n g the d r i l l i n g phase. Since p r o d u c t i o n h o l e s may be s i t e d i n q u i t e
dense c l u s t e r s , a very d e t a i l e d p i c t u r e can be e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h i n a geo-
thermal f i e l d . O f course, t h e drawback t o t h i s approach i s t h a t few, i f any,
holes are a v a i l a b l e f o r study outside the f i e l d . T h i s i s an i m p o r t a n t gap
i n t h e geothermal i n f o r m a t i o n a t t h e p r e s e n t time; i t does n o t seem p o s s i b l e
t o determine p r e c i s e l y t h e volume o f h o t - w a t e r resource avai l a b l e w i t h o u t
knowing t h e v e r t i c a l temperature g r a d i e n t s a t depth between t h e o b v i o u s l y
a c t i v e geothermal f i e l d s .

Where groundwater i s abundant, w i t h h i g h w a t e r t a b l e s , geothermal a c t i v -

i t y i s g e n e r a l l y m a n i f e s t a t t h e surface. Thus t h e i n i t i a l l o c a t i o n o f a
resource may n o t be t h e main problem. I t i s necessary t o map t h e resource
and t o determine how much energy i s g e n u i n e l y r e c o v e r a b l e . Here t h e use o f
models can be o f value, I t has been found i n New Zealand t h a t t h e se o f
t h e e x p e r i e n c e g a i n e d i n t h e d e t a i l e d s t u d y o f one f i e l d ( W a i r a k e i ) can a s s i s t
i n m o d e l l i n g t h e performance o f o t h e r f : e l d s i n e a r l y stages o f exp o i t a t i o n .
S i n c e a l l o f these f i e l d s a r e w i t h i n t h e same v o l c a n i c zone, i t can be expected
t h a t t h e i r p r o p e r t i e s a r e reasonably s i m i l a r .

However, t h e approach i s n o t w i t h o u t p i t f a l l s . Recently i t was d i s -

covered t h a t t h e Broadlands geothermal f i e l d , which appeared on r e s i s t i v i t y
s t u d i e s t o have a p o t e n t i a l c l o s e t o t h a t of Wai r a k e i , c o u l d perhaps be o n l y
p a r t i a l l y exploited. During p r o v i n g t e s t s , t h e p r e s s u r e drop encountered was
found t o correspond t o a resource o n l y about o n e - f i f t h t h e s i z e o f Wairakei
( G r a n t , 1975). Two p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r t h i s have been considered.
F i r s t , carbon d i o x i d e l e v e l s a t Broadlands a r e much h i g h e r than a t W a i r a k e i .
When t h e p r e s s u r e drops around a producing b o r e , i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t carbon
d i o x i d e canes o u t o f s o l u t i o n t o form a two-phase m i x t u r e w i t h very p o o r
t r a n s m i s s i b i l i t y t o water. The second p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n i s t h a t t h e p o o r l y
p r o d u c t i v e p a r t o f t h e f i e l d i s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y f a u l t e d o r f i s s u r e d so t h a t
t h e bores a r e l o c a t e d i n l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y media. I f the l a t t e r explanation
were v a l i d , t h e r e would be some p r o s p e c t f o r remedial a c t i o n .

*NSF F o r e i g n Energy Research Scholar a t Colorado S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , F o r t

C o l l i n s , Colo., 1975-76.

-126-
 I n another example, t h e p r i v a t e l y owned Kawerau geothermal f i e l d , which
was thought t o be o f f a i r l y m i n o r s i g n i f i c a n c e , has now been shown t o be
h i g h l y p r o d u c t i v e from hydrothermal ly-a1 t e r e d graywacke below t h e s u r f a c e
volcanics. I f t h i s proves t o be p r o d u c t i o n from deeper h o r i z o n s than were
p r e v i o u s l y known, then t h e Kawerau resource c o u l d be upgraded s u b s t a n t i a l l y .

Geothermal research i n v o l v e s s e v e r a l d i s c i p l ines; i t can be p e r i lous

t o n e g l e c t t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n from any one o f these. I n F i g . 1 , an attempt i s
made t o i n d i c a t e t h e i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e f i e l d s which appear t o
have relevance i n New Zealand geothermal research. Each heading i s intended
t o be a p p l i c a b l e b o t h on t h e l a r g e ( r e g i o n a l ) s c a l e and t h e l o c a l (geothermal
f i e l d ) scale.

GIjOLOCY < > GEOPHYSICS

STRUCTURE
/ MODELS

HYD R OLOG Y

PETROLOGY
7 TECTON I C s
GEOCHEMISTR.Y

Figure 1. A s p e c t s R e l a t i n g t o Geothermal Development

The l a r g e - s c a l e geology and geophysics and a s s o c i a t e d t e c t o n i c s a r e

u s e f u l i n d e s c r i b i n g t h e background under which h i g h heat flows occur. Just
what mechanisms a r e i n v o l v e d may have t o be i n f e r r e d from t h e p e t r o l o g y and
geochemistry. T h i s i n c l u d e s e x t e n s i v e use o f i s o t o p e c h e m i s t r y and d a t i n g
methods. The term " hydrology" - - here intended ' t o embrace a1 1 aspects o f f l u i d
f l o w i n c l u d i n g hydrothermal convection--may be i n f e r r e d from a knowledge o f
t h e f i e l d s t r u c t u r e , i n c l u d i n g observed temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n s , permeabi 1-
i t i e s , and chemistry. Models a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l i n supplementing t h e
a v a i l a b l e f i e l d knowledge, f i l l i n g i n t h e gaps by means o f hypotheses, and
l e a d i n g t o p r e d i c t i o n s which may be t e s t e d . I f a model passes such t e s t s ,
i t may become a p r a c t i c a l p r e d i c t i o n t o o l . Many o f t h e above aspects a i d i n
the e x p l o i t a t i o n o f a f i e l d , and t h e knowledge gained d u r i n g e x p l o i t a t i o n
p r o v i d e s e s s e n t i a l feedback.

Models o f Hydrothermal Systems

R e s i s t i v i t y mapping t o a depth of about one- half k i l o m e t e r has now been

c a r r i e d o u t by G. F. Risk and W. J . P . Macdonald o f New Zealand's Department
o f S c i e n t i f i c and I n d u s t r i a l Research f o r a s u b s t a n t i a l p a r t o f the Taupo
V o l c a n i c Zone. Ample backup s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e t h a t temperature maps would
e x h i b i t s i m i l a r major features.

- 127-
 Unfortunately, detai led results o f
t h r e e dimensions using p r e s e n t l y a v a i l a b
o f models research i s aimed a t r e s o l v i n g
c o n v e c t i o n problem and e s t a b l i s h i n g r e a l
o f geothermal f i e l d s .
t h i s q u a l i t y are n o t obtainable i n
e g e o p h y s i c a l methods. One l i n e
t h e mechanisms o f t h e groundwater
s t i c values f o r p h y s i c a l parameters

J u s t one aspect o f t h i s e f f o r t has been t o determine meaningful values

o f f i e l d permeability. I t i s f a i r l y c l e a r t h a t the l a r g e scale permeability
o f t h e f i e l d , which c o n t r o l s t h e m a j o r groundwater movement, i s very low--
p r o b a b l y a l i t t l e l e s s t h a n 10 m i l l i d a r c i e s f o r v e r t i c a l p e r m e a b i l i t y . Some
e s t i m a t e s f o r h o r i z o n t a l p e r m e a b i l i t y have been s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r , b u t
t h e v a l u e o b t a i n e d from f i e l d draw- off s t u d i e s i s about t h e same as t h a t i n
t h e v e r t i c a l (McNabb, G r a n t and Robinson, 1975).

Model 1 i n g o f f i e l d b e h a v i o r under e x p l o i t a t i o n i s o f m a j o r importance.

A s u c c e s s f u l f i t has been achieved i n t h e case o f t h e Wairakei data using
the formula

q = a + bp + c dp/dt (1)

where q i s t h e r a t e o f draw- off, p i s t h e pressure, t i s t i m e and

a, b and c a r e c o e f f i c i e n t s which may be determined from t h e data. Fig. 2
i l l u s t r a t e s a model (due t o M. A. Grant) from which Equation ( 1 ) may be j u s -
t i f i e d on t h e o r e t i c a l grounds.

r
I
Cold water

Figure 2 . Model o f Drawdown i n a Hot-Water Geotherma Field

(McNabb, Grant and Robinson, 1975)

I n Equation ( l ) , t h e term bp represents i n f l o w from t h e s i d e s , i . e . , con-

t r a c t i o n o f t h e h o t zone, w h i l e c dp/dt a r i s e s from drawdown o f t h e w a t e r
surface. The c o e f f i c i e n t b depends upon t h e r a d i u s o f t h e f i e l d . Since
t h i s contracts, b decreases s l o w l y w i t h time, b u t b may be t r e a t e d as
c o n s t a n t f o r s m a l l times. T h i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t , a f t e r draw- off begins, t h e r e
i s a r a p i d decay of f i e l d pressure, which asymptotes t o an i n t e r m e d i a t e value.
F u r t h e r p r e s s u r e decay i s v e r y stow, and i s due m a i n l y t o c o n t r a c t i o n .

-128-
E q u a t i o n ( 1 ) has been used, i n p a r t i c u l a r , by Donaldson (1975), McNabb
(1975), and i t has been u s e d f o r p r e d i c t i o n o f performance i n t h e Broad-
lands geothermal f i e l d (Grant, 1975).

References

Donaldson, I. G. , 1975, P.E.L. Rep. 104/7/1.

Grant, M. A . , 1975, Response t o e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e Ohaki r e g i o n o f t h e

, .
6 road 1 an d s f i e 1 d , G eo t h e rma 1 C i r c u1 a r MAG , 1

McNabb, A., M. A. Grant and J . L. Robinson, 1975, P e r m e a b i l i t y e s t i m a t e s ,

AMD Tech. Rep. 34.

McNabb, A., 1975, Unpubl i s h e d r e p o r t .

-1 29-
 GEOPRESSURED GEOTHERMAL RESERVOI R ENGl NEERl NG RESEARCH
AT THE U N I V E R S I T Y OF TEXAS

R. M. Knapp, M. H. Dorfman, and 0. F. l s o k r a r i

P e t r o l eum E n g i n e e r i n g Department
The U n i v e r s i t y o f Texas a t A u s t i n
A u s t i n , Texas 78712

To date, o u r research has c o n s i s t e d o f d e s i g n i n g r e s e r v o i r s i m u l a t o r s

capable o f modeling t h e b e h a v i o r o f geopressured geothermal r e s e r v o i r s . The
o n l y model we c u r r e n t l y have o p e r a t i o n a l i s a s i n g l e phase (water) m u l t i -
dimensional s i m u l a t o r o f such r e s e r v o i r s . The model i s a f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e
s o l u t i o n o f t h e momentum t r a n s p o r t e q u a t i o n f o r water. The model i s two-
d i m e n s i o n a l , and e i t h e r a r e a l o r c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l s t u d i e s can be run. The
model a l l o w s f o r heterogeneous, a n i s o t r o p i c porous media. The e f f e c t s o f
p o r e p r e s s u r e r e d u c t i o n on f l u i d p r o p e r t i e s and r e s e r v o i r parameters a r e
included. R e s e r v o i r parameters i n c l u d e p o r o s i t y , p e r m e a b i l i t y , and f o r m a t i o n
thickness. Even though t h e presence o f d i s s o l v e d gas i s n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h i s
model, i t s e f f e c t s on momentum t r a n s p o r t can be approximated by m o d i f y i n g t h e
f l u i d compressibility.

We p l a n t o use t h e model t o examine t h e e f f e c t s o f r o c k compression and

s h a l e w a t e r i n f l u x on t h e performance o f a w e l l completed i n a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
G u l f Coast geopressured geothermal r e s e r v o i r . T h i s w i l l be done t o a i d i n
p l a n n i n g w e l l d e s i g n and p r o d u c t i o n t e s t s f o r an expected p i l o t w e l l d r i l l e d
i n t o such a r e s e r v o i r .

A t t h i s t irne, we v i s u a l i ze t h a t a geopressured geothermal r e s e r v o i r

m i g h t appear l i k e F i g . 1. A massive undercompacted sandstone body i s bounded
on t h e landward s i d e by a g r o w t h f a u l t . Seaward t h e f o r m a t i o n grades i n t o an
undercompacted shale. A t t h e top, t h e sandstone i s bounded by a s h a l e t h a t
a l l o w s no v e r t i c a l movement o f f l u i d . Below t h e sandstone t h e r e i s an under-
compacted shale. The f l u i d c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e r e s e r v o i r i s a r e l a t i v e l y
fresh water. H o p e f u l l y , i t i s contaminate-d w i t h n a t u r a l gas i n s o l u t i o n .

The sandstone body tends t o be e l o n g a t e d i n t h e d i r e c t i o n p a r a l l e l t o

t h e a n c i e n t seacoast. The body w i l l be an a n c i e n t sandbar or d e l t a made up
o f sediments d e p o s i t e d by t h e a n c i e n t r i v e r s .

We f e e l t h e f o l l o w i n g phenomena w i l l be i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n t h e
development o f r e s e r v o i r s i m u l a t o r s f o r t h e geopressured geothermal r e s e r v o i r s :

Because o f t h e d e p o s i t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n s , t h e r e s e r v o i r s a r e h e t e r o -
geneous. There i s c o n s i d e r a b l e evidence t h a t s h a l e w a t e r i n f l u x has p l a y e d
a r o l e i n t h e maintenance o f r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e s i n gas w e l l s completed i n
geopressured formations. The f i r s t a t t e m p t s t o examine s h a l e w a t e r i n f l u x
w i l l be done by e x t e n d i n g t h e modelled r e s e r v o i r volume t o i n c l u d e t h e o f f -
shore shales. Both t h e s h a l e s and t h e sandstones w i l l p r o b a b l y be a n i s o -
t r o p i c as w e l l as heterogeneous.

Since t h e f o r m a t i o n s a r e undercompacted, as f l u i d i s removed t h e reset--

v o i r w i l l compact as t h e r o c k m a t r i x assumes t h e overburden load. T h i s com-
p a c t i o n w i l l p r o v i d e a source o f d e p l e t i o n energy f o r t h e r e s e r v o i r . It w i l l
a l s o reduce t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area a v a i l a b l e f o r f l u i d movement and decrease
t h e p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e f o r m a t i o n .

-1 30-
 The p r i m a r y r e s e r v o i r f l u i d i s , o f course, w a t e r . The temperature i s
expected t o range from 300 t o 400" F (150 t o 200" C). The f o r m a t i o n s w i l l
be a t about 14,000 f e e t (4,200 meters) i n t h e Texas G u l f Coast. T h e r e f o r e ,
h y d r o s t a t i c c o n d i t i o n s w i l l be s u f f i c i e n t t o keep t h e f o r m a t i o n water i n t h e
l i q u i d s t a t e during production.

The d i s s o l v e d gas i s an i n t e r e s t i n g c o m p l i c a t i o n . The mass o f d i s -

s o l v e d gas p e r u n i t mass o f w a t e r i s q u i t e s m a l l a t f u l l s a t u r a t i o n even a t
t h e e l e v a t e d pressures and temperatures a s s o c i a t e d w i t h geopressured r e s e r -
voirs. I f t h e f o r m a t i o n w a t e r i s f u l l y s a t u r a t e d w i t h n a t u r a l gas, as soon
as p r o d u c t i o n begins t h i s gas w i l l e v o l v e from t h e w a t e r . I t i s clear that
t o t a l removal o f t h e gas i n s o l u t i o n w i l l n o t r e s u l t i n a l a r g e gas s a t u r a -
tion. The m o b i l i t y o f t h i s gas coming o u t o f s o l u t i o n i s n o t known. For
the purposes o f r e s e r v o i r s i m u l a t i o n , t h e p r u d e n t approach appears t o be t o
p r o v i d e f o r t h e t r a n s p o r t o f the n a t u r a l gas s p e c i e as e i t h e r s o l u t i o n gas
o r as " f r e e " gas.

I f t h e r e s e r v o i r s were s i m p l y t o be d e p l e t e d , t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h e d i f -
f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s d e s c r i b i n g momentum t r a n s p o r t f o r t h e f o r m a t i o n f l u i d s
would be s u f f i c i e n t t o model t h e b e h a v i o r o f geopressured geothermal r e s e r -
voirs. However, i t i s c e r t a i n t h a t one o f t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n schemes c o n s i -
dered f o r such r e s e r v o i r s w i l l be t h e r e - i n j e c t i o n o f t h e produced w a t e r i n t o
t h e r e s e r v o i r a f t e r i t has been "cooled" and " s t r i p p e d " o f t h e n a t u r a l gas
by the s u r f a c e i n s t a l l a t i o n .

The r e - i n j e c t i o n o f t h e " cooled" w a t e r makes i t necessary t o i n c l u d e

t h e e f f e c t s o f thermal energy t r a n s p o r t i n t h e r e s e r v o i r . We assume t h a t t h e
r e s e r v o i r f l u i d s and t h e rock m a t r i x w i l l be i n thermal e q u i l i b r i u m . W i t h
r e s e r v o i r temperature as a v a r i a b l e , f l u i d and rock p r o p e r t i e s w i l l e x h i b i t
complex behavior.

The d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s we f e e l d e s c r i b e t h e b e h a v i o r o f geopres-
sured geothermal r e s e r v o i r s a r e g i v e n as Appendix A a t t h e end o f t h i s paper.

The boundary condi t i ons f o r these e q u a t i o n s deserve some commen t . They

w i l l , o f course, depend on t h e modeling s t u d y performed and the c h o i c e o f t h e
system t o be represented.

A t t h e t o p o f t h e r e s e r v o i r the v e r t i c a l p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e shales
w i l l be e x t r e m e l y s m a l l . Over t h e p r o d u c t i v e l i f e o f t h e r e s e r v o i r , f l u i d
movement i n o r o u t o f t h e r e s e r v o i r can be n e g l e c t e d a t t h i s boundary. A t
t h e b o t t o m o f t h e r e s e r v o i r t h e r e may be s h a l e w a t e r i n f l u x . T h i s can be
handled i n one of two ways. The most s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d scheme would be t o
extend t h e r e s e r v o i r system f a r enough i n t o t h e shales t h a t a s p e c i f i e d poten-
t i a l o r n o - f l o w boundary m i g h t be s p e c i f i e d . T h i s w i l l r e q u i r e a l a r g e com-
p u t i n g g r i d . To reduce computer storage, i t may be d e s i r a b l e t o c o n f i n e t h e
computing g r i d t o t h e sand body i t s e l f . I n t h i s case, t h e p o i n t source terms
i n t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s can be used t o r e p r e s e n t f l u i d i n f l u x . A t t h e
o f f s h o r e boundary s i m i l a r c o n d i t i o n s can be a p p l i e d . Along t h e growth f a u l t ,
we expect t h a t t h e boundary w i l l be sealed. I f p r o d u c t i o n seems t o i n d i c a t e
o t h e r w i s e , we f e e l we can use t h e source terms t o r e p r e s e n t w a t e r i n f l u x .
We a n t i c i p a t e h a n d l i n g t h e energy e q u a t i o n boundary c o n d i t i o n s i n a s i m i l a r
f ash i o n .

-131-
 APPENDIX A
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FLOW IN GEOPRESSURED GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIRS

Momentum Conse r va t ion

a
+Qg=-( 1
at

Energy Balance

Variable Definitions

krw) krg = relative permeability to i t h phase.

i = g (gas), i - w (water), i - r (rock)
-
K = local rock permeability tensor

PW’ P g = f l u i d density

PW’ u9 = fluid viscosity

pw, pg = pressure

- 132-
9 = gravitational acceleration
h = local elevation above a reference datum

QW, Qg
= p o i n t source
0 = porosity

sw, sg = fraction o f pore volume occupied by phase

Rs = gas i n solution per unit mass of water

= internal energy o f i t h phase

Hw' Hg
- -
uw, "g = superficial (Darcy) velocity

a = rock-fluid mixture thermal conductivity

T rock-fl u i d temperature

- 133-
Figure 1 Cross-section and P l a n
View of Geopressured
Reservoir

-134-
 .-

SDGEE PIONEERING GEOTHERMAL TEST WORK

I N THE IMPERIAL VALLEY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA

G. L. Lombard and J. M. Nugent

San Diego Gas E E l e c t r i c Company
San Diego, CA.

The San Diego Gas E E l e c t r i c Company (SDGEE) i s a c t i v e l y engaged i n

t e s t i n g t o develop methods t o u t i l i z e geothermal resources a t N i l a n d and
Heber i n C a l i f o r n i a ' s i m p e r i a l V a l l e y .

T h i s paper d e s c r i b e s San D i e g o ' s t e s t program a t t h e N i l a n d area

which i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by h i g h temperature b r i n e s o f h i g h s a l i n i t y .

San D i e g o ' s f i r s t t e s t i n g began i n A p r i l 1972. One p r o d u c t i o n w e l l

was flowed a t t h e N i l a n d s i t e f o r about t e n days. The w e l l flowed w i t h o u t
pumping. B r i n e temperature and pressure a t t h e p r o d u c t i o n wellhead averaged
375°F and 150 p s i g . The geothermal b r i n e s which were produced were i n j e c t e d
back i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r through a 2,400 f t . deep w e l l l o c a t e d about 4 m i l e
away.

The p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e w e l l was, on t h e average, 400,000 l b s / h r . t o t a l

mass f l o w . T h i s was 324,000 l b s / h r o f l i q u i d (81%), 64,000 l b s / h r of steam
(16%), and 12,000 l b s / h r o f noncondensable gases (3%). The we1 lhead tempera-
t u r e and pressure remained s t a b l e a t 375°F and 1.50 p s i g . The t o t a l d i s s o l v e d
s o l i d s averaged 225,000 p a r t s per m i l l i o n and t h e i n d i c a t e d bottomhole tem-
p e r a t u r e was 510°F a t a depth of 2,250 f e e t .

Based on these t e s t s , San Diego proceeded w i t h a p r e l i m i n a r y design

o f a Geothermal Test F a c i l i t y . A d i r e c t steam t u r b i n e c y c l e was r e j e c t e d
because of t h e r e l a t i v e l y h i g h volume o f noncondensable gases.

F i e l d t e s t s were c a r e f u l l y designed t o s i m u l a t e t h e phase s e p a r a t i o n

and heat t r a n s f e r c o n d i t i o n s which would e x i s t i n t h e f u l l - s c a l e Geothermal
Test F a c i l i t y . The s e p a r a t o r and heat exchangers used i n these f i e l d t e s t s
were 1/20th s c a l e v e r s i o n s o f t h e proposed t e s t f a c i l i t y equipment.

I n t h e 1973 f i e l d t e s t program, p r o d u c t i o n o f geothermal f l u i d s from

t h e w e l l was h e l d t o a t e s t f l o w of 20,000 l b s / h r . B r i n e , steam and non-
condensable gases e x i t e d a t t h e t o p o f t h e separator and passed through t h e
s h e l l s i d e o f t h e steam heat exchanger. B r i n e , l e a v i n g t h e bottom of t h e
separator, f l o w e d through t h e tube s i d e o f t h e b r i n e heat exchanger. The
temperature o f b o t h t h e steam and t h e b r i n e was 375°F. D i s t i l l e d water was
used f o r t h e heat exchange f l u i d . The d i s s o l v e d s o l i d s i n t h e geothermal
b r i n e f l o w i n g through t h e b r i n e heat exchanger ranged from 200,000 t o
245,000 p a r t s per m i l l ion. Dissolved s o l i d s i n t h e steam a t t h e e x i t o f
t h e t e s t s e p a r a t o r were 40,000 t o 80,000 p a r t s per m i l 1 ion. Both t h e steam
heat exchanger and b r i n e heat exchanger heat t r a n s f e r performance d e c l i n e d
t o unacceptable l i m i t s i n about 100 hours o f o p e r a t i o n .

-135-
 i n s p e c t i o n o f t h e b r i n e heat exchanger tubes and header showed a
s c a l e b u i l d u p which averaged 0.060 i n c h t h i c k . Amorphous d e p o s i t s near t h e
tube end were c o n s i d e r a b l y t h i c k e r . The major c o n s t i t u e n t s were s i l i c a
(Si02 38%), i r o n s u l f i d e (FeS3 23%), and lead s u l f i d e (PbS 11%). A l a y e r
of s c a l e approximately .045 i n c h t h i c k i n t h e steam heat exchangers was
a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e h i g h c a r r y o v e r which was due t o an undersized separator
design and a l a c k o f a scrubber downstream o f t h e separator.

S c a l i n g w i t h i n p i p e l i n e s which handled b r i n e was another t r o u b l e

area. A s c a l e b u i l d u p one i n c h t h i c k was observed i n a p i p e spool removed
a f t e r s i x months o f continuous b r i n e h a n d l i n g s e r v i c e . The b r i n e was exposed
t o a i r i n t h e i n j e c t i o n pump sump p r i o r t o pumping back i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r .
The b r i n e process p i p e was above ground and was n o t i n s u l a t e d t o reduce
heat loss.

N e i t h e r t h e m i l d carbon s t e e l process p i p i n g n o r t h e t i t a n i u m heat

exchanger t u b i n g showed s i g n s o f c o r r o s i o n d u r i n g o r a f t e r these t e s t s .
These f i n d i n g s were determined by m e t a l o g r a p h i c i n s p e c t i o n of t h e c o n t a i n -
ment m a t e r i a l s and chemical a n a l y s i s o f t h e scale.

We t e s t e d two methods o f c l e a n i n g s c a l e from heat exchanger tubes.

C a u s t i c s o l u t i o n c l e a n i n g proved t o be more e f f e c t i v e and f a s t e r than t h e
h y d r o j e t t i n g method.

i n March 1974, San Diego resumed f i e l d t e s t work a t t h e N i l a n d

geothermal f i e l d u s i n g s c a l e models o f a new design. The f l o w diagram f o r
t h e t e s t hardware is shown i n F i g . 1 . The f l o w o f geothermal f l u i d from t h e
producing w e l l was c o n t r o l l e d a t a r a t e ranging from 50,000 t o 100,000 l b s / h r
a t v a r i o u s times d u r i n g t h e t e s t program t o map t h e separator performance.
The geothermal f l u i d s from t h e producing w e l l entered t h e f i r s t stage separa-
t o r a t 150 p s i g and 370°F f o r t h i s f l o w range. Approximately 5,000 t o
12,000 I b s / h r o f steam flowed o u t o f t h e f i r s t stage separator t o a scrubber
where i t was cleaned and then d i r e c t e d through t h e s h e l l of t h e steam heat
exchanger. The remaining b r i n e flowed from t h e bottom of t h e f i r s t stage
s e p a r a t o r t o t h e second stage separator which was operated a t 50 p s i g . An
average o f 2,300 t o 6,000 l b s / h r o f steam f l o w e d from t h e t o p of t h e second
stage s e p a r a t o r t o t h e second scrubber where i t was cleaned and then flowed
through t h e tubes o f t h e second stage heat exchanger.

F i g . 2 i s a cutaway view o f one o f t h e s e p a r a t o r s showing t h e simple

i n t e r i o r o f the vessel. Both t h e f i r s t stage and second stage separators
used i n t h i s t e s t had t h e same c o n f i g u r a t i o n . Well f l u i d e n t e r s t h e separa-
t o r a t t h e p o r t l o c a t e d i n t h e bottom and impinges on t h e vessel end dome
where a w e a r p l a t e p r o v i d e s f o r p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e vessel w a l l . Steam leaves
t h e vessel through t h e upper p o r t . B r i n e c o l l e c t s a t t h e bottom o f t h e
vessel and f l o w s t o t h e second stage s e p a r a t o r .

The t e s t determined t h a t a maximum l i q u i d l e v e l o f one q u a r t e r t o

one t h i r d o f t h e s e p a r a t o r diameter produced t h e most e f f e c t i v e separation.
The parameters found t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h i s l i q u i d l e v e l range a r e an
i n l e t mass v e l o c i t y n o t exceeding 50 f e e t per second, a steam v e l o c i t y of
no more than 5 f e e t per second and a s e p a r a t o r l e n g t h equal t o approximately

-136-
f o u r vessel diameters. T e s t r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d approximately 100 t o 200 p a r t s
per m i l l i o n o f d i s s o l v e d s o l i d s remained i n t h e steam l e a v i n g both t h e f i r s t
stage and second stage separators.

F i g . 3 shows t h e i n t e r n a l s o f t h e steam scrubbers used f o r t h e 1974

t e s t program. Steam from t h e separator e n t e r s t h e scrubber through the
lower p o r t . I t f l o w s up through f i v e t r a y s which h o l d pure water o b t a i n e d
from t h e steam condensate a t a p o i n t downstream from t h e heat exchangers.
The water c o n t a c t i n g t h e steam scrubs t h e s o l i d s e n t r a i n e d i n t h e steam.
Clean steam e x i t s a t t h e t o p , and t h e washwater, which i s c o n t i n u o u s l y added
t o t h e scrubber a t a r a t e of 0.2 g a l l o n s per hour, e n t e r s a t the top o f t h e
vessel. I t cascades from t r a y t o t r a y t o t h e d r a i n a t t h e bottom and a f t e r
l e a v i n g t h e scrubber i s recombined w i t h t h e b r i n e stream and r e i n j e c t e d i n t o
the reservoir.

During the 1974 t e s t s , t h e s o l i d s i n t h e steam l e a v i n g t h e scrubbers

were reduced t o t h e l e v e l o f 10 t o 20 ppm, which i s acceptable f o r steam
heat exchanger o p e r a t i o n .

The graphs i n F i g . 4 show t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e 1974 heat exchanger

t e s t s . The l i n e s p l o t o v e r a l l heat t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t f o r t h e f i r s t stage
and second stage heat exchangers as a f u n c t i o n o f t i m e o f o p e r a t i o n . The
1974 t e s t s accumulated t o t a l o p e r a t i n g t i m e f o r the f i r s t stage heat
exchangers o f 398 hours. While t h e f i r s t stage heat exchanger was under
t e s t , an upset o f o p e r a t i o n i n t h e scrubber occurred which r e s u l t e d i n a
h i g h c a r r y o v e r o f d i s s o l v e d s o l i d s from t h e scrubber i n t o t h e f i r s t stage
heat exchanger. T h i s c a r r y o v e r was i n excess o f 3,000 ppm f o r a p e r i o d of
approximately 37 hours d u r i n g the i n i t i a l t e s t o p e r a t i o n . An e x t r a p o l a t i o n
o f the data i n d i c a t e s t h a t , i n c l u d i n g t h e upset, t h e f i r s t stage heat
exchangers would o p e r a t e f o r about 3,200 hours b e f o r e reaching design con-
d i t i o n s r e q u i r i n g cleanup. Without t h e upset i t i s estimated t h i s heat
exchanger c o u l d o p e r a t e up t o a year b e f o r e r e q u i r i n g c l e a n i n g .

A comparable a n a l y s i s o f t h e second stage steam heat exchangers

i n d i c a t e s t h a t they w i l l o p e r a t e f o r 10,000 hours b e f o r e reaching design
heat exchange c o n d i t i o n s . T o t a l a c t u a l o p e r a t i n g t i m e f o r t h e second stage
heat exchangers was 587 hours.

The 1974 f i e l d t e s t s a t t h e N i l a n d geothermal f i e l d demonstrated

t h a t t h e technology c o u l d be developed t o handle t h e N i l a n d b r i n e s f o r pur-
poses o f e f f e c t i v e heat exchange. I t a l s o gave a good i n d i c a t i o n t h a t a
successful r e i n j e c t i o n program can be accomplished a t t h e N i l a n d geothermal
r e s e r v o i r . A t t h e s t a r t o f t h e 1974 t e s t s , t h e i n j e c t e d geothermal b r i n e
flow averaged 90,000 l b s / h r . a t an average temperature o f 165°F. I n i t i a l l y
t h e i n j e c t i o n pump d i s c h a r g e pressure r e q u i r e d was n e a r l y 400 p s i g , but
a f t e r 16 hours o f continuous pumping, t h e i n j e c t i o n pressure dropped and
b r i n e flowed i n t o t h e i n j e c t i o n w e l l by g r a v i t y . During t h e 6-month t e s t
program, i n j e c t i o n by g r a v i t y f l o w c o u l d be maintained an average of s i x
days b e f o r e i n j e c t i o n pressure g r a d u a l l y rose r e q u i r i n g another s h o r t p e r i o d
o f pumping. The f l o w was v a r i e d between 60,000 and 120,000 l b s / h r . Tempera-
t u r e was maintained i n a range between 150°F and 180°F by adding 10% i r r i g a -
t i o n water t o cool t h e h o t spent b r i n e t o prevent c a v i t a t i o n i n t h e i n j e c t i o n
Pump

-137-
 SDGGE d i r e c t e d t h e Ben H o l t Company o f Pasadena t o proceed w i t h
e n g i n e e r i n g f o r a Geothermal Test F a c i l i t y u t i l i z i n g t h e m u l t i - s t a g e steam
f l a s h process w i t h steam scrubbing and steam heat exchanger. This f a c i l i t y
i s t h e thermal loop p o r t i o n o f a 10 Mw b i n a r y e l e c t r i c g e n e r a t i o n p l a n t .
The isobutane t u r b i n e and a s s o c i a t e d generator s e t a r e s i m u l a t e d by an
expansion v a l v e i n t h e isobutane loop. F i g . 5 i s a f l o w diagram o f t h e
facility. T h i s process does n o t make use of t h e b r i n e i n heat exchangers,
b u t i n s t e a d f l a s h e s t h e b r i n e t o steam i n f o u r stages t o e x t r a c t maximum
heat. The condensate from t h e steam heat exchangers w i l l be recombined w i t h
t h e remaining b r i n e and t h e f l u i d s r e i n j e c t e d t o t h e r e s e r v o i r through two
we1 1 s .

I n 1975 t h e U.S. Energy Research and Development A d m i n i s t r a t i o n

(ERDA) e n t e r e d i n t o a j o i n t p r o j e c t agreement w i t h San Diego Gas E E l e c t r i c
Co. f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n and o p e r a t i o n o f t h e 10 MWe s i z e d geothermal loop
experimental f a c i l i t y a t N i l a n d i n t h e I m p e r i a l V a l l e y . Under t h e agreement,
c o s t s w i l l be shared 50-50 by SDGEE and ERDA. Estimated c o s t f o r t h e f a c i l -
i t y and experimental programs i s approximately $8 m i l l i o n .

SDGEE and ERDA p l a n f o r t h e completion o f t h i s f a c i l i t y i n A p r i l

1976. Using two p r o d u c t i o n and two i n j e c t i o n w e l l s , t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e
Geothermal Test F a c i l i t y should o b t a i n e s s e n t i a l d a t a t o c o n f i r m t h e design
of t h e b i n a r y power c y c l e and t o p r o v i d e a f i r s t s t e p i n t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n
of t h e N i l a n d geothermal r e s e r v o i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . SDGEE, ERDA, and o t h e r s
w i l l c o n t i n u e t o develop and t e s t equipment as w e l l as t o e s t a b l i s h r e q u i r e d
r e s e r v o i r o p e r a t i n g parameters and procedures. The goal o f t h i s program i s
t o achieve t h e conversion o f geothermal energy i n t h e I m p e r i a l V a l l e y t o
commercial e l e c t r i c energy.

-1 38-
t

I) I(
..............*.,..........._................... ...
tj

C T !

- 2 CT-
t a -

-139-
 C.

FIGURE 2 .

I --STEAM OUT
, --E------..
BEN HOLT
STEA XtWASH
WATER
1974 IN

FIGURE 3 .

- 140-
 !

-141-
 L n

-142-
 NI LAND RESERVOIR MONITORING AND EVALUATION OPERATING PROGRAM

Thomas C. H i n r i c h s
I mpe r i a 1 Magma Company
Escondido, CA. 92025

S i x w e l l s w i l l be u t i l i z e d d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n s t o m o n i t o r r e s e r v o i r
parameters. Magmamax # 1 , Woolsey 81 and p o s s i b l y l a t e r i n t h e program
Elmore # 3 w i l l be used f o r p r o d u c t i o n . Magmainax #2 and #3 w i l l be used
f o r i n j e c t i o n and Magmamax f 4 and Elmore # 3 , i n i t i a l l y , w i l l be used f o r
ob se r v a t ion.

I. A c t i v i t i e s t o be c a r r i e d o u t p r i o r t o a c t u a l s t a r t - u p o f thermal t e s t loop.

A. A l l w e l l s w i l l have temperature and p r e s s u r e surveys taken.

B. Magmamax #3 w i l l be f l o w e d i n t o a Baker tank t o o b t a i n b a s e l i n e chem-

i s t r y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e r e s e r v o i r b e i n g produced from Magmamax 153.
T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l n o t be an a c c u r a t e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f a c t u a l
r e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s i n Magmamax # 3 because c o n s i d e r a b l e i n j e c t e d
f l u i d has been p u t i n t o Magmamax f 3 i n t h e v a r i o u s small s c a l e t e s t -
i n g o p e r a t i o n s c a r r i e d on i n t h e p a s t ; however, a b a s e l i n e o f e x i s t -
i n g b r i n e c h e m i s t r y i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e r e s e r v o i r which i s pene-
t r a t e d by Magmamax # 3 w i l l be d e s i r a b l e f o r m o n i t o r i n g f u t u r e i n j e c -
t i on ope r a t i ons .
C. Magmamax #2 w i l l be f l o w e d i n t o a Baker tank a t t h e minimum r a t e
p o s s i b l e t o c l e a n t h e w e l l o u t and o b t a i n an a c c u r a t e sample o f the
produced w a t e r s t o e s t a b l i s h a b a s e l i n e p r i o r t o i n j e c t i o n o p e r a t i o n s
on b r i n e c h e m i s t r y . The a n t i c i p a t e d d u r a t i o n w i l l be one t o two
hours depending on f l o w c a p a b i l i t i e s and t h e tank h o l d i n g c a p a c i t y .
Since Magmamax 2 has n o t been p r e v i o u s l y used f o r i n j e c t i o n purposes
a good sample o f a c t u a l r e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s should occur r a t h e r
rapidly.

D. Magmamax # 1 w i l l be produced t h r o u g h t h e by-pass t o t h e b r i n e p i t

u n t i l evidence i s shown t h a t t h e w e l l i s producing a t a s t a b i l i z e d
rate. I t may be necessary t o s h u t down t h e w e l l and pump the b r i n e
p i t t o Magmamax #3 s e v e r a l times b e f o r e s t a b i l i z a t i o n occurs.

E. Woolsey # 1 w i 11 be produced on t h e same b a s i s as Magmamax # 1 u n t i 1

s t a b i l i z a t i o n has occurred.

II. I n i t i a l o p e r a t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e thermal t e s t loop.

A. During t h e f i r s t t h r e e weeks Woolsey # 1 and Magmamax #2 W i l l be l e f t

i n t h e s h u t i n c o n d i t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n i n t o t h e thermal t e s t loop
w i l l o c c u r from Magmamax # 1 a t f u l l p r o d u c t i o n capable from t h a t w e l l
and i n j e c t i o n w i l l be made i n t o Magmamax #3. During t h i s p e r i o d o f
t i m e p r e s s u r e m o n i t o r i n g w i l l be done on a continuance b a s i s as

- 7 43-
 r a p i d l y as t h e pressure m o n i t o r i n g d e v i c e can be moved from w e l l t o
w e l l i n c o r p o r a t i n g a l l s i x w e l l s i n t h e program. Pressure r e s u l t s
w i l l be logged and p l o t t e d d a i l y t o determine i f any s i g n i f i c a n t
trends a r e e s t a b l i s h e d from t h i s o p e r a t i o n .

B. A second three-week p e r i o d w i l l be c a r r i e d o u t w i t h Magmamax 1

s h u t i n and Woolsey # 1 producing i n t o t h e thermal t e s t u n i t and
Magmamax 3 c o n t i n u i n g as t h e i n j e c t i o n w e l l . The same program a s
f a r as o b s e r v a t i o n s go would be c a r r i e d o u t f o r t h i s mode.

C. An a n a l y s i s o f t h e f i r s t s i x weeks o f o b s e r v a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s w i l l
be made t o determine i f b o t h w e l l s producing i n t o t h e u n i t can be
accommodated by i n j e c t i o n i n t o Magmamax #3. I f t h i s appears t o be
f e a s i b l e then t h e c o n t i n u i n g o p e r a t i n g program would be t o produce
Woolsey kcl and Magmamax # 1 i n t o t h e thermal t e s t loop and u t i l i z e
Magmamax #3 f o r t h e t o t a l i n j e c t i o n . During t h e i n i t i a l s i x weeks
o f o p e r a t i o n Schlumberger spinner surveys w i l l be run i n t h e i n j e c -
t i o n w e l l weekly and a l s o i f p o s s i b l e i n t h e producing w e l l . Anal-
ysis o f t h e r e s u l t s o f these surveys w i l l determine t h e p e r i o d f o r
spinner surveys d u r i n g t h e ongoing o p e r a t i o n phase.

111. Ongoing o p e r a t i o n a l phase.

A. Observations o f downhole pressures w i l l be made every f o u r hours

d u r i n g t h e ongoing o p e r a t i o n a l phase. Spinner surveys and pressure
b u i l d u p d e t e r m i n a t i o n s w i l l be made p e r i o d i c a l l y based on t h e
r e s u l t s found d u r i n g t h e i n i t i a l o p e r a t i o n a l phase.

B. Operational d a t a w i l l be t r a n s m i t t e d t o DeGolyer & MacNaughton

weekly f o r a n a l y s i s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and feedback from them w i l l
come forward w i t h any suggestions as t o a d d i t i o n a l o p e r a t i o n a l
requirements.

C. When o p e r a t i o n a l changes such as f l o w r a t e s o r pressures occur t h e

m o n i t o r i n g of downhole pressures w i l l be maintained a t t h e most
r a p i d r a t e p o s s i b l e u n t i l s t a b i l i z a t i o n has occurred, and then
t h e m o n i t o r i n g w i l l go back t o t h e four- hour p e r i o d i c i n t e r v a l .

IV. General c o n s i d e r a t i o n s .

A. Much o f t h e d a t a accumulated r e l a t i v e t o t h e b r i n e c h e m i s t r y and

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i l l be p e r t i n e n t t o b o t h t h e SDGEE thermal t e s t
loop m o n i t o r i n g and t h e r e s e r v o i r o p e r a t i o n s . Samples of t h e b r i n e
and steam i n v a r i o u s l o c a t i o n s o f t h e thermal t e s t loop would be
taken p e r i o d i c a l l y and a n a l y s i s made t o determine i f t h e r e a r e any
t r e n d s i n d i c a t e d i n changes a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e b r i n e c h a r a c t e r -
i s t i c s . Another f e a t u r e which would be o f prime importance i s t h e
m o n i t o r i n g o f t h e q u a n t i t i e s o f noncondensable gases being produced
throughout t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e t e s t i n g o p e r a t i o n s . There i s some
evidence t h a t t h e carbon d i o x i d e may n o t be completely i n s o l u t i o n
w i t h t h e b r i n e s i n t h e r e s e r v o i r and we may f i n d a d r o p o f f i n carbon
d i o x i d e c o n t e n t a f t e r a c e r t a i n amount o f p r o d u c t i o n . T h i s w i l l be
monitored p e r i o d i c a l l y t o determine trends associated w i t h carbon
d i o x i d e q u a n t i t i e s being produced.

- 144-
B. From experience associated with the previous small scale testing at
Niland and other locations such as Heber, Mammoth and Brady Hot
Springs, there has been evidence indicating that the silica deposi-
tion occurs more rapidly as temperature levels are lowered. In order
to acquire detailed information in regard to this, it will be desir-
able to start the initial operations with as high a temperature
discharge to the injection system as possible which can be accommo-
dated by the thermal test loop. With the design of the thermal test
loop it is anticipated that silica deposition will likely occur in
the brine portion of the flash vessels or in the injection piping
or even into the injection well or the injected formation. There-
fore it will be desirable to start with as high an injection tempera-
ture as possible and operate continuously for several days at that
temperature, and after inspection operate with progressively lower
temperatures on a periodic basis to gain information relative to the
characteristics o f the silica deposition problem. Pressure drops
in the injection pipeline system and the injection well itself will
be monitored to establish trends which can be indications of deposi-
tion in various locations in the injection system.
C. Downhole pressure observations will be uti1 ized to determine reser-
voir characteristics to establish potential barriers in the produc-
tion zones of Magmamax 1 and Woolsey 1 and the injection zones
associated with Magmamax #2 and Magmamax # 3 . This information will
be continuously plotted with cumulated fluid production or injection
as the abscissa and pressure as the ordinate. The information will
be transmitted to DeGolyer & MacNaughton for analysis to establish
reservoir characteristics. Magmamax f 4 is completed above an identi-
fiable shale in the reservoir and the injected fluid from Magmarnax 3
will be going into the reservoir below this shale. Continuing
pressure monitoring of Magmamax 4 will provide insight into the
vertical permeability of the reservoir. Observations in Magmamax #4
may be also influence by production from Magmamax 1 and Woolsey #1
since the production zones of those two wells is in the same horizon
as the open area into the reservoir perforated in Magmamax #4.
Pressure observations will also be monitored in Elmore #3 to provide
insight relative to effects on the reservoir associated with the
production and injection operations, if any, at that location,
Pressure shutin test will be made periodically as directed by
DeGolyer & MacNaughton.

-145-
 EAST MESA RESERVOIR

Thomas L. Gould
INTERCOMP Resource Development E Engineering, Inc.
Houston, Texas 77027

INTERCOMP Resource Development and Engineering i s c u r r e n t l y working

on c o n t r a c t t o TRW Systems and t h e Bureau o f Reclamation t o p r o v i d e p e t r o -
p h y s i c a l and r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g a n a l y s i s o f t h e East Mesa geothermal
f i e l d . The twelve- month p r o j e c t was d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e phases which
consist of:

1. A n a l y s i s o f c u r r e n t data and r e s e r v o i r e v a l u a t i o n .

2. Design and e x e c u t i o n o f a l o n g term f l o w t e s t program.

3. A n a l y s i s o f r e s u l t s and design o f f u l l s c a l e r e s e r v o i r development.

The f i r s t phase o f t h e p r o j e c t i s underway and p o r t i o n s o f the work have been

completed.

There a r e c u r r e n t l y f i v e w e l l s d r i l l e d i n t h e p o r t i o n o f t h e KGRA
operated by t h e Bureau o f Reclamation: 5-1, 6-1, 6-2, 8-1, 31- 1. Each o f
these wells has a complete s e t o f geophysical l o g s r u n and a SARABAND a n a l y s i s
by Schlumberger i s a v a i l a b l e on a 1 f t . increment. I n a d d i t i o n , core analysis
was o b t a i n e d from t h e 5-1 w e l l i n s u f f i c i e n t q u a n t i t y t o develop p r e l i m i n a r y
p e t r o p h y s i c a l transforms. Using t h e transforms developed i n 5-1, INTERCOMP
has performed a p e t r o p h y s i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e o t h e r w e l l s t o determine aver-
age r e s e r v o i r p r o p e r t i e s over 250 f t . i n t e r v a l s . I n p a r t i c u l a r , we d e t e r -
mined $, h, kv and kh averages f o r each i n t e r v a l . To d a t e t h e r e has been
no g e o l o g i c c o r r e l a t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d between any o f t h e w e l l s , so t h a t p r o p e r t y
averaging by i n d i v i d u a l sand groups would n o t be meaningful.

T h i s d a t a w i l l be used by TRW Systems t o develop a g e o l o g i c i n t e r -

p r e t a t i o n o f a r e a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d r e s e r v o i r p r o p e r t i e s . These p r o p e r t i e s w i l l
then be used t o compute t h e heat and mass i n p l a c e w i t h i n a s e l e c t e d a r e a l
contour f o r each i n t e r v a l . T h i s w i l l o n l y g i v e a r e f i n e d e s t i m a t e of t h e
magnitude o f t h e resource w i t h i n t h e KGRA s i n c e a c t u a l d a t a c o n t r o l i s
l i m i t e d t o t h e r e g i o n near t h e w e l l s . A s u b s t a n t i a l p o r t i o n o f t h e KGRA has
n o t had deep w e l l s d r i l l e d t o date.

A l l o f t h e f l o w t e s t data taken t o d a t e i s a l s o being analyzed.

INTERCOMP's 3- D Geothermal Wellbore- Reservoir model i s being used t o estab
l i s h t h e e f f e c t i v e f l o w p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e system surrounding each w e l l .
Drawdown and/or b u i l d u p d a t a i s a v a i l a b l e on each w e l l and shows t h a t t h e
r e s e r v o i r exhbi t s complex f l o w behavior. We a r e i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e p o s s i b i
i t i e s t h a t t h e f l o w can be represented as a dual p o r o s i t y , f r a c t u r e d , o r
damaged system.

A 2-D model o f t h e r e s e r v o i r has a l s o been developed u s i n g a 1000 f t .

g r i d w i t h i n t h e c u r r e n t d r i l l e d area. Using e s t i m a t e d p r o p e r t i e s , a sensi-
t i v i t y a n a l y s i s i s being performed i n o r d e r t o design an e f f e c t i v e i n t e r f e r e n c e

-146-
t e s t f o r t h e r e s e r v o i r . We p l a n t o develop a t e s t i n g program t h a t can be
f e a s i b l y executed by the Bureau of Reclamation and t h a t w i l l y i e l d s u f f i c i e n t
data t o determine e f f e c t i v e r e s e r v o i r performance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s between
wells.

F i g . 1 shows a schematic o f the KGRA w i t h t h e heat f l u x contours and

test grid. F i g . 2 shows a sample pressure map a f t e r 45 days o f p r o d u c t i o n
from 6- 1 a t 600,000 l b / h r and r e i n j e c t i n g a t t h e same r a t e i n 5- 1. The p l o t
s c a l e runs from 2400 t o 2800 p s i a over t h e p l o t symbol range 0 through 10.
I n t h i s case an a q u i f e r o f i n f i n i t e e x t e n t has been attached t o a l l edges
of the g r i d . By v a r y i n g r a t e s , l o c a t i o n s , and r e s e r v o i r p r o p e r t i e s t h e
s e n s i t i v i t y o f r e s e r v o i r t o d i f f e r e n t t e s t i n g p l a n s can be determined.

The r e s e r v o i r model w i l l be c a l i b r a t e d t o match t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e

t e s t data o b t a i n e d from t h e f i e l d and an e n g i n e e r i n g design w i l l be performed
i n t h e l a s t phase o f t h i s p r o j e c t . I n p a r t i c u l a r we w i l l develop e s t i m a t e s
f o r 1 ) resource l i f e t i m e , 2) w e l l design and spacing, and 3 ) i n j e c t i o n pumping
requirements i n accordance w i t h o p e r a t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and demands of sur-
face f a c i l i t i e s . TRW and INTERCOMP w i l l be working w i t h t h e Bureau of
Reclamation t o develop t h e o p e r a t i n g p l a n s on which each o f these estimates
w i l l be based.

Reservoir L i f e t i m e Estimate

The d e f i n i t i o n o f ” r e s e r v o i r l i f e t i m e ” i s open t o i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .
However, t h e b a s i c c r i t e r i a used i n t h i s study w i l l be a minimum a l l o w a b l e
f l o w i n g wellhead temperature of 30OOF. We w i l l consider two b a s i c cases
i n which the w e l l s a r e produced by:

1. Submersible pumps which m a i n t a i n single- phase f l o w i n t h e wells.

2. Free f l o w i n which t h e f l u i d w i l l -Flash a t some p o i n t i n t h e
wellbore. Two-phase f l o w i n t h e w e l l b o r e w i l l be accounted
f o r above t h e f l a s h p o i n t .

The c a l i b r a t e d reservoir- we1 l b o r e model w i l l be used t o p r e d i c t t h e 1 i f e t

under t h e f o l l o w i n g d e l i v e r y schedules:

1. T o t a l f l o w o f 10,000 lbm/min
2. T o t a l f l o w o f 100,000 lbm/min
3. T o t a l f l o w o f 1,000,000 lbm/min

There w i l l be d i f f e r e n t l i f e t i m e e s t i m a t e s f o r each o f these cases depend

upon t h e spacing o f p r o d u c t i o n w e l l s and l o c a t i o n o f r e i n j e c t i o n w e l l s .

Well Design and Spacing

From a r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g s t a n d p o i n t w i t h water r e i n j e c t i o n a t
t h e edge of the thermal area, t h i s process i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d as a “ u n i t m o b i l -
i t y waterflood.” Under i d e a l c o n d i t i o n s , the f i r s t c o o l water breakthrough
w i l l occur a f t e r roughly 708 o f t h e o r i g i n a l water i s produced. A f t e r t h i s
P o i n t , surface temperatures w i l l g r a d u a l l y d e c l i n e u n t i l t h e 3 0 O O F l i m i t i s
reached. The t o t a l energy recovery depends upon t h e location o f r e i n l e c t i o n
wells a n d t h e r e f o r e the t o t a l volume swept.

- 147
 Maximizing energy recovery would a t f i r s t appear t o d i c t a t e r e i n j e c -
t i o n as f a r from t h e thermal area as p o s s i b l e i n o r d e r t o sweep maximum
water volume. However, t h e h i s t o r y match p e r m e a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n w i l l
d i c t a t e the a l l o w a b l e d i s t a n c e from t h e producing area i n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n
pressure. Without adequate water recharge, t h e r e s e r v o i r l i f e t i m e w i l l be
v e r y s h o r t and d i c t a t e d solely by r e s e r v o i r pressure.

S i m i l a r l y , d r i l l i n g w e l l s d i r e c t i o n a l l y from a s i n g l e l o c a t i o n for
p r o d u c t i o n would appear t o m i n i m i z e heat losses i n t h e system. However, t h i s
u s u a l l y r e s u l t s i n a reduced w e l l spacing. Under these c o n d i t i o n s , t h e i n n e r
w e l l s c o u l d i n t e r f e r e s e v e r e l y w i t h t h e o u t e r producing w e l l s and t h e r e f o r e
would be " starved." Again, t h e h i s t o r y match w i l l determine t h e minimum
a l l o w a b l e spacing f o r each o f t h e proposed p r o d u c t i o n schedules c o n s i d e r i n g
t h e environmental d e s i r a b i l i t y d r i l l i n g . The numerical model w i l l be used
i n a t r i a l and e r r o r f a s h i o n t o e s t a b l i s h t h i s spacing.

I n j e c t i o n Well Pumping Requirements

For l a r g e s c a l e developments t h e produced water must be r e i n j e c t e d

i n t o t h e producing zones i n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n r e s e r v o i r pressure. T h i s
process, i f designed p r o p e r l y , w i l l a l s o m i n i m i z e any p o s s i b l e subsidence.
The p r o d u c t i o n - i n j e c t i o n o p e r a t i o n w i l l s e t up a pressure g r a d i e n t through
t h e r e s e r v o i r which w i l l cause some subsidence w i t h i n t h e producing area.
I f a l l o f t h e produced water i s recharged by r e i n j e c t i o n t h e subsidence w i l l
be l o c a l i z e d and small i n magnitude.

The i n j e c t i o n pumping requirements a r e s t r i c t l y a f u n c t i o n o f t h e

o p e r a t i n g p l a n s under c o n s i d e r a t i o n . For each p l a n t h e r e a r e t h r e e parameters
which must be considered i n o r d e r t o e v a l u a t e t h e pumping requirements:

1. Location o f r e i n j e c t i o n wells,
2. Volumes r e i n j e c t e d p e r w e l l ,
3. P r o d u c t i v i t y index ( P I ) of each w e l l .

The volume t h a t must be r e i n j e c t e d i s dependent upon t h e o p e r a t i n g p l a n .

The l o c a t i o n o f r e i n j e c t i o n w e l l s w i l l be based upon t h e h i s t o r y match as
discussed above. The p r o d u c t i v i t y index can be e s t i m a t e d based on permeabil-
i t y , p o r o s i t y and t h i c k n e s s a t each p a r t i c u l a r r e i n j e c t i o n l o c a t i o n .

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e above work a t East Mesa, we a r e working w i t h

Republic Geothermal on t h e i r w e l l s i n t h e n o r t h end o f t h e KGRA. We a r e
a s s i s t i n g them i n the e v a l u a t i o n o f t e s t r e s u l t s and t h e design o f a t e s t -
i n g program f o r t h e n o r t h e r n end. The r e s u l t s o f t h i s work a r e c o n f i d e n t i a l
and cannot be presented a t t h i s time.

GEOPRESSURED SYSTEMS

INTERCOMP i s a c t i v e l y engaged i n f e a s i b i l i t y and g e o l o g i c s t u d i e s o f

geopressured geothermal systems. These systems c o n t a i n s u b s t a n t i a l amounts
o f d i s s o l v e d n a t u r a l gas i n a d d i t i o n t o thermal energy. F i g . 3 shows t h a t
as much as 60 s c f / B b l o f n a t u r a l gas may be d i s s o l v e d i n these a q u i f e r s . The
resource i s g e n e r a l l y l o c a t e d a l o n g t h e Texas- Louisiana Gulf Coast a t depths
o f 12,000 t o 15,000 f e e t .

-148-
 The development of this resource is dependent on many factors, but
the three most important are:

1. I s the fluid economically accessible?

2. Are the aquifers prolific enough?
3. I s the fluid technologically accessible?

We are currently conducting prospect evaluation and site selection

studies in order to develop pilot projects that will help answer these
questions. However, details of this work are confidential at this time.

NUMERICAL MODELING
INTERCOMP has developed numerical models that are used in the engin-
eering evaluation of geothermal systems. One model i s a two-phase wellbore
calculation. A second model consists o f a 3-D reservoir model for single
and two-phase flow in porous media with the wellbore model coupled in at
the sand face.

Details on the first model have been published by Gould, "Vertical

-
Two-Phase Steam-Water Flow in Geothermal Wells,'l JPT (Aug. 1974). Details
et a l . , "Three-Dimensional
on the second model were presented by Coats --
-
Simulation of Steamflooding," SPE 4500 (October, 1973). We are currently
engaged in upgrading the flexibilities and engineering features of these
models in order to meet current design requirements.

-1 49-
Figure 1
 .-

Figure 2
- PQFSSiIPF PAC,F 1 E a s t Eksa T e s t Case a t 45 days

5 5 555 55 55 55555 __- 6666666 7

555555555555 6 h h 6 (i 6 7777777777
0 5 5 5 5 5 s5!35 6fihhrJ 77777 77779
55555555 6 6_6-6- 77 88 7
55555555 6666 77 88 888
0
5555555 6666 7 7 7 8 @3 @El*
_-_____ ---
4444444 --.
- 5555555 6,663 7- 6 8 834
44C64444444444444 555555 6666 777 8 7
-. * 44444444444444444444Lb44
~_._--_______- 5555555 6666 777777777" -
G44444444444444444444444444 555554 66666 7777
- L4444444444444
---L 44G44444 55545 64666
GL4L444444 444444 55555 6666666666669
- - 444L4444 4044G 5 5 5 5 5-
-----L____
6 66666656 66 6 ----
444444 . 33333333 44444 . 55555 6666666666
44a 14
--- ..
~ 3333333 ~
3 3 3 3 3 3__ _4444_ _ - 5 5.._____._I_-
555 66-6 h,.L6----
44444 333333 33333 G444 55555s u
444a 333333 22222 33 44444 5555555
b444 33333 22 1 22 333 -4 4 4 4 4 5555555 '
--*!+5 3 3 3 3 0 2 11011 2 2 3 3 3 44444 55s5555555 it
404 3 3 3 3 3 22 1 2 2 3 3 3 3 44444 55555555555
444
- --_
333333 2 2 2 2 2 2_____ 333 44444 -
5555_55555Cj555555----
C46 333333 3333 44444 55555555555555*
44LLi 3333333 33333 444L44 55555555555555
44144 33333333333333 4444444 55555555555555

-151-
 LABORATORY MEASUREMENT OF 98.7%
METHANE GAS SOLUTION IN DISTILLED WATER
(Culberson and McKetta, 1951)
71
I I

61

5(

4(

3c

2c

'4

0
R
1000
2000 3000 5000 10.000
BUBBLE POINT PRESSURE, PSIA

Figure 3 .

-1 52-
 THE PGandE GEYSERS POWER PLANT--A UTILITY COMPANY'S VIEWPOINT

L a r a i n e J. W o i t k e
P a c i f i c Gas and E l e c t r i c Company
San F r a n c i s c o , CA. 94106

The e x i s t i n g g e n e r a t i n g c a p a c i t y o f The Geysers Power P l a n t c o n s t i -

t u t e s about 5% o f t h e t o t a l e l e c t r i c g e n e r a t i n g c a p a c i t y of t h e PGandE
system. The Geysers geothermal r e s o u r c e has and w i l l c o n t i n u e t o p l a y an
important r o l e i n our o v e r a l l planning f o r generation additions. By 1979,
f o u r more u n i t s , U n i t s 12 t o 15, r a n g i n g i n c a p a c i t y from 55,000 kW t o
135,000 kW, a r e planned t o be i n o p e r a t i o n , ailmost d o u b l i n g t h e c a p a c i t y
o f The Geysers Power P l a n t t o 908,000 kW.

Some PGandE C o n s i d e r a t i o n s as They R e l a t e

t o t h e Steam R e s e r v o i r

A t t a c h e d i s o u r conceptual schedule o f t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d f o r geo-

thermal development, from t h e e x p l o r a t i o n phase t h r o u g h t h e power p r o d u c t i o n
phase. Geothermal steam as an energy r e s o u r c e i s an economic a l t e r n a t i v e
when compared w i t h o t h e r forms o f energy such as f o s s i l and n u c l e a r . PGandE
c o n t i n u e s t o v i e w geothermal development f a v o r a b l y ; however, many o f t h e
issues and problems, e t c . , i n h e r e n t i n geothermal development a f f e c t t h e end-
u s e r o f steam as w e l l as t h e developer o f t h e resource.

PGandE, as a u t i l i t y t h a t i s r e g u l a t e d by t h e CPUC, t h e new ERCGDC,

FPC and o t h e r s , i s somewhat d i f f e r e n t from a steam developer. PGandE i s
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t a k i n g reasonable s t e p s t o p r o v i d e adequate f i r m e l e c t r i c
power t o i t s customers a t reasonable r a t e s . I n discharging t h i s responsi-
b i l i t y , t h e Company must o f course a c t w i t h i n a l l t h e a p p l i c a b l e e n v i r o n -
m e n t a l , economic, and l e g a l r e s t r a i n t s t h a t e x i s t f o r u t i l i t i e s i n C a l i f o r n i a
today. Because t h e steam developers a r e w i l l i n g and a b l e t o produce adequate
q u a n t i t i e s o f steam, and market i t a t reasonable r a t e s , PGandEhas n o t p a r t i c i -
p a t e d i n e x p l o r a t i o n and development o f t h e steam resources.

I n accordance w i t h c u r r e n t ratemaking, and o p e r a t i n g experience,

PGandE a m o r t i z e s i t s investment i n a g e n e r a t i n g u n i t and i n r e l a t e d e l e c t r i c
t r a n s m i s s i o n f a c i l i t i e s o v e r about a 30 t o 35-year p e r i o d . Adequate r e s e r -
v o i r i n f o r m a t i o n i s r e q u i r e d p r i o r t o t h e commitment o f major e x p e n d i t u r e s
f o r a power p l a n t i n o r d e r t o a s s u r e t h a t t h e r e s e r v o i r w i l l supply steam
over the l i f e o f t h e using f a c i l i t y .

PGandE p r e s e n t l y has steam s u p p l y c o n t r a c t s w i t h Union O i l Company-

Magma Power Company-Thermal Power Company, P a c i f i c Energy C o r p o r a t i o n , and
Burmah O i l and Gas Company. An i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e o f a l l o u r steam s u p p l y
c o n t r a c t s i s t h a t PGandE and t h e s u p p l i e r s agree t o accept r e s e r v o i r
e n g i n e e r i n g d a t a as a b a s i s f o r e s t i m a t i n g t h e a b i l i t y o f The Geysers steam
f i e l d t o d e l i v e r steam o v e r a long p e r i o d of time. Many o f you a r e no doubt
aware t h a t PGandE has been and c o n t i n u e s t o be g r a t e f u l f o r t h e a s s i s t a n c e
of the r e s e r v o i r engineering d i s c i p l i n e , e s p e c i a l l y here a t Stanford Univer-
s i t y , i n t h e development o f guide1 ines and procedures t h a t a r e used i n e v a l u -
a t i n g t h e geothermal r e s e r v o i r .
-1 53-
 Our c o n t r a c t s a l s o p r o v i d e t h a t as a d d i t i o n a l steam reserves a r e
proved, PGandE w i l l i n s t a l l a d d i t i o n a l g e n e r a t i n g u n i t s . Our p r e s e n t
r e s o u r c e program c a l l s f o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y 100,000 kW per y e a r . The a d d i -
t i o n a l r e s e r v e s a r e proved by b o t h s u c c e s s f u l s t e p o u t d r i l l i n g and study o f
production h i s t o r y o f e x i s t i n g wells. We a n t i c i p a t e t h a t we can b e n e f i c i a l l y
u t i l i z e any o r a l l o f f i r m l y a v a i l a b l e geothermal steam t h a t can be proved
by steam d e v e l o p e r s i n The Geysers area i n t h e f o r e s e e a b l e f u t u r e .

S t a t u s of H2S Abatement a t The Geysers

Anyone even r e m o t e l y f a m i l i a r w i t h The Geysers development must be

aware t h a t H2S emissions have been one o f t h e major f a c t o r s causing t h e
c u r r e n t reduced r a t e o f development. Because some o f you a r e a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h companies which may g e t i n t o geothermal development a t The Geysers,
l e t me t a k e a m i n u t e o r so t o b r i e f l y d e s c r i b e t h e s t a t u s o f t h e H2S abate-
ment e f f o r t s now underway.

The hydrogen s u l f i d e i n t h e geothermal steam i s p r e s e n t l y r e l e a s e d

from t h e power p l a n t i n two ways. The l a r g e r p o r t i o n o f i t d i s s o l v e s i n t h e
c o o l i n g water i n t h e d i r e c t c o n t a c t condenser and i s then s t r i p p e d o u t i n
t h e c o o l i n g tower. The remainder i s removed a l o n g w i t h o t h e r noncondensable
gases by t h e condenser o f f - g a s removal equipment, and i s discharged i n t o
t h e atmosphere.

One abatement system PGandE developed i s t h e c a t a l y t i c i r o n o x i d a t i o n

method, now i n o p e r a t i o n a t U n i t 1 1 . I t e f f e c t i v e l y reduces emissions from
b o t h t h condenser v e n t gases and c o o l i n g tower e m i s s i o n sources. This
process works t o reduce r e l e a s e s from t h e c o o l i n g tower by a d d i t i o n o f an
i r o n su f a t e c a t a l y s t t o t h e c o o l i n g w a t e r s . T h i s c a t a l y s t causes t h e o x i d a -
t i o n o f hydrogen s u l f i d e t o elemental s u l f u r . The process has been demon-
s t r a t e d t o work v e r y w e l l i n removing H2S f r o m t h e c o o l i n g tower emissions;
however t h i s method appears t o cause a c c e l e r a t e d c o r r o s i o n of u n i t comDon-
e n t s which i n t u r n can.reduce u n i t r e l i a b i l i t y and t h u s t h e amount o f skeam
we can accept from t h e producers. A l s o , t h i s process produces a s u l f u r
sludge t h a t i s n o t s a l e a b l e o r r e c l a i m a b l e , and must be disposed of i n a
specially- approved land f i l l s i t e .

Another system, which we c a l l t h e " burner scrubber" technique, i s

under t e s t a t U n i t 4. The condenser o f f - g a s e s , which c o n t a i n enough methane
and hydrogen i n a d d i t i o n t o hydrogen s u l f i d e t o be combustible, a r e burned.
T h i s r e s u l t s i n s u l f u r d i o x i d e which i s scrubbed i n t h e c o o l i n g waters.

For f u t u r e u n i t s ( s t a r t i n g w i t h U n i t 12), we p l a n t o use t h e S t r e t f o r d

system i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a s u r f a c e condenser. T h i s i s a chemical system
which reduces t h e H2S t o elemental s u l f u r .

PGandE's Concern w i t h C e r t a i n Federal Leasing R e g u l a t i o n s

As a u s e r o f geothermal steam f o r e l e c t r i c g e n e r a t i o n , PGandE i s

concerned o v e r s e v e r a l elements o f t h e f e d e r a l Geothermal Leasing Regula-
tions. One concern i s t h e requirement t h a t c e r t a i n terms of f e d e r a l leases

-1 54-
be r e n e g o t i a t e d 10 y e a r s a f t e r t h e f i r s t commercial steam i s produced.
S i n c e c a p i t a l investment i n geothermal g e n e r a t i n g f a c i l i t i e s i s a m o r t i z e d
over a 30- t o 35- year p e r i o d , t h i s p r o v i s i o n i n t h e l e a s i n g r e g u l a t i o n s
p l a c e s some doubt upon t h e wisdom o f i n v e s t i n g l a r g e c a p i t a l sums i n b u i l d -
i n g such f a c i l i t i e s when t h e steam s u p p l y i s n o t assured over a comparable
p e r i o d o f time.

Another element of concern i s t h e p r o v i s i o n t h a t a l e a s e " super-

v i s o r ' ' i s g i v e n t h e a u t h o r i t y t o c l o s e down, w i t h o u t g i v i n g n o t i c e or hear-
i n g , an e n t i r e geothermal o p e r a t i o n which he c o n s i d e r s t o be unsafe o r which
c o u l d cause p o l l u t i q n . T h i s u n i l a t e r a l a u t h o r i t y g i v e n t o one i n d i v i d u a l
a l s o p l a c e s doubt upon t h e wisdom o f making l a r g e c a p i t a l investments i n
these f a c i l i t i e s .

A t h i r d concern i s about t h e u n c e r t a i n t i e s t h a t a r e r a i s e d by t h e
g r a t u i t i o u s i n s e r t i o n i n t h e f e d e r a l leases o f a p r o v i s i o n , n o t r e q u i r e d by
t h e l e a s i n g r e g u l a t i o n s , r e s e r v i n g t o t h e government t h e r i g h t t o i s s u e
o r d e r s necessary t o " i n s u r e t h e s a l e o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n from t h e leased
lands a t reasonable p r i c e s , t o p r e v e n t monopoly, and t o safeguard t h e p u b l i c
i n t e r e s t . " What t h i s r e s e r v a t i o n does f o r s e c u r i t y o f t e n u r e and long- term
assurance o f t h e r i g h t t o o p e r a t e , d e l i v e r , and use a geothermal r e s o u r c e
i s unknown.

Concl us i o n

To sum up, PGandE b e l i e v e s t h a t e x i s t i n g and f u t u r e geothermal

development a t The Geysers has and w i l l make an i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n as
as source o f e l e c t r i c energy. I have b r i e f l y d e s c r i b e d some problem areas
o f b o t h a t e c h n i c a l and i n s t i t u t i o n a l n a t u r e t h a t we t h i n k can be s a t i s -
f a c t o r i l y r e s o l v e d i f a l l o f us i n t h e geothermal i n d u s t r y c o n t i n u e t o
a p p l y t h e necessary combination o f c r e a t i v i t y and e f f o r t . The r e s e r v o i r
e n g i n e e r i n g aspects o f t h e p r o j e c t havz p l a y e d a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n t h e
development o f t h i s i m p o r t a n t r e s o u r c e and we l o o k f o r w a r d t o t h e c o n t i n u a -
t i o n o f t h e work b e i n g d e s c r i b e d by t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s o f t h i s workshop t o
enhance o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e r e s o u r c e so t h a t i t s development can
advance i n a manner t h a t produces b e n e f i t s f o r t h e developers, u s e r s and
society a t large.

-155-
 I ; I
II ,. . i . .
1
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i

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53111Afi3V
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-1 66-
 GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIR PRESSURE REQUIREMENTS FOR PRODUCTION

J. T. Kuwada
Rogers Engineering Company
San f r a n c i s c o , CA. 94111

Rogers i s an engineering company, and as such our i n t e r e s t i n r e s e r -

v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g i s concerned w i t h t h e p r o d u c t i o n aspect. Reservoir t e s t i n g
and p r o d u c t i o n management techniques p r a c t i c e d today a r e l a r g e l y r u l e - o f -
thumb. We a r e hoping t o l e a r n from you such parameters as proper w e l l
spacing and w e l l b o r e s i z i n g f o r a g i v e n r e s e r v o i r which w i l l p r o v i d e optimum
p r o d u c t i o n and l i f e o f t h e r e s e r v o i r . We cannot c o n t r i b u t e much i n t h i s area
o t h e r than perhaps t o ask the questions which may s t i m u l a t e research and t o
r e l a t e some o f our o b s e r v a t i o n s as t o what we f i n d i s r e q u i r e d t o s a t i s f y
o u r needs. For example, i n making r e s e r v o i r modeling s t u d i e s we f e e l i t i s
v e r y important t h a t t h e chemistry o f the system be considered, p a r t i c u l a r l y
where i t i s i n d i c a t e d t h a t p r o d u c t i o n w i l l be a f f e c t e d by f l a s h i n g i n the
reservoir.

There have been instances where w e l l p r o d u c t i o n has been l i m i t e d by

r e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y r a t h e r than by w e l l b o r e diameter. When such w e l l s
a r e produced t o t h e i r maximum c a p a c i t y , t h e pressure drawdown i n the r e s e r -
v o i r exceeds t h e gas e v o l u t i o n pressure, and F l a s h i n g occurs i n the r e s e r v o i r .
I f the r e s e r v o i r s a r e i n shale o r limestone (carbonate) formations, c a l c i t e
p r e c i p i t a t i o n s can occur a t t h e p o i n t o f f l a s h i n g . Well f l o w may cease
e n t i r e l y due t o loss i n p e r m e a b i l i t y . T h i s s i i t u a t i o n has occurred i n some
o f the w e l l s d r i l l e d i n Casa D i a b l o . F l a s h i n g i n t h e f o r m a t i o n c o u l d have
been prevented by o p e r a t i n g t h e w e l l s a t a h i g h e r back pressure, b u t t h i s
would have reduced t h e w e l l f l o w t o uneconomic p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s .

The w e l l s i n K i z i l d e r e , Turkey, have h i g h f r a c t u r e p e r m e a b i l i t y , so

they can be produced a t h i g h r a t e s w i t h o u t f l a s h i n g i n t h e r e s e r v o i r . Flash-
i n g occurs i n t h e w e l l b o r e , and c a l c i t e p r e c i p i t a t i o n and p l u g g i n g occur
t h e r e and i n t h e s u r f a c e equipment.

By i n s t a l l i n g a pump i n t h e w e l l , t h e p o i n t o f f l a s h i n g can be moved

downstream of t h e w e l l b o r e and even the s u r f a c e equipment, e.g., the heat
exchangers o f a b i n a r y c y c l e p l a n t , b u t I do n o t t h i n k i t p o s s i b l e t o pre-
vent f l a s h i n g e n t i r e l y because o f t h e noncondensable gases d i s s o l v e d i n the
geothermal water. The amount o f noncondensable gases d i s s o l v e d i n geothermal
b r i n e s v a r i e s from w e l l t o w e l l , b u t most b r i n e s c o n t a i n enough gases such
t h a t they w i l l f l a s h o f f even i f t h e b r i n e s a r e cooled t o below t h e atmos-
p h e r i c s a t u r a t i o n pressure. Taking t h e KD- 14 w e l l f o r example, t h e discharge
pressure o f t h e pump would have t o be h i g h enough t o h o l d 520 p s i g through
t h e heat exchangers i n o r d e r t o h o l d t h e noncondensable gases i n s o l u t i o n ,
w h i l e i t would o n l y t a k e 230 p s i g t o p r e v e n t steam f l a s h i n g .

The pressure downstream of t h e 520 p s i g back pressure v a l v e would

be determined by t h e r e i n j e c t i o n w e l l pressure i n a t o t a l l y enclosed system.
R e i n j e c t i o n w e l l pressure requirements have been shown t o be q u i t e nominal
i n those s i t u a t i o n s i n which i t has been t r i e d , so t h e r e would be a s i g n i f i -
c a n t pressure drop across t h e back pressure v a l v e . The noncondensable gases

-157-
would evolve, and if they were not vented, the reinjection well would
become "gas-bound." Therefore, I believe it will be an exceptional case
if a binary cycle plant can be operated totally enclosed. The environ-
mental pollution advantages claimed for the closed binary cycle plant
therefore will not be real ized.
The concept of using downhole pumps t o prevent flashing by main-
taining total required pressure on the system is an expensive one, not only
in terms of the complex mechanical pump which must operate in a hot corrosive
environment, but also from the higher pressures for which the power plant
exchangers would have to designed.
We have taken another approach to the problem which we believe will
be more reliable and less expensive to operate. Our system permits the
well to produce fluids by steam flashing in the wellbore, but we prevent
calcite precipitation by recycling carbon dioxide gas down the wellbore in
sufficient quantity to maintain the carbon dioxide partial pressure in the
system and maintain the carbonates in the soluble bicarbonate form.
-
2 HCOY CQ, + H20 + C02+

+ Ca++ -+ CaCO +
3
The adaptation of the recycle C02 system to the binary cycle is shown in
Sketch No. 3 . The capital and operating costs for this system are less than
those for a pumping system utilizing long shaft well pumps. Maintenance
costs should also be less because there are no moving, mechanical parts in
the hot, corrosive environment of the wellbore.

Whether by pump or by the CO2 recycle system, the control of calcite

precipitation, we bel ieve, wi 1 1 also control the si 1 ica laydown problem.
We have run limited field tests which suggest that precipitated silica is
cemented together by the precipitation of calcium carbonate.

-1 58-
-159-
 E" EC-r
WELL

F I G U R E 2.

E INJ ECT'I O N
WELL

F I G U R E 3.

- 160-
 ON THE OPTIMAL RATE OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY EXTRACTION

Charles R. Scherer
School o f E n g i n e e r i n g and A p p l i e d Science
University o f California
Los Angeles, CA. 90024

A geothermal r e s e r v o i r i s , among o t h e r t h i n g s , a s t o c k of heat

ener'gy of a g i v e n " q u a l i t y , " s t o r e d i n an a q u i f e r system. I n t h i s study,
t h e s t o c k i s c o n s i d e r e d f i n i t e and e x h a u s t i b l e o v e r t h e r e l e v a n t economic
h o r i z o n . An i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n x p l o i t i n g t h i s resource i s t h e
i i o p t i m a l " r a t e a t which t h e energy s t o c k should be e x t r a c t e d from a p a r t i c u -
l a r geothermal anomaly. This i s p r i m a r i y an "economic" quest ion, a1 though
any meaningful c o n c l u s i o n s on an o p t i m a l e x t r a c t i o n p o l i c y must s u r e l y be
based on a s p e c i f i c model o f t h e p h y s i c a hydrothermal processes t h a t occur
I n t h e geothermal a q u i f e r . A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e purpose o f t h i s paper i s t o
out1 i n e some economic models f o r o p t i m a l e x t r a c t i o n , i n t h e context of a
p a r t i c u l a r hydrothermal model.

The d i s c u s s i o n focuses on one anomaly. The r a t e o f h y d r a u l i c pump-

jng i s t h e m a j o r d e c i s i o n v a r i a b l e , and t h e a n a l y s i s t r a d e s o f f d i s c o u n t e d
' i v a l w " o f energy from t h e anomaly a g a i n s t t h e r a t e o f d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f t h e
q u a l i t y (temperature) o f t h e heat s t o c k . A l l extracted f l u i d i s recycled,
and no d i v e r g e n c e between p r i v a t e and s o c i a l b e n e f i t s and c o s t s i s assumed.
Secondary o r i n d i r e c t r e g i o n a l b e n e f i t s and c o s t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h develop-
ment a r e n o t considered.

Two economic models a r e developed. The f i r s t i s " q u a s i - s t e a d y - s t a t e , ' '

i n t h a t t h e f l o w r a t e , Q, of f l u i d e x t r a c t i o n i s c o n s t a n t o v e r a l l r e l e v a n t
time, a l t h o u g h t h e temperature, To, o f t h e e x t r a c t e d f l u i d v a r i e s w i t h time.
The second is c o m p l e t e l y " non- steady- state," assuming b o t h Q and To v a r y w i t h
time. A major o b j e c t i v e o f these n o t e s i s t o s t a t e , as c l e a r l y as p o s s i b l e ,
t h e m a j o r assumption o f t h e s e economic models, so t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s of
hydrothermal model s e l e c t i o n can be e v a l u a t e d by p h y s i c a l model researchers.

The Hydrothermal Model

The hydrothermal model adopted f o r t h i s d i s c u s s i o n was developed by

G r i n g a r t e n and Sauty. I t assumes a pumped p r o d u c t i o n w e l l f o r a s i n g l e phase
( h o t w a t e r ) geothermal anomaly w i t h a recharge w e l l as shown i n F i g . 1
( a c t u a l l y each w e l l c o u l d r e p r e s e n t a c l u s t e r o f w e l l s ) .

F l u i d i s withdrawn a t t h e r a t e Q ( c f s ) and recharged a t t h e same r a t e .

The temperature o f e x t r a c t e d f l u i d a t t i m e t i s T ,; and recharged f l u i d e n t e r s
t h e ground a t temperature T i i n p e r i o d t . T i i s t h e temperature o f condensed
exhausted steam (on t h e c o o l s i d e o f t h e t u r b i n e ) . I t i s determined by
t u r b i n e d e s i g n and does n o t v a r y w i t h t i m e , When t h e temperature o f t h e
a q u i f e r m a t r i x has dropped t o T i , no more energy may be e x t r a c t e d .

-161-
 The recirculated fluid is heated by the aquifer matrix from Ti to To.
t
For the first T years, (0 -
< t -
< T), Th = TZ, where TZ is the initial equili-
brium temperature of the unexploited anomaly. The magnitude of T is inversely
proportional to Q:

T = f (l/Q).
The symbol T denotes time until reduced fluid temperature "breaks through"
to the production well.

After the T~~ year, To

t drops exponentially toward Ti at a rate g(Q), as
shown in Fig. 2 . In general, :
T can be written:

Tt =
0

1 T
I
t
Figure 2
The functions f and g are derived using results o f the hydrothermal model.

-1 62-
 The system i s assumed base loaded i n t o a l o c a l power g r i d . The base
l o a d energy, E(kwhr), a v a i l a b l e from t h e process i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e
p r o d u c t o f Q and (Tk - Ti)': Et = h ( Q ( T i - Ti)')
The v a l u e o f E i s determined by t h e " long- run" v a l u e t o t h e g r i d o f a kwhr of
base l o a d energy (''long-run" imp1 i e s g r i d power system c a p a c i t y as we1 1
as o p e r a t i n g c o s t s ) . T h i s v a l u e i s t h e p r i c e t h e power company i s j u s t
w i l l i n g t o pay f o r m a r g i n a l u n i t s o f baseload power. I f we denote t h i s
v a l u e as a f u n c t i o n o f time, p ( t ) , we have:

where

po = p r i c e a t t = 0.

r = r a t e o f i n c r e a s e o f baseload power system c o s t s r e l a t i v e t o

general p r i c e l e v e l ( i n o t h e r words, we a r e d e a l i n g i n " r e a l "
d o l l a r s throughout a1 1 t i m e ) .

The c o s t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e x t r a c t i o n depend on Q, TE and T i . Capacity

( i n v e s t m e n t ) c o s t s w i l l be i n c u r r e d f o r d r i l l i n g , l i n i n g o f b o t h h o l e s ,
p i p i n g , pumps, and t u r b i n e - g e n e r a t o r equipment. A f t e r L years, salvage
c o s t s a r e zero, where L equals l i f e o f equipment. O p e r a t i n c o s t s w i l l
depend on Q and an downhole pressure, which i s r e l a t e d t o T,. 9 Rate Q w i l l
determine pump c a p a c i t y and t u r b i n e c o s t s , w h i l e p r e s s u r e w i l l a f f e c t pumping
energy requirements. L e t C ( Q , To, T i ) be p r e s e n t w o r t h o f a l l c a p a c i t y c o s t s
-
(which a r e i n c u r r e d a t t = 0) an8 o p e r a t i n g c o s t s . The d i s c o u n t r a t e w i l l be
i , and we say a ( r e a l ) d o l l a r a t t i m e t = j has p r e s e n t w o r t h o f e'" a t time
t = 0.

The " Quasi- Steady- State" Model

The " Q u a s i - s t e a d y - s t a t e t ' model assumes Q i s c o n s t a n t o v e r a f i n i t e

h o r i z o n , N, where N i s an i n t e g e r m u l t i p l e , k, o f L, t h e l i f e o f t u r b i n e -
g e n e r a t o r equipment. For t h e case where k = l , n l ( Q ) , t h e t o t a l d i s c o u n t e d
n e t revenue f r o m t h e system o v e r t h e f i r s t L y e a r s , when pumping occurs a t
r a t e Q, may be w r i t t e n as:

-1 63-
When the integrals are evaluated, the resulting function can be optimized
over the pertinent range of Q:

s.t. Q 0.

In general, we can repeat this optimization for k=2,3, ...., obtaining

* * * * Then for
*
some k ,
712(42), T ~ ( Q ~ )etc.
,

and N* + (k*)L is the optimal horizon.

Although this "quasi-steady-state" approach considers horizons of

indefinite length, it is somewhat restricted, in that Q is assumed constant
for all time. A more flexible approach would allow Q to vary from year to year.

The Non-Steady-State Model

If the restriction on constant Q is relaxed, an investment timing

dimension is added to the economic model. An extraction policy is then
defined in terms of a vector of pumping rates:
-
Q = {Ql, Q2,****,QNl 9

*
where Qt is the pumping rate in the tth year. An optimal policy, , is aa
policy that maximizes the pertinent objective function, namely, discounted
net revenues. We are now considering the optimal "staged" development of
an anomaly.
The same hydrothermal model is assumed. However, the big difference
is that the fluid pumping rate, Q, can be increased in any year (at some
incremental investment and operating cost). The goal now is to find not
one Q, but a set of Q's, an investment-pumping policy that maximizes
discounted net revenues.

To do this we define system state variables, QN and To.

N

Let:

Q, = fluid pumping rate from extraction well just before beginning

of period N.
N
To = temperature of extracted fluid just before beginning of period N.
* N at beginning of
N = The optimal "value" of being in state (QN,To)
VN(QN,To)
period N. This is the present worth (as of beginning of period
.
N) of sum of net revenues in period N , N+1, N+2 ,.. . , assuming
an optimum policy is followed; that is, the sume of these get N
revenues discounted to beginning of period N is equal to VN(QNyTo).

-1 64-
 Now suppose t h a t N = 100 and thg d i s c o u n t r a t e i s l a r g e enough so t h a t t h e
p r e s e n t w o r t h i n y e a r z e r o o f Vi+,(QN+l, TN+’) i s zero. Then t h i s i s t a n t a -
0
it N
mount t o s a y i n g V N+l (Q,, To) z 0. T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t t h e p r e s e n t w o r t h a t
t i m e t = 0 o f v a l u e o f energy from t h i s anomaly a f t e r N y e a r s , i s z e r o
r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e v a l u e o f QN+l and T.! This e f f e c t i v e l y defines a horizon
o f “economic” r e l e v a n c e .

Let:

RN(QN + AQN, T: = revenues i n y e a r N from pumping (and s e l l i n g power)

a t r a t e QN + AQN and temperature T!.

= c a p i t a l investment i n y e a r N t o i n c r e a s e pumping r a t e
by AQN, assuming t e m p e r a t u r e d u r i n g t h a t p e r i o d i s T No . ”
Of c o u r s e i t i s n o t l i k e l y t h a t an o p t i m a l p o l i c y would
i n c l u d e a c a p a c i t y investment i n t h e l a s t y e a r . Never-
t h e l e s s , t h i s o p t i o n i s a v a i l a b l e i n t h i s year, a s i n a l l
t h e o t h e r N-1 years. T h i s investment c o s t would a l s o
cover incremental power t r a n s m i s s i o n c o s t s .
N
= operating c o s t d u r i n g year N associated w i t h producing
a t r a t e Q, + AQN and t e m p e r a t u r e T
.:
N
= +(QN+ AQN, T o ) , where $ ( * , * ) i s a f u n c t i o n a l e x p r e s s i o n
relating Q
N
AQN and To t o T F ’ . This t ’ t r a n s f e r ’ ’ func-
”
t i o n r e f l e c t s t h e parameters o f a n o n - s t e a d y - s t a t e
hydrothermal model. Perhaps P r o f e s s o r W i t h e r s p o o n ’ s
h y d r a u l i c a l l y steady s t a t e hydrothermal model c o u l d be
used t o e s t i m a t e p e r t i n e n t v a l u e s o f Q ( * , * ) .
Then we have:

where:
a = 1/ (l+i)

However, s i n c e V (Q TN+l) 0,
N+1’
f

N+1 o
B a s i c a l l y , t h i s says t h e b e s t v a l u e o f t h e system i n s t a t e (s,To)N a t the

b e g i n n i n g o f p e r i o d N, can be found by m a x i m i z i n g t h e e x p r e s s i o n i n A b r a c e s
o v e r a l l v a l u e s o f AQ The v a l u e o f A Q t h a t maximizes w i l l be A Q ”
N’ N N‘
Most l i k e l y AQ“ w i l l be z e r o f o r t h i s l a s t p e r i o d .
N
We f i n d AQ?’ f o r each p e r t i n e n t v a l u e o f QN, and then move back
N TO’
t o t h e b e g i n n i n g o f p e r i o d N-1, writing:

J-

T h i s i s t h e t y p i c a l two- stage o p t i m i z a t i o n problem. Assuming V i ( * , * ) has

some p o s i t i v e v a l u e , we t r a d e - o f f v a l u e of energy e x t r a c t e d i n p e r i o d N w i t h
t h a t removed i n p e r i o d N-1, as v a r i o u s v a l u 2 o f AQN-l a r e considered. T h i s
i s done f o r a l l p e r t i n e n t values o f Q R 1 and then we move back t o
N - I ’ To
p e r i o d N- 2 and r e p e a t t h e two- stage o p t i m i z a t i o n again. I f energy e x t r a c -
t i o n from t h i s anomaly i s a t a l l e c o n o m i c a l l y f e a s i b l e , a t l e a s t one o f t h e
A Q w i l l be p o s i t i v e .
t

T h i s backward s t e p p i n g r e c u r s i v e a l g o r i t h m i s then used i t e r a t i v e l y

u n t i 1 we compute V*(Qo, T:), where

Q = O

= i n i t i a l , e q u i l i b r i u m temperature o f t h e a q u i f e r .
0 -1.

We can then move forward t h r o u g h t h i s s e t o f e q u a t i o n s and f i n d , the

o p t i m a l pumping p o l i c y v e c t o r .

Proposed Uork

The n e x t s t e p i n d e v e l o p i n g these economic models i s t o q u a n t i f y t h e

f u n c t i o n s L, g, h and 4 , and o b t a i n s o l u t i o n s t o t h e models o u t l i n e d above.
Perhaps t h e most i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f these r e s u l t s would be a s e n s i t i v i t y
a n a l y s i s i n d i c a t i n g t h e r e l a t i v e importance o f t h e above f u n c t i o n s and such
parameters as t h e d i s c o u n t r a t e .

A l o g i c a l e x t e n s i o n would be t o i n v e s t i g a t e v a r i o u s geometries and

s p a c i n e ( i n p l a n view) o f p r o d u c t i o n and recharge w e l l s w i t h these economic
models. T h i s e x t e n s i o n would c o n s i d e r m u l t i p l e w e l l c l u s t e r s f o r a s i n g l e
anomaly. A more comprehensive e x t e n s i o n would i n c l u d e development o f
m u l t i p l e , h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d e p e n d e n t anomalies.

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 ECONOMIC MODELING FOR GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIRS AND POWERPLANTS

C. H. Bloomster
Battelle- Northwest
Richland, Washi’ngton 99352

Our work on r e s e r v o i r modeling i s m a i n l y f r o m a c o s t a c c o u n t i n g

s t a n d p o i n t . Our i n t e r e s t has been concerned w i t h t h e economic aspects o f
r e s e r v o i r e x p l o r a t i o n , development, and o p e r a t i o n and t h e impact o f these
a c t i v i t i e s on t h e u l t i m a t e c o s t o f geothermal energy. We have modeled t h e
above ground aspects o f d e l i v e r i n g energy f r o m geothermal w e l l s , b u t we
have t r e a t e d t h e below ground f l o w as a “ b l a c k box’’ which y i e l d s a f l u i d o f
s p e c i f i e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a t t h e wellhead. We hope t o i n c l u d e a p h y s i c a l
s i m u l a t i o n model o f geothermal r e s e r v o i r s i n o u r economic model sometime i n
t h e f u t u r e . We have developed, under ERDA sponsorship, an economic model
f o r geothermal c o s t a n a l y s i s , c a l l e d GEOCOST.

The GEOCOST computer program i s a s i m u l a t i o n model which c a l c u l a t e s

t h e c o s t o f g e n e r a t i n g e l e c t r i c i t y from geothermal energy. GEOCOST w i l l
s i m u l a t e t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f e l e c t r i c i t y from most t y p e s o f geothermal resources.
I t i s composed o f two p r i n c i p a l p a r t s : a r e s e r v o i r model which s i m u l a t e s t h e
e x p l o r a t i o n , development, and o p e r a t i o n o f a geothermal r e s e r v o i r , and a
p o w e r p l a n t model w h i c h s i m u l a t e s t h e d e s i g n , c o n s t r u c t i o n , and o p e r a t i o n o f
t h e powerplant. F i v e d i f f e r e n t powerplant t y p e s can be s i m u l a t e d : flashed
steam, b i n a r y f l u i d c y c l e , a h y b r i d combined f l a s h e d steam- binary f l u i d
c y c l e , t o t a l flow, and geopressured r e s e r v o i r s .

S e n s i t i v i t y a n a l y s i s can be performed, u s i n g t h e r e s e r v o i r and

p o w e r p l a n t models, t o d e t e r m i n e t h e r e l a t i v e e f f e c t of d i f f e r e n t economic
parameters, assumptions, and u n c e r t a i n t i e s on t h e c o s t o f g e n e r a t i n g e l e c -
t r i c i t y . The GEOCOST program can be used t o :

d e t e r m i n e t h e economic i n c e n t i v e s f o r s p e c i f i c geothermal
r e s e a r c h and development programs and p r o j e c t s .

d e t e r m i n e p o t e n t i a l economic impacts o f u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n technology.

i d e n t i f y m a j o r c o s t components o f geothermal energy, and

p r o v i d e a s y s t e m a t i c method f o r assessing t h e economic p o t e n t i a l

f o r each t y p e of geothermal r e s o u r c e and power c y c l e .

Combined w i t h r e s o u r c e assessment i n f o r m a t i o n , GEOCOST can be used

t o d e f i n e t h e p o t e n t i a l s u p p l y c u r v e ( p r i c e / q u a n t i t y r e l a t i o n s h i p ) f o r geo-
thermal energy. T h i s s u p p l y c u r v e forms t h e b a s i s f o r : 1) a s s e s s i n g t h e
p o t e n t i a l r o l e o f geothermal energy i n c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h o t h e r sources o f
energy, and 2) e s t i m a t i n g p o t e n t i a l economic i n c e n t i v e s f o r new r e s e a r c h
and development programs.

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 GEOCOST can s i m u l a t e n e a r l y any f i n a n c i a l and t a x s t r u c t u r e t h r o u g h
v a r y i n g t h e r a t e s o f r e t u r n on e q u i t y and d e b t , t h e d e b t - e q u i t y r a t i o s , and
tax rates. The r e s e r v o i r model and t h e p o w e r p l a n t model may have t h e same
o r s e p a r a t e f i n a n c i a l s t r u c t u r e s and c o s t s of c a p i t a l . The p l a n t and
r e s e r v o i r l i f e can be v a r i e d o v e r a l o n g p e r i o d , c u r r e n t l y up t o 50 years.

The GEOCOST program c a l c u l a t e s t h e c o s t o f energy based on t h e p r i n -

c i p l e t h a t t h e p r e s e n t w o r t h o f t h e revenues w i l l be equal t o t h e p r e s e n t
w o r t h of t h e expenses i n c l u d i n g investment r e t u r n o v e r t h e economic l i f e
o f t h e p l a n t and/or r e s e r v o i r . The p r e s e n t w o r t h f a c t o r i s determined by
t h e c a p i t a l s t r u c t u r e and r a t e s o f r e t u r n on i n v e s t e d c a p i t a l f o r t h e
enterprise.

The r e s u l t s o f a n a l y s e s u s i n g t h e GEOCOST model have shown t h a t t h e

r e s e r v o i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e f l u i d temperature, w e l l f l o w
r a t e , and w e l l d r i l l i n g and f l u i d e x t r a c t i o n c o s t s , a r e t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t
v a r i a b l e s w h i c h w i l l d e t e r m i n e t h e c o s t of geothermal energy.
 PHYSICAL MODELS OF STIMULATED GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIRS

Paul Kruger
C i v i 1 E n g i n e e r i n g Department
S t a n f o r d Un i v e r s i t y
S t a n f o r d , CA 94305

As p a r t o f t h e geothermal energy program a t S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y ,

p h y s i c a l models have been developed t o e v a l u a t e optimum performance o f
f r a c t u r e - s t i m u l a t e d geothermal r e s e r v o i r s . Three such e f f o r t s r e p o r t e d
i n t h i s summary a r e : l a b o r a t o r y s i m u l a t i o n o f an explosion- produced
r u b b l e chimney t o o b t a i n e x p e r i m e n t a l data on t h e e x t r a c t a b i l i t y o f heat
from h o t r o c k by i n - p l a c e b o i l i n g ; h e a t and mass t r a n s f e r t r a n s i e n t s w i t h
i n d i v i d u a l porous r o c k fragments t o compare t h e i r r e l a t i v e importance i n
s t i m u l a t e d systems; and measurement o f radon emanation from geothermal
r e s e r v o i r s as a t r a c e r f o r r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g s t u d i e s . Definitive
progress has been achieved w i t h each o f these p h y s i c a l models.

Hunsbedt, Kruger, and London (19 Sa) r e p o r t e d t h e progress on t h e

c o n s t r u c t i o n and o p e r a t i o n o f a 1 9 - f t . 3 l a b o r a t o r y model o f an e x p l o s i o n -
produced r u b b l e chimney (shown i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n mode i n F i g . 1.5) t o study
t h e processes o f i n - p l a c e b o i l i n g , moving f l a s h f r o n t s , and two-phase f l o w
i n porous and f r a c t u r e d hydrothermal r e s e r v o i r s , I t had been noted by Ramey,
Kruger, and Raghavan (1973) t h a t a1 though c o n s i d e r a b l e energy i s a v a i l a b l e
from hydrothermal resources, most o f t h i s energy i s s t o r e d i n t h e a q u i f e r
h o s t r o c k . P r o d u c t i o n by some nonisothermal process, such as i n - p l a c e b o i l -
i n g o r c o l d e r f l u i d r e c i r c u l a t i o n , m i g h t be v a l u a b l e f o r i n c r e a s i n g heat
e x t r a c t i o n from n a t u r a l o r s t i m u l a t e d hydrothermal o r h o t r o c k geothermal
resources.

Recent r e s u l t s by Hunsbedt, Kruger, and London (1975b) show t h a t heat

e x t r a c t i o n o b t a i n e d by p r e s s u r e r e d u c t i o n w h i c h a l l o w s b o i l i n g t o o c c u r i n
t h e r u b b l e chimney r e s u l t e d i n r o c k energy e x t r a c t i o n f r a c t i o n s i n excess o f
0.75 under v a r i o u s e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s . The degree o f r o c k energy
e x t r a c t e d depended on such parameters as h e i g h t o f l i q u i d l e v e l , e x t e n t o f
condensed steam r e f l u x , r a t e and temperature o f c o o l e r - w a t e r recharge, and
r o c k t o steam temperature d i f f e r e n c e which i n t u r n depends on r o c k p a r t i c l e
s i z e and cooldown r a t e . I n t h i s h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y f r a c t u r e d r o c k system,
r e c o v e r y o f a v a i l a b l e thermal energy ranged from 1.25 t o 2.58 times t h e
energy e x t r a c t a b l e by f l a s h i n g t h e i n i t i a l i n - p l a c e f l u i d alone. Parameters
noted t o a f f e c t t h e e x t e n t o f heat r e c o v e r y i n c l u d e d t h e e x t e r n a l heat t r a n s -
f e r parameter, r o c k p o r o s i t y , i n i t i a l r e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s and e n t h a l p y o f t h e
recharge f l u i d . P r e d i c t i v e models were developed f o r t h e l a b o r a t o r y model
system based on mass-energy balance f o r comparison w i t h t h e experimental
data. Agreement was s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r these experiments, o t h e r than recharge
w i t h c o o l water which produced n o n - u n i f o r m i t y i n t h e a x i a l temperature
d i s t r i b u t i o n . E v a l u a t i o n o f t h e r e s u l t s from t h e l a b o r a t o r y model a r e
underway t o s c a l e t h e parameters t o r e a l - s i z e s t i m u l a t e d r e s e r v o i r s .

A second p h y s i c a l model was developed t o examine m i c r o s c a l e processes

o f mass and heat t r a n s f e r i n f r a c t u r e s t i m u l a t e d r e s e r v o i r s , based on two
types o f v o i d space: macropores, d e f i n e d as v o i d volume between r o c k

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fragments; and micropores, defined as pore space inside individual rock
fragments. The importance of mass transfer between hot geofluid in micro-
pores and colder circulating fluids in macropores on heat extraction rates
from fractured geothermal reservoirs was investigated. In the physical
model, both mass transfer, using HTO as a tracer for the micropore water,
and heat transfer, using a sensitive quartz thermometer, from artificial
porous spheres were measured under similar experimental conditions.

Kuo, Brigham, and Kruger (1975) compared the molecular diffusivity

associated with mass transfer as a function o f porosity with the thermal
diffusivity associated with heat transfer as a function of mixing rate.
They noted that the ratio of the effective molecular diffusion and thermal
diffusion coefficients was about 3x10-4, indicating that even for very
porous fragments heat transfer is a much more rapid process than mass trans-
fer. Analytical models for the heat and mass transfer transients for
spherical rocks agree with these indications, but suggest that a film
coefficient in the model is desirable. Efforts are underway to investigate
heat transfer transients for irregular shaped rocks.

Radon has been shown by Stoker and Kruger (1975) and Kruger and Umana
(1975) to have potential as an internal tracer for reservoir engineering
studies because of a unique combination of nuclear, chemical, and physical
properties, its emanating power in geothermal reservoirs, and its transport
characteristics in hydrothermal fluids. Interest in radon in geothermal
reservoirs developed as a potential means to evaluate the creation of new
surface area by reservoir stimulation techniques, such as hydraul ic, thermal-
stress, and explosive fracturing, and concern about the environmental release
of radon and its short-1 ived radioactive products. However, since stimulated
reservoirs are not available for testing, studies were concentrated on the
emanation properties of radon in existing production geothermal we1 s as
a function of steady-state and transient flow rate.

Radon concentration in geothermal fluids is noted to vary not only by

resource type but also within individual wells in a given geotherma field.
Temporal variations at steady flow rate are within useful limits. Models
have been initiated to examine the dependence of radon concentration on flow
rate, with a vertically linear model for vapor dominated systems and a
horizontal radial model for liquid dominated systems. An initial test at
the Geysers steam field, Shawn in Figure 2 , indicates a transient reduction
in radon concentration to about half value over the three-week period following
an instantaneous reduction in flow rate to half value. An excursion in radon
concentration was noted during the onset of a period of seismic activity in
the region. Additional tests at this field and similar tests at other steam
fields and some hot water fields are being planned to evaluate the relation-
ship of radon concentration under reservoir transient conditions.

-1 70-
REFERENCES

Hunsbedt, A . , Kruger, P., and London, A.L., " Laboratory S t u d i e s o f

S t i m u l a t e d Geothermal R e s e r v o i r s , " Proceedings, Second U n i t e d
N a t i o n s Symposium on t h e Development and Use o f Geothermal
Resources, May 19-29, 1975, San F r a n c i s c o , CA, i n Press. (See
a l s o S t a n f o r d Geothermal Program T e c h n i c a l Report No. SGP-TR-7,
1975a,)

Hunsbedt, A., Kruger, P., and London, A.L., " Laboratory S t u d i e s o f

S t i m u l a t e d Geothermal R e s e r v o i r s , " S t a n f o r d Geothermal Program
T e c h n i c a l Report No. SGP-TR-11, 1975b.

Kruger, P., and Umana, A., "Radon i n Geothermal R e s e r v o i r Engineering,"

Proceedings, A p p l i c a t i o n o f Nuclear Techniques t o Geothermal S t u d i e s ,
I n t e r n a t i o n a l Atomic Energy Agency, P i s a , I t a l y , September, 1975,
i n Press.

Kuo, M.C.T., Brigham, W.E., and Kruger, P., "Heat and Mass T r a n s f e r i n
Porous Rock Fragments," S t a n f o r d Geothermal Program Technical
Report No. SGP-TR-IO, 1975.

Ramey, H.J., J r . , Kruger, P., and Raghavan, R., I 1 E x p l o s i v e S t i m u l a t i o n

o f Hydrothermal R e s e r v o i r s , ' ' Chapter 13 i n Geothermal Energy,
Eds., Paul Kruger and Care1 O t t e , S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1973.

S t o k e r , A., and Kruger, P., "Radon i n Geothermal Reservoirs," Proceedings,

Second U n i t e d N a t i o n s Symposium on t h e Development and Use o f
Geothermal Resources, May 19-29, 1975, San F r a n c i s c o , C A , i n Press.
(See a1 so S t a n f o r d Geothermal Program T e c h n i c a l Report No. SGP- TR- 4,
1975.)

-1 71 -
 -Accumk(or
1

F i g u r e 1.a Diagram of Chimney Model System -

Heating Mode Operation

Figure 1.b Diagram of Chimney Model System -

Fluid Production Mode Operation

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 25
-Flowrate

-
= -100,000 kglhr -v Flowrate = - 50,000 kg/hr

.4

Y
Y 0
20
0
i=
U
LT
15
W
0
Z
10
z
Q
a 5 Magnitude of Regional Earthquake Activity

T T -
0 1 I I T T I T T TTT I I I
1

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 4'5
TIME AFTER START OF E X P E R I M E N T (days 1

Figure 2 Radon c o n c e n t r a t i o n as a f u n c t i o n o f flow r a t e . Solid lines

a r e t h e mean values over t h e f l o w r a t e p e r i o d . Broken l i n e s
r e p r e s e n t one standard d e v i a t i o n . Also shown i s t h e magnitude
o f r e g i o n a l earthquake a c t i v i t y on t h e R i c h t e r s c a l e .

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 HYDRAULIC-FRACTURE GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIR ENGINEERING

H. D. Murphy
Los Alamos S c i e n t i f i c L a b o r a t o r y
University o f California
Los Alamos, New Mexico 87544

The Dry Hot Rock Geothermal Energy Program b e i n g conducted by t h e

Los Alamos S c i e n t i f i c L a b o r a t o r y has been d e s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l by Smith
e t a1.l B a s i c a l l y we have proposed t h a t man-made geothermal energy
r e s e r v o i r s can be c r e a t e d by d r i l l i n g i n t o r e l a t i v e l y impermeable r o c k
t o a depth where t h e temperature i s h i g h enough t o be u s e f u l ; c r e a t i n g
a l a r g e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e ; and then c o m p l e t i n g t h e c i r c u l a t i o n l o o p by
d r i l l i n g a second h o l e t o i n t e r c e p t t h e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e .

Thermal power i s e x t r a c t e d from t h i s system by i n j e c t i n g c o l d w a t e r

down t h e f i r s t h o l e , f o r c i n g t h e w a t e r t o sweep by t h e f r e s h l y exposed
h o t r o c k s u r f a c e i n t h e r e s e r v o i r / f r a c t u r e system, and then r e t u r n i n g
t h e h o t water t o t h e s u r f a c e where t h e energy i s removed from t h e water
by t h e a p p r o p r i a t e power p r o d u c i n g equipment. System pressures a r e
m a i n t a i n e d such t h a t o n l y one phase, l i q u i d w a t e r , i s p r e s e n t i n t h e
r e s e r v o i r and t h e d r i l l e d h o l e s .

I n t h e d i s c u s s i o n t o f o l l o w , t h e b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t s o f thermal s t r e s s
c r a c k i n g , a n t i c i p a t e d because o f t h e c o o l i n g and thermal c o n t r a c t i o n o f
t h e r o c k , w i l l be ignored. I n s t e a d , i t w i l l be assumed t h a t t h e f l u i d
f l o w i s e n t i r e l y c o n f i n e d t o t h e gap between t h e impermeable r o c k s u r -
faces and t h a t heat i s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h i s f l u i d o n l y by means o f thermal
conduction through t h e s o l i d rock.

RESERVOIR FEATURES AND EXPECTED PERFORMANCE

Based upon t h e t h e o r y o f e l a s t i c i t y and b r i t t l e m a t e r i a l f r a c t u r e

mechanics 2 , we i d e a l i z e t h e f r a c t u r e as b e i n g c i r c u l a r w i t h a f r a c t u r e
gap w i d t h , w, which v a r i e s e l 1 i p t i c a l l y w i t h r a d i u s . The maximum f r a c t u r e
w i d t h i s e x t r e m e l y small compared t o t h e maximum f r a c t u r e r a d i u s , R; a
t y p i c a l v a l u e b e i n g 3 mm (1/8 i n . ) f o r a r a d i u s o f 500 m (1640 f t ) .
Furthermore, s i n c e t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e l e a s t p r i n c i p a l e a r t h s t r e s s i s
expected t o be h o r i z o n t a l , we a n t i c i p a t e t h a t t h e f r a c t u r e p l a n e w i l l be
v e r t i c a l l y o r i e n t e d , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t f l u i d buoyancy e f f e c t s may be i m -
portant.

The maximum thermal power t h a t can be e x t r a c t e d from t h e r o c k

s u r f a c e occurs when t h e e n t i r e r o c k s u r f a c e i s suddenly and u n i f o r m l y
lowered i n temperature from i t s i n i t i a l value, T r , t o t h e c o l d water
i n j e c t i o n temperature, T.. T h i s power, E, i s g i v e n as a f u n c t i o n o f
I
time, t, b y 3

-174-
where A , p s , and c s a r e t h e thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y , d e n s i t y , and s p e c i f i c
h e a t c a p a c i t y o f t h e rock. Because t h e thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e r o c k
i s s m a l l , i t can be shown t h a t r a t h e r l a r g e f r a c t u r e r a d i i a r e r e q u i r e d
t o produce s i g n i f i c a n t amounts o f power f o r reasonable p e r i o d s o f t i m e .
For example, i f t h e t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e , T r - T i , i s 200°K, a 500 m
f r a c t u r e i s r e q u i r e d i f one wishes t o be a b l e t o produce a t l e a s t 25 HW(t)
c o n t i n u o u s l y f o r 10 y e a r s . To c o n t i n u e t h i s same example, i t can be shown3
t h a t even a f t e r 10 y e a r s t h e i n i t i a l r o c k temperature i s d i m i n i s h e d l e s s
t h a n 5% for d i s t a n c e s o f 40 m o r more away from t h e f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e .
Thus, i t i s seen t h a t h e a t i s b e i n g removed from t h e r o c k o n l y i n a
r e l a t i v e l y narrow zone immediately a d j a c e n t t o t h e f r a c t u r e , and we
conclude t h a t even f o r more c o m p l i c a t e d examples, where t h e s u r f a c e
t e m p e r a t u r e i s n o t u n i f o r m , t h e c o n d u c t i o n i n t h e r o c k w i l l be e s s e n t i a l l y
one d i m e n s i o n a l ; p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e p l a n e o f t h e c r a c k .

A s i m p l e h e a t b a l a n c e shows t h a t t h e minimum w a t e r f l o w r a t e , Q,
r e q u i r e d t o produce t h e power i s g i v e n by

where p and c a r e t h e d e n s i t y and s p e c i f i c h e a t c a p a c i t y of w a t e r .

U s i n g t y p i c a l v a l u e s i t can be shown t h a t o u r 25 MW(t) example w i l l
r e q u i r e a minimum f l o w r a t e o f 0.03 m3/sec ( 1 f t 3 / s e c o r 500 gpm).
S i n c e t h i s f l o w i s c o n f i n e d w i t h i n t h e v e r y narrow f r a c t u r e , t h e
w a t e r v e l o c i t i e s w i l l be o f t h e o r d e r o f 0.02 m/sec (0.07 f t / s e c ) ;
q u i t e h i g h compared t o , say, t h e u s u a l f l o w v e l o c i t i e s t h r o u g h porous
media, and we c o n c l u d e t h a t h e a t t r a n s p o r t due t o f l u i d c o n d u c t i o n i s
n e g l i g i b l e compared t o f l u i d c o n v e c t i o n .

RESERVOIR SIMULATION MODELS

F l u i d f l o w and f l u i d h e a t t r a n s p o r t a r e i d e a l i z e d as b e i n g two
dimensional, i n t h e plane of t h e f r a c t u r e . The h o r i z o n t a l c o o r d i n a t e
i s taken as x, t h e v e r t i c a l c o o r d i n a t e as y . S o l i d rock conduction
takes p l a c e a l o n g t h e z - c o o r d i n a t e , p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e x-y plane.
U s i n g D a r c y ' s law w i t h a p e r m e a b i l i t y f o r an open f r a c t u r e o f w2 , -
t h e x and y d i r e c t i o n v e l o c i t i e s become 12

-1 75-
where t h e e x t r a term i n t h e e q u a t i o n f o r v r e p r e s e n t s t h e e f f e c t s of
buoyancy. Making t h e Boussinesq a p p r o x i m a t i o n t h e equations o f c o n s e r v a t i o n
o f mass and energy i n t h e f l o w i n g w a t e r a r e

aT
pcwu -
ax
+ aT -
pcwv - 2 e = O
aY
. (4)

F i n a l l y the rock conduction equation i s

s u b j e c t t o t h e i n i t i a l and boundary c o n d i t i o n s

The a d d i t i o n a l nomenclature i s as f o l l o w s :

w = fracture width
P = pressure
1-1 = viscosity

p = r e f e r e n c e w a t e r d e n s i t y ( e v a l u a t e d a t To)
T = r e f e r e n c e temperature
0
T = temperature o f t h e f l u i d
g = a c c e l e r a t i o n of g r a v i t y
B = v o l u m e t r i c expansion c o e f f i c i e n t o f w a t e r
8 = temperature o f t h e r o c k
e = t h e f l u x of energy d e l i v e r e d t o t h e w a t e r by one r o c k
surface;
ae
e v a l u a t e d as e ( t ) = X-(x,y,z=O,t).
az
Equations (3) through (8) r e p r e s e n t a c o n s i d e r a b l e simp1 i f i c a t i o n
o f t h e e q u a t i o n s f i r s t proposed i n t h e p i o n e e r i n g work o f Harlow and P r a c h t 4
and c o n t i n u e d by M ~ F a r l a n d . ~These w r i t e r s had a t t h e i r d i s p o s a l v e r y

-1?6-
powerful numerical method~logies~,~ which made it convenient to include
advection as well as transient terms in Eq. (3), and conduction and
transient terms in Eq. (4). By formal nondimensional ization and rational-
ization of the complete equations it can be shown* that these additional
terms are negligible for calculations of practical interest.

At present the solution procedure consists of first solving the

rock conduction Eq. (5), with Eqs. (6) through (8>, via Duhamel Is super-
position integral ,9 and then differentiating the result to evaluate e.
Thus

This solution for e is substituted into Eq. (4). One then has a
set of two coupled, nonl inear, time varying, integro-differential equations
for T and P. This set of equations is then solved numerically via finite
difference analogues to the real equations. 8

REFERENCES

1. M. C. Smith, R. L. Aamodt, R. M. Potter, and D. W. Brown,

"Man-Made Geothermal Reservoirs," Second United States
Geothermal Energy Symposium, San Francisco, CA, May 19-29, 1975.

2. T. K. Perkins and L. R. Kern, "Widths of Hydraulic Fractures,"

J . Pet. Tech, 937-949 (September 1961).

3. H. S . Carslaw and J . C. Jaeger, Conduction of Heat in Solids

(Oxford University Press, 2nd Edition, 19591, pp. 58-62.

4. F. H. Harlow and W. E . Pracht, "A Theoretical Study of Geothermal

.
Energy Extraction , I ' J . Geophys Res. -77 ( 1972).
5. R. D. McFarland, "Geothermal Reservoir Models--Crack Plane Model,"
Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory report LA-5947-MS (Apri 1 1975).
6. A. A. Amsden and F. H. Harlow, "The SMAC Method: A Numerical Technique
for Calculating Incompressible Fluid Flow," Los Alamos Scientific
Laboratory report LA-4370 (1970).

7. A. D. Gosman and W. M. Pun, "KASE Problems for the Teach Computer

Programs,'' Imperial College of Science and Technology, London, U.K.
report HTS/74/3 (January 1973).
8. H. D. Murphy, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, unpublished data, 1975.
9. H. S . Carslaw and J. C. Jaeger, Conduction of Heat in Solids (Oxford
University Press, 2nd Edition, 19591, p. 30.

-177-
 MODEL EXPERIMENTS IN HYDRAULIC FRACTURE
J. Dundurs
C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g Department
Northwestern U n i v e r s i t y
Evanston, I l l i n o i s 60201

H y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o f r o c k cannot be seen i n s i t u , and t h e end

r e s u l t must m o s t l y be judged on b a s i s o f roundabout evidence. As t h e r e
i s no q u e s t i o n about t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f v i s u a l o b s e r v a t i o n s and d i r e c t
measurements, t h e o n l y way o u t o f t h e dilemma seems t o l i e i n e x p e r i m e n t a l
models. T h i s p a r t o f t h e work c a r r i e d o u t a t N o r t h w e s t e r n U n i v e r s i t y i s
t h e r e f o r e d i r e c t e d toward t h e development o f s u i t a b l e e x p e r i m e n t a l
t e c h n i q u e s and t r a n s p a r e n t l a b o r a t o r y models t h a t c o u l d be used t o s i m u l a t e
t h e v a r i o u s problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d r i l l i n g i n t o h a r d impermeable r o c k
and f r a c t u r i n g i t f o r energy e x t r a c t i o n .

The m a t e r i a l s e l e c t e d f o r t h e t r a n s p a r e n t models i s epoxy r e s i n

(Epon 828 r e s i n w i t h p h t h a l i c a n h y d r a t e h a r d e n e r ) . This material i s
commonly used f o r t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l p h o t o e l a s t i c experiments w h i c h employ
t h e s t r e s s f r e e z i n g t e c h n i q u e . The p r i n c i p a l reason f o r u s i n g t h i s m a t e r i a l ,
a t l e a s t f o r t h e p r e s e n t , i n s t u d i e s o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e i s t h a t i t can
be c a s t i n t o l a r g e b l o c k s w i t h r e l a t i v e ease i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y . The o n l y
equipment needed f o r t h i s purpose i s a c u r i n g oven w i t h a c c u r a t e t e m p e r a t u r e
control.

The model c o n s i s t s o f a b l o c k o f t h e t r a n s p a r e n t epoxy r e s i n . A

h o l e i s d r i l l e d i n t o t h e b l o c k , and s t a i n l e s s s t e e l t u b i n g i s cemented
i n t o t h e h o l e . The t u b e t e r m i n a t e s a t about t w o d i a m e t e r s from t h e b o t t o m
o f t h e h o l e . The s t a i n l e s s s t e e l t u b i n g used i s 0.063 i n . OD, 0.018 i n .
w a l l a n d i s capable o f w i t h s t a n d i n g p r e s s u r e s up t o 36000 p s i . The h o l e
i s d r i l l e d and reamed so t h a t t h e r e i s about 0.002 i n . r a d i a l c l e a r a n c e
between t h e b l o c k m a t e r i a l and t h e tube. The d r i l l i n g o f a c c u r a t e h o l e s
i n t h e epoxy r e s i n i s a t e d i o u s o p e r a t i o n because o f t h e l a r g e l e n g t h , say
4 i n . , i n comparison t o t h e d i a m e t e r .

A s p e c i a l t e c h n i q u e had t o be developed f o r cementing t h e s t a i n l e s s

s t e e l t u b i n g i n t o t h e model b l o c k . F i r s t a p o o l o f t h e cement i s p l a c e d
on t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e b l o c k around t h e t u b e . Then a f i x t u r e i n t h e form
o f a cup i s a t t a c h e d t o t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e b l o c k . The f i x t u r e s e a l s
a g a i n s t s u r f a c e o f t h e b l o c k , b u t connects t h e end c f the t u b e t o t h e
atmosphere. Next t h e space between t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e b l o c k and t h e cup-
l i k e f i x t u r e i s p r e s s u r i z e d t o about 40 p s i . T h i s d r i v e s t h e cement from
t h e pool i n t o t h e c l e a r a n c e between t h e h o l e and t h e tube. The f l o w i s
r a t h e r slow because o f t h e h i g h v i s c o s i t y o f t h e cement and t h e small
c l e a r a n c e , and i t can be observed v i s u a l l y from t h e change i n c o n t r a s t .
F i n a l l y , t h e p r e s s u r e i s removed b e f o r e t h e cement has a chance t o f l o w
i n t o t h e t u b e and p l u g i t .

I n cijse t h e i n i t i a l o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e must be
c o n t r o l l e d , as i n experiments i n t e n d e d t o s t u d y t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between
t w o h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s , a small penny-shape c r a c k i s i n t r o d u c e d a t t h e

-178-
b o t t o m o f t h e h o l e b e f o r e cementing t h e t u b i n g i n t o t h e h o l e , The b e s t
means o f p r e f r a c t u r i n g was found t o be p r e s s i n g a r o d t h a t f i t s i n t o t h e
h o l e and i s sharpened t o a wedge a g a i n s t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e h o l e .

The f l u i d used i n t h e f r a c t u r e experiments i s mercury. There a r e

two reasons f o r choosing mercury: F i r s t , i t s h i g h b u l k modulus minimizes
t h e energy s t o r e d b e h i n d t h e f r a c t u r e as i t i s i n i t i a t e d , and thus a v o i d s
c a t a s t r o p h i c g r o w t h i n t h e i n i t i a l stages. Second. t h e f r a c t u r e s f i l l e d
w i t h mercury a r e p e r f e c t l y v i s i b l e .

Several experiments have been done on t h e i n t e r a c t i o n and j o i n i n g of

two h y d r a u l i c a l l y induced f r a c t u r e s . The observed i n t e r a c t i o n and t h e
subsequent b e h a v i o r o f such c r a c k s a f t e r j o i n i n g i s q u i t e f a s c i n a t i n g . For
i n s t a n c e , t h e i n t e r a c t i o n was seen t o be v e r y s t r o n g f o r c r a c k s i n p a r a l l e
planes. Such c r a c k s were observed t o have t h e tendency t o j o i n and c u r v e
s h a r p l y toward each o t h e r . The g r o w t h a f t e r j o i n i n g l e d t o v e r y i n t r i c a t e
t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l shapes. I t was a l s o seen t h a t , i f one c r a c k i s k e p t a t
c o n s t a n t volume and t h e second made t o expand, t h e shape o f t h e f i r s t c r a c k
changes as t h e second f r a c t u r e approaches i t . I n f a c t , i t was observed
t h a t under t h e s e circumstances t h e f i r s t f r a c t u r e may even c l o s e o v e r p a r t
of i t s extent.

-179-
 ANALYTICAL STUDY OF CRACK GROWTH AND SHAPE BY
HYDRAUL I C FRACTURI NG OF ROCKS

T. Mura, L. M. Keer, and H. Ab6

Department o f C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g
Northwestern U n i v e r s i t y
Evanston, I 1 1 i n o i s 60201

Crack shape, o r i e n t a t i o n , s i z e and g r o w t h due t o h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g

w i l l be i n v e s t i g a t e d as a problem i n t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l e l a s t i c i t y t h e o r y .
Since t h e opening of t h e c r a c k by h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e , t h e p r e s s u r i z i n g of
t h e t r e a t m e n t f l u i d , t h e t e a k i n g o f f of t h e f l u i d , and t h e thermal c r a c k i n g
a r e simultaneous e v e n t s , t h e t h e o r y o f e l a s t i c i t y w i l l be coupled w i t h f l u i d
mechanics and t h e t h e o r y o f h e a t c o n d u c t i o n . The r e s u l t s , w h i c h i n c l u d e t h e
c o u p l i n g o f e l a s t i c i t y and f l u i d i n c l u s i o n , w i l l be o b t a i n e d by a n a l y t i c a l
t e c h n i q u e s so t h a t t h e y can be p r e s e n t e d w i t h a n a l y t i c a l f o r m u l a e when pos-
sible.

S t r e s s i n t e n s i t y f a c t o r s f o r an e l l i p t i c c r a c k . By u s i n g t h e con-
t i n u o u s d i s l o c a t i o n method developed by Mura (1963) and W i l l i s (1968), t h e
s t r e s s component 033, which i s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t component, a l o n g an
e l l i p t i c a l c r a c k ( F i g u r e 1 ) under a l i n e a r l y changing a p p l i e d s t r e s s
~-103~ = A .f B x l + Cx2 has been o b t a i n e d as f o l l o w s :

- a 2 (.:/at 4- x2/a4)4
033
__ 2- ($ + E
Rxl
+ --
3cx2)
E2
( x l2/ a l2 + x 22 / a 2 - I)+ 1
where
n/2

k 2 = ( a 12 - a 2'2 , ) / a t > 0

2 2 2 %
E,, =
L J
f cos cp(1 - k s i n (p)
0

On t h e c r a c k s u r f a c e t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n

- 180-
i s satisfied. For t h e c r a c k as shown i n F i g . 1

and t h e r e f o r e , A = -
pogh + p -
S , B = p g cose, C = 0, where p i s t h e
0
p r e s s u r e necessary f o r c r a c k opening,
, t h e d e n s i t y of t h e rock, h ,
t h e depth o f t h e c r a c k , S , t e c t o n i c s t r e s s and 0 i s t h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f
t h e crack surface r e l a t i v e t o t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e e a r t h (Fig. I ) .

Ground Surface
/ // / / / / /

////////
h

---*\, ,

\
\
\ I I

Fig, 1

The maximum w i d t h o f t h e c r a c k a l s o has been o b t a i n e d as

a2 2 ( 1 - v)
w = (1 - x 2l / a l2 - x2/a2)' A (4)
2 2 PE

where v i s P o i s s o n ' s r a t i o , l~ i s t h e shear modulus, and E i s defined i n

Eq. ( 2 ) .
2 2
The s t r e s s i n t e n s i t y f a c t o r i s t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f (x /a
1 1
+ x 22/a 22 - 1 ) '
i n Eq. (1). The s t r e s s i n t e n s i t y f a c t o r i s n o t c o n s t a n t a l o n g t h e c r a c k
edge. However, c e r t a i n a n g l e s 0 o f c r a c k i n c l i n a t i o n g i v e equal s t r e s s
i n t e n s i t y f a c t o r a t t h e c r a c k t i p s o f t h e major and m i n o r p r i n c i p a l axes
o f t h e c r a c k . Thus, 0 can be o b t a i n e d as

A x i s y m m e t r i c a l c r a c k growth i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g . I t i s found
t h a t t h e growth r a t e o f a penny-shaped c r a c k can be p r e d i c t e d as a con-
t i n u o u s f u n c t i o n o f t i m e , w en t h e c r a c k i s f r a c t u r e d by water under
h y d r a u l i c pressure.

The fundamental equat ons a r e

= o

where p i s t h e f l u i d p r e s s u r e i n t h e c r a c k and q i s t h e r a t e o f mass flow

d e f i n e d by

q = p w u (7)
where u i s t h e average r a d i a l f l u i d v e l o c i t y . According t o Sneddon and
E l l i o t t (1946), we have f o r t h e w i d t h o f t h e c r a c k and t h e s t r e s s i n t e n s i t y
factor:

w =
8(1 - \j2) jR 1d r 1 j1 x ( p - S) dx
17E
r I 2 2 o I- 2
.J1 -
J‘1 - x

where R i s t h e c r a c k r a d i u s , Ro, i s t h e r e l l b o r e diu , and E i s Young’s

modulus f o r t h e c r a c k ; S i s t h e t e c t o n i c s t r e s s .

Since w = 0 a t r = R and (6) has t h e i n v e r s e cube s i n g u l a r i t y f o r

w, we assume t h a t t h e second e q u a t i o n i n (6) h o l d s f o r t h e domain,
Ro 5 rz
R where R1 < R and i n d i c a t e s t h e r a d i u s o f t h e w e t t e d domain.
1’
I t follows that
- dR-
1
u(R1) = -
dt

- 182-
I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f o r d e r o f magnitude o f t h e terms i n (6) leads t o t h e con-
c l u s i o n t h a t t h e l a s t two terms i n t h e r i g h t - h a n d s i d e can be neglected.
The f o l l o w i n g g l o b a l e q u a t i o n o f t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n o f mass i s a l s o employed

p rw ar = q R
0 0
at
R 0
0

where qo i s t h e f l o w r a t e a t t h e we1 1 bore.

R e s u l t s o b t a i n e d by so v i n g (6) t o (9) and ( 1 1 ) a r e g ven i n F i g s . 2

and 3, where
2 2 2 -
t
D
= 38EqOt/8(1 - v )pSRo, w
D
= TEw(R
0
)/8(1 - v )RoS, ApD = (p - S)/S

and i s t h e average pressure, The s o l u t i o n s by n e g l e c t i n g t h e e f f e c t o f

t h e e l l i p t i c i n t e g r a l i n w which a r i s e s f r o m (8) and t h e e f f e c t o f t h e t e r m
a(pw)/at i n (6) a r e shown i n F i g . 2 by p u t t i n g s u b s c r i p t s (1) and ( 2 ) ,
respectively. I t is found t h a t t h e former e f f e c t i s small f o r l a r g e
v a l u e s o f R/R w h i l e t h e l a t t e r one i s s i g n i f i c a n t . Results, which a r e
v a l i d f o r a wyde range o f R/R a r e shown i n F i g . 3 . The e f f e c t o f t h e
s t r e s s i n t e n s i t y f a c t o r o f t h g ’ r o c k i s found t o be s i g n i f i c a n t even for
l a r g e v a l u e s o f R/Ro.

- 183-
 Ee,
3
U
e,
P

.rl
U
d
l4
k
0)
h
-
. .
4
0
a
.o
a
Li
.n w r n
Q)
U
cd
M

d
W

U
G
cd
U
m
?I0
rrl .A

5
.d
3

.ri
u
ai
%
e,
rl
0 u -
.I4 rn
J J O
3
P
e,
-",
C
.I+

Q)
u
W
0
v)
U

w
w

cup n
t.
- 184-
 CONTROL OF SILICA SCALING

H. L. Barnes and J. D. Rimstidt

Department of Geosciences
Pennsylvania State University
University Park, PA 16802

Both the equilibrium chemistry of silica solubility and kinetics

o f the dominant reactions suggest methods of preventing scale formation
in the development of hot water-dominated geothermal resources.

At equilibrium, the dominant solubility-fixing reaction is

Si02(s) + 2H20 .+ 4H4Si04(aq.)

for pH's less than 9 , - the usual condition. Starting with a geothermal
solution of a specific silica concentration, precipitation may be initiated
by decreasing temperature (Fig. 1) or water purity (Fig. 2 ) . The
stoichiometry of this reaction shows that the solubility i s a function of

I l l 1 1 1 , 1 1 1 1 1
20 60 1M) 140 180 220 260 3CO 340 380
Temperature,"C

Fig. 1 . Solubility o f silica phases in water. (Data from

references 1, 2 , 3 , 4, 5 , 6, 8, 9, and 11.)

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 / Q U A R T Z SOLUBILITY

Concentration, ppm Si02

F i g . 2. Quartz s o l u b i l i t y a t v a r i o u s temperatures and

a c t i v i t i e s of water. The a c t i v i t y o f w a t e r
v a r i e s w i t h s a l t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s t y p i c a l l y as
f o l lows:
Concentrations
CaC12
a NaC 1
- H2° m % m %
0.90 2.8 14 1.6 15
0.75 6.2 27 ( s a t . a t 2 5 O C ) -
0.70
- 3.4 22
0.50 - 5.0 36
0.30
- ( s a t . a t 25OC) 7.2 44
0
These v a l u e s a r e e x a c t f o r temperatures near 25 C
and a p p r o x i m a t e l y c o r r e c t t o 350°C.

w a t e r a c t i v i t y , a2 as demonstrated by t h e l i n e a r i t y o f t h e c u r v e on
"20
F i g . 3, so t h a t an i n c r e a s e i n i o n i c s t r e n g t h , due t o e v a p o r a t i o n ( f l a s h i n g )
o r t o d i s s o l v i n g o f s a l t s , g r e a t l y reduces s o l u b i l i t y . Consequently,
e q u i l i b r i u m r e l a t i o n s show t h a t p r e c i p i t a t i o n can be delayed by: ( 1 ) main-
t a i n i n g t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e s o l u t i o n c l o s e t o t h a t o f t h e geothermal
r e s e r v o i r f o r as l o n g as p o s s i b l e p r i o r t o h e a t e x t r a c t i o n , and (2) by
dilution. I n a p p r o p r i a t e circumstances, f a v o r a b l e d i l u t i o n can be
 t-

4.0 1 I I 1 I I t
-8 0 -7.5 -7.0 bS -60 -5.5 -5 0
log Kc

Fig. 3. The complete e q u i l i b r i u m c o n s t a n t f o r q u a r t z

a H4S i04
s o l u b i l i t y where K =
C a S i 0 2 (H20,g/CC) '

( S o l u b i l i t y d a t a from r e f e r e n c e s 1 , 4, 5, 6,
8, 9 , and 1 1 . )

r e a l i z e d by m i x i n g t h e o u t p u t from one w e l l w i t h t h a t from a second w i t h

e i t h e r lower s a l i n i t y o r s i l i c a c o n t e n t . Another process c a u s i n g d i l u t i o n
i s t o use a steam- driven, downhole pump. Because f l a s h e d steam i s always
r e l a t i v e l y p u r e compared t o t h e r e s i d u a l s o l u t i o n , i f t h i s steam i s i n -
j e c t e d t o power t h e pump, t h e e f f l u e n t a l s o e f f e c t i v e l y d i l u t e s b o t h t h e
i n i t i a l s i l i c a c o n t e n t and t h e s a l i n i t y , a d u a l bonus.

K i n e t i c effects are a t l e a s t e q u a l l y promising f o r c o n t r o l l i n g

s i l i c a deposition. The r a t e o f p r e c i p i t a t i o n a t temperature, T, i s

[":lo2]T = Kp(H4SiO4) ( S / V )

where Kp i s t h e r a t e c o n s t a n t and ( S / V ) i s t h e s u r f a c e area on w h i c h

d e p o s i t i o n i s t a k i n g p l a c e p e r u n i t volume of s o l u t i o n l o . C l e a r l y , t h e
s u r f a c e a r e a (and roughness) i n geothermal systems should be m i n i m i z e d
t o slow r a t e s of d e p o s i t i o n . A l t e r n a t i v e l y where s u p e r s a t u r a t i o n i s
i n e v i t a b l e , s i l i c a can be scrubbed f r o m t h e s o l u t i o n by c o u n t e r c u r r e n t

- 187-
f l o w o f f i n e - g r a i n e d , i n e r t s o l i d s ( w i t h h i g h s u r f a c e area) t o n u c l e a t e
and remove t h e excess s i l i c a .

Because K i s e x p o n e n t i a l l y dependent on temperature, t h e s o l u t i o n

s h o u l d n o t be aylowed t o c o o l s l o w l y from h i g h temperatures ( F i g , 4). I f
s a t u r a t i o n i s reached a t h i g h temperatures, p r e c i p i t a t i o n i s f a s t due t o
t h e h i g h r a t e o f r e a c t i o n . However, i f t h e s o l u t i o n i s c o o l e d a b r u p t l y ,
t h e s i l i c a i s quenched i n t o s o l u t i o n and can o n l y p r e c i p i t a t e v e r y s l o w l y
a t low temperature. Consequently, s i n g l e - s t a g e h e a t e x t r a c t i o n m i n i m i z e s
scale formation. S u f f i c i e n t r a t e d a t a have n o t as y e t been accumulated
t o q u a n t i f y t h i s method, u n f o r t u n a t e l y .

S i l i c a p o l y m e r i z a t i o n seems n o t t o be i m p o r t a n t t o t h e k i n e t i c s o f
geothermal systems. Rates a r e p r o b a b l y s i g n i f i c a n t on1 a t h i g h a l k a l i n i t i e s
a t h i g h temperatures and a t pH 8-10 a t low temperatures J. Furthermore,
a n a l y s e s o f geothermal f l u i d s by t h e monomer- detecting molybdate t e c h n i q u e
a 1 so appears t o g i v e r e l i a b l e v a l u e s f o r t h e t o t a l s i l i c a con e n t r a t i on
present.

The sever t y o f s c a l e f o r m a t i o n a p p a r e n t l y a l s o depends i n p a r t on

salinity. High y s a l i n e s o l u t i o n s , such as t h o s e f r o m t h e Sa t o n Sea KGRA,
r e a d i l y deposit massive s c a l e w h i l e l e s s s a l i n e s o l u t i o n s , as a t Cerro
P r i e t o , may n o t p r e c i p i t a t e more than m i n o r amounts b e f o r e r e e c t ion

Sal t o n Sea 320 3.1 155,000 400

Cerro P r i e t o 350 0.2 10,000 500

As suggested by s e v e r a l a u t h o r s , t h i s e f f e c t may be caused by c a t a l y s i s

o f p r e c i p i t a t i o n r e a c t i o n s by c h l o r i d e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s above r o u g h l y
0.01 m l o . A t h i g h e r C1’ c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , t h e r e i s a l s o t h e u n t e s t e d POS-
s i b i 1 t y t h a t s i 1 i c a - c h l o r i d e complexes-form. D i l u t i o n o f such b r i n e s i s
espec a l l y e f f e c t i v e i n r e t a r d i n g s c a l e d e p o s i t i o n . I n addition t o
lower ng t h e i n i t i a l s i l i c a c o n c e n t r a t i o n and r a i s i n g t h e u l t i m a t e
sol ub l i t y by i n c r e a s i n g a t h e r a t e o f d e p o s i t i o n i s lowered by de-
H20 ’
c r e a s ng t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h i s c a t a l y s t . Again, c o n s i d e r a b l e d a t a
a r e needed t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e x a c t c o n c e n t r a t i o n ranges where c a t a y s i s
and complexing become i m p o r t a n t . These v a l u e s a r e b e i n g o b t a i n e d as
f u n c t i o n s o f t i m e , temperature, and c h l o r i d e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s u s i n g t h e
e x p e r i m e n t a l system shown on F i g . 5 .

- 188-
 1 I
-
\\ 1 I

QUARTZ + SOLUTION

,100years

.IOyean

u)
L
3 -1 yeor P R EClP ITAT I NG
0 (200- 110% supersaturated)
I
1 -1month

I /
- 1 day (O-*9096 sa turotedl \\

- f hour
I I I 1 I I
.
\
0 (00 200 Mo
Temperature, OC

Fig. 4. P r e l i m i n a r y c u r v e s showi.ng t h e r a t e s of d i s s o l v i n g and p r e c i p i t a t i n g

of q u a r t z a s a f u n c t i o n of t e m p e r a t u r e . Dissolving - Amount o f t i m e
n e c e s s a r y f o r water i n a geothermal r e s e r v o i r t o become 90% s a t u r a t e d
w i t h H S i 0 i f t h e r a t i o of t h e s i l i c a s u r f a c e area t o t h e volume of
4 4
2
s o l u t i o n is 1 4 . 9 c m / m l ( e q u i v a l e n t i n t h e r e s e r v o i r t o 1 m l of
s o l u t i o n w i t h i n a f r a c t u r e of 1.i n 2 a r e a ) . Precipitating - Amount of
time n e c e s s a r y f o r w a t e r i n a p i p e which c o n t a i n s t w i c e t h e s a t u r a t i o n
concentration of H S i 0 t o p r e c i p i t a t e enough q u a r t z t o r e a c h 110% o f
4 4
s a t u r a t i o n i f t h e p i p e h a s a r a t i o o f s u r f a c e area t o volume of
s o l u t i o n of 6 . 6 cm2 /ml (%800 f t 2 / g a l ) .
These rates w i l l b e f a s t e r f o r c r i s t o b a l i t e and amorphous s i l i c a
i n d i r e c t proportion t o t h e i r higher a and a l s o h i g h e r due t o any
SiOz
c a t a l y s i s , f o r example by F- of C1-.

- 189-
HEATE
PNEUMATIC

RELIEF

F i g . 5. Experimental s y s t e m f o r d e t e r m i n i n g r e a c t i o n rates. In
t h e 1 l i t e r p r e s s u r e vessel, e i t h e r w e l l c h a r a c t e r i z e d r o c k
o r m i n e r a l samples are h e l d i n c i r c u l a t i n g s o l u t i o n s a t
t e m p e r a t u r e s up t o 450°C and p r e s s u r e s t o 3500 p . s . i .
Analyses o f p e r i o d i c samples of s o l u t i o n and of d e p o s i t s
i n t h e h e a t exchanger, p l u s e v a l u a t i o n of a l t e r a t i o n of t h e
rock samples, p e r m i t s d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e p r i n c i p a l
r e a c t i o n s and t h e d e r i v a t i o n of t h e i r r a t e c o n s t a n t s .
References

1- C r e r a r , D. A. and G. M. Anderson. 1971. S o l u b i l i t y and s o l u t i o n r e a c t i o n s

o f q u a r t z i n d i l u t e hydrothermal s o l u t i o n s . Chem. Geol , V . 8,.
pp. 107-122.
2. F o u r n i e r , R. 0. and J. J. Rowe. 1962. The s o l u b i i t y o f c r i s t o b a l i t e
a l o n g t h e three- phase curve, gas p l u s l i q u i d p l u s c r i s t o b a l i t e .
Am. M i n e r a l . , V . 47, pp. 897-902.
3. I l e r , R. K. 1973. C o l l o i d a l S i l i c a , S u r f a c e and C o l l o i d Science, V . 6,
Ch. 1, W i l e y , New York.
4. Kennedy, G. C . 1950. A p o r t i o n of t h e system s i l i c a w a t e r , Econ. Geol.,
V . 45, pp. 629-653.
5. K i t a h a r a , S. 1960. The s o l u b i l i t y e q u i l i b r i u m and t h e r a t e o f s o l u t i o n
o f q u a r t z i n w a t e r a t h i g h temperatures and pressures, Rev. Phys.
Chem. Japan, V . 30, pp. 122-130.
6. Mackenzie, F. T. and R. Gees. 1971. Q u a r t z : S y n t h e s i s a t e a r t h - s u r f a c e
conditions, Science, V. 173, pp. 533-534.
7. Marshal 1, W. L. 1970. Complete equi 1 i b r i u m c o n s t a n t s , e l e c t r o l y t e
e q u i l i b r i a , and r e a c t i o n r a t e s , J . Phys. Chem., V . 74, pp. 346-355.
8. Morey, G . W., R. 0. F o u r n i e r and J. J . Rowe. 1962. The s o l u b i l i t y o f
q u a r t z i n w a t e r i n t h e temperature i n t e r v a l from 25O t o 3 O O O C .
Geochim e t Cosmochim Acta, V . 26, pp. 1029-1043.
9. S i e v e r , R. 1962. S i l i c a s o l u b i l i t y 00-2OOOC and t h e d i a g e n e s i s o f
s i l i c e o u s sediments. J. Geol., V . 70, pp. 127-150.
10. Van L i e r , J. A., P. L. DeBruyn and J. Thor. G. Overbeck. 1960. The
s o l u b i l i t y o f q u a r t z . J. Phys. Chem., V. 64, pp. 1675-1682.
11. Voloson, A. G., 1 . G. Khodakovskiy, and B. N. Ryzhenko. E q u i l i b r i a i n
t h e system Si02-HZO a t e l e v a t e d temperatures a l o n g t h e lower
three- phase c u r v e . Geochern. I n t . , V . 9, #3, pp. 362-377.

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 PREDICTING EXPLOSION-GENERATED PERMEABILITY
AROUND GEOTHERMAL WELLS

C . R. McKee and M. E. Hanson

Lawrence L i v e r m o r e L a b o r a t o r y
U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a
Livermore, C a l i f o r n i a 94550

The problem o f s t i m u l a t i n g geothermal r e s e r v o i r s has r e c e i v e d

a t t e n t i o n i n recent years. D e t o n a t i n g e x p l o s i v e s i n a b o r e h o l e i s one
t e c h n i q u e f o r s t i m u l a t i n g them. E x p l o s i v e s may a l s o have an a p p l i c a t i o n
where p r e c i p i t a t i o n o f s o l i d s near t h e p r o d u c i n g w e l l has s i g n i f i c a n t l y
reduced t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y around i t . However, t h e enhancement o f t h e
p e r m e a b i l i t y around t h e b o r e h o l e has i t s e l f n o t been w e l l - d e f i n e d , and
hence, t h e e f f e c t s o f e x p l o s i v e s t i m u l a t i o n a r e d i f f i c u l t t o p r e d i c t .
Below, we o u t l i n e a t h e o r y w h i c h has c o r r e l a t e d w e l l w i t h e x i s t i n g
measurements o f p e r m e a b i l i t y enhancement. A more complete development
can be found i n Ref. 1.

Theory

The t h e o r y i s based on l i n k i n g t h e Carmen-Kozeny e x p r e s s i o n ,

w i t h t h e parameters i n v o l v e d i n t h e dynamic e x p l o s i o n process, I n Eq. ( 1 1 ,

9 i s t h e p o r o s i t y and S i s t h e s p e c i f i c s u r f a c e area.

To r e l a t e t h i s f o r m u l a t o t h e complex phenomena o f an e x p l o s i v e
d e t o n a t i o n , i t i s u s e f u l t o view t h e e x p l o s i o n process i n two stages.2
The f i r s t s t a g e i s dominated by a l a r g e - a m p l i t u d e s t r e s s wave. The second
s t a g e i n v o l v e s an expansion o f t h e c a v i t y by h i g h - p r e s s u r e gases from t h e
d e t o n a t i o n . The e f f e c t s of t h e f i r s t s t a g e on t h e media a r e o f a dynamic
n a t u r e , w h i l e t h o s e o f t h e second s t a g e extend o v e r a much l o n g e r t i m e
i n t e r v a l and can be regarded as q u a s i s t a t i c processes. To o b t a i n a
d e s c r i p t i o n o f p e r m e a b i l i t y , we must r e l a t e t h e s e processes t o Eq. ( 1 ) .

A c c o r d i n g t o K u t t e r and F a i r h u r s t , 2 t h e p r i n c i p a l r o l e o f t h e s t r e s s
wave i s t o i n i t i a t e f r a c t u r e s . The f r a c t u r e d e n s i t y n i s r e l a t e d t o t h e
p o r o s i t y and s p e c i f i c s u r f a c e by

where w i s t h e c r a c k w i d t h . G r i f f i t h 3 postulated a f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n for

r e a l m a t e r i a l s . From t e n s i l e t e s t s , he l e a r n e d t h a t t h e average s t r e s s
a t r u p t u r e was s m a l l compared w i t h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l s t r e n g t h of t h e s o l i d .

- 192-
He concluded t h a t energy i n t h e t e s t p i e c e was n o t u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d .
A t p o i n t s where t h e c r a c k s o r i g i n a t e , h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f s t r a i n energy
must e x i s t . We assume t h a t these c o n c e n t r a t i o n p o i n t s a r e macroscopic
f l a w s i n t h e m a t e r i a l . A r e a l g e o l o g i c medium w i l l c o n t a i n a d i s t r i b u t i o n
o f f l a w s h a v i n g v a r i a t i o n s i n l e n g t h and o r i e n t a t i o n . Flaws may be n a t u r a l l y
o c c u r r i n g f r a c t u r e s h a v i n g a d i s t r i b u t i o n i n l e n g t h and o r i e n t a t i o n , g r a i n
boundary weaknesses, and s o l u t i o n channels.

I f s i m i l a r specimens o f a g i v e n m a t e r i a l a r e s u b j e c t e d t o f a i l u r e
t e s t s , t h e y do n o t a l l f a i l a t t h e same s t r e s s , A d i s t r i b u t i o n o f breakage
s t r e n g t h s w i l l be found.4 I t can t h e r e f o r e be i n t e r p r e t e d t h a t t h e m a t e r i a l
contains a d i s t r i b u t i o n o f f l a w strengths. V a r i a t i o n i n s t r e s s l e v e l s
from an a p p l i e d l o a d a t f l a w t i p s i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e square r o o t of
t h e i r length^.^ Longer f l a w s w i l l t h e r e f o r e have a h i g h e r p r o b a b i l i t y o f
e x t e n d i n g under a g i v e n a p p l i e d s t r e s s .

The dynamic s t r e s s wave w i l l cause a l l f l a w s whose s t r e n g t h s a r e l e s s

than t h e magnitude o f t h e l o c a l l y a p p l i e d s t r e s s t o extend. A r e l a t i o n
between t h e g r o w t h o f f l a w s o r t h e i n c r e a s e i n s p e c i f i c s u r f a c e and energy
can be o b t a i n e d from comminution t h e o r y . Several comminution r e l a t i o n s
have been proposed. The one m o s t a p p l i c a b l e t o our s i t u a t i o n i s R i t t i n g e r ' s
Law, w h i c h s t a t e s t h a t an i n c r e a s e i n s p e c i f i c s u r f a c e area i s d i r e c t l y
p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e energy i n p u t :

S a E . (3)
R i t t i n g e r ' s law has been s u b s t a n t i a t e d by t h e g e n e r a l s c a l i n g laws o f
Langefors and K i h l s t r o m , 6 which have been v e r i f i e d f o r burden dimensions
v a r y i n g between 0.01 and 10 m w i t h a l o 7 v a r i a t i o n i n e x p l o s i v e charge.

C r e a t i n g f r a c t u r e s does n o t i n i t s e l f g e n e r a t e p e r m e a b i l i t y . T h i s i s
because t h e s t r e s s wave propagates a t t h e compressional-wave v e l o c i t y C p ,
w h i l e f r a c t u r e s can grow i n a r e c t i l i n e a r p a t h a t a maximum v e l o c i t y l / 3 c ,
Hence, t h e s t r e s s wave w i l l i n e v i t a b l y o u t r u n t h e f r a c t u r e s i t generates. P
New f r a c t u r e s w i l l t h e n be i n i t i a t e d on o t h e r f l a w s i t e s i n t h e m a t e r i a l .
A t t h i s moment i n t h e process, t h e medium c o n s i s t s o f a n o n i n t e r c o n n e c t e d
system of f r a c t u r e s w i t h e s s e n t i a l l y no new p o r o s i t y .

The second s t a g e o f t h e e s s e n t i a l l y c o n t i n u o u s e x p l o s i o n process i s

dominated by t h e q u a s i s t a t i c expansion o f t h e gas i n t h e c a v i t y . The
c a v i t y v o i d space i s produced by i r r e v e r s i b l e pressure- volume work o f t h e
e x p l o s i v e gases. Void space i s c r e a t e d b o t h by f r e e - s u r f a c e displacement
and by compression o f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g r o c k . T h i s model assumes t h a t t h e
f r a c t u r e p o r o s i t y s u r r o u n d i n g t h e c a v i t y i s c r e a t e d by i r r e v e r s i b l e r a d i a l
compression and t h e t a n g e n t i a l t e n s i o n o f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g rock. The
f r a c t u r e p o r o s i t y w i l l be p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e f i r s t i n v a r i a n t o f t h e s t r a i n
tensor, 6

where A i s t h e f i r s t i n v a r i a n t and c o n t r i b u t e s t o p o r o s i t y o n l y when i t

assumes p o s i t i v e v a l u e s ( d i l a t a t i o n ) .

- 193-
 I f we use the dynamic wave solutions of Selberg,7 the energy decay
laws at the wave front are given by:
E a l/r2 (dynamic, spherical geometry)
and

E a l/r (dynamic, cylindr cal geometry) . (6 1

I f the static,solutionfor a pressur zed cavity is used, dilatation wil be
identically zero in both cylindrical and spherical geometries. However
. and hence, the-elastic modul i w 1 1
rock will exhibit bilinear behavior;
have different values in tension and c o m p r e ~ s i o n . ~Following
~~ the
analysis of Haimson and TharpY8

where f = 2 f o r spherical geometry and f = 1 for cylindrical geometry.

For well stimulation, the following appears to be a good approxi-

mat ion. 1

where E i s a small positive number. Substituting ( 3 ) , (5), (61, (71, and

(8) into (l), and assuming the explosively generated porosity to be small,
the functional behavior of the permeability in the linear elastic case
will be approximately

k n
,. l/r4 (cylindrical symmetry) (91
and

k Q l/r5 (spher cal symmetry

Comparison with Experiment

There are only two known explosive stimulation experiments reporting

extensive permeability measurements as a function of distance from the
borehole. They are the 5 kt Hardhat nuclear eventlo fired in granite,
and the 59 kg chemical explosive detonated in coal near Kemmerer, Wyoming.”
Fig. 1 shows the comparison between the theoretical expression
[Eq. (lo)]
and the measured permeability around Hardhat. Fig. 2 shows
the comparison between the permeability measured as a function of distance
from the cylindrical cavity and Eq. (9) for coal.

Discussion*

Despite a large variation i n explosive yield and rock type

between the Hardhat twclear event and the Kemmerer coal experiment,
t h e p r e d i c t i o n s of t h e t h e o r y i n b o t h s p h e r i c a l and c y l i n d r i c a l symmetries
a r e i n e x c e l l e n t agreement w i t h t h e experiments. No measurements a r e
a v a i l a b l e f o r geothermal r e s e r v o i r s . However, because o f t h e agreement
o b t a i n e d t o d a t e , we b e l i e v e t h a t reasonable p r e d i c t i o n s can be made f o r
s p e c i f i c geothermal r e s e r v o i r s . For v e r y deep a p p l i c a t i o n s , overburden
s t r e s s e s must be i n c l u d e d t o o b t a i n t h e c o r r e c t decay laws. P r a c t i c a l
implementation w i l l r e q u i r e c a r e f u l e v a l u a t i o n o f e x i s t i n g e x p l o s i v e s
for s u i t a b i l i t y and s a f e t y i n t h e h o t environment o f geothermal r e s e r v o i r s .

References

1. McKee, C. R., and M. E. Hanson, E x p l o s i v e l y c r e a t e d p e r m e a b i l i t y

from s i n g l e charges. SOC. Pet. Eng. J. (Dec. 1975) 495.
2. K u t t e r , H. K., and C . F a i r h u r s t . On t h e f r a c t u r e process i n b l a s t i n g .
I n t . J . Rock Mech. Min. S c i . (1971) V o l . 8, 181.
3. G r i f f i t h , A. A . , Theory o f r u p t u r e , Proc. F i r s t I n t . Congr.
Mech. D e l f t , The N e t h e r l a n d s (1924) 55-63.
4. W e i b u l l , W., A s t a t i s t i c a l t h e o r y o f t h e s t r e n g t h o f m a t e r i a S.
Drgvetensk. Akad. Handl. No. 49.
5. Sneddon, I . N., and M. Lowengrub Crack problems i n t h e c l a s s i c a l
theory o f e l a s t i c i t y . John W i ey E Sons, 1 nc., New York (1969) 29.
6. Jaeger, J . C., and N. G. W . Cook Fundamentals o f r o c k mechanics.
Chapman and Hal 1, London (1969 199.
7. Selberg, H. L., T r a n s i e n t compression waves from s p h e r i c a l and
c y l i n d r i c a l c a v i t i e s . A r k i v f o r F y s i k (1953) V o l . 5 , 97.
8. P e r k i n s , T. K., and W. W. Krech. The energy b a l a n c e concept o f
hydraulic fracturing. SOC. Pet. Eng. J. (March 1968) 1-12;
Trans. AIME, Vol. 243.
9. Haimson, B. C . , and T. M. Tharp. S t r e s s e s around b o r e h o l e s i n
b i l i n e a r e l a s t i c rock. SOC. P e t . Eng. J. ( A p r i l 1974) 145-151.
10. Boardman, C . R . , and J . Skrove. D i s t r i b u t i o n i n fracture permeability
o f a g r a n i t i c r o c k mass f o l l o w i n g a c o n t a i n e d n u c l e a r e x p l o s i o n .
J . P e t . Tech. (May 1966) 619-623; Trans. AIME, Vol. 237.
11. Hearst, J. R. F r a c t u r e s induced by a c o n t a i n e d e x p l o s i o n i n
Kemmerer c o a l . Lawrence L i v e r m o r e L a b o r a t o r y , Report UCRL 51790
(1975) (To appear i n t h e I n t . J. o f Rock Mech. and M i n i n g S c i . )

- 195-
 -

__
- 0-
1
>
I- - EXPERIMENT
w
-I
H

m 1o
< - -
~ A Horizontal
W
o Vertical
5
W
-

CL
1,o-5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 0 20
SCALED RADIUS - r/rC
Fig. 1. Comparison of theoretical and measured permeability values. The
log of permeability k is given as a function of distance scaled
in terms o f the cavity radius rc .Permeability was measured
in both horizontal and vertical holes, and is independent of
direction.

- 196-
Fig. 2 . Coal p o s t s h o t p e r m e a b i l i t y versus r a d i u s f o r a
chemical e x p l o s i v e d e t o n a t e d i n a c o a l seam. The
emplacement geometry possessed c y l i n d r i c a l symmetry.
P e r m e a b i l i t y i s i n Darcies, w h i l e the r a d i a l distance
i n meters i s measured from t h e a x i s of t h e c a v i t y .
The s m a l l box on t h e upper r i g h t r e p r e s e n t s two
measurements.

- 197-
 SUMMARY OF OUR RESEARCH I N GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIR SIMULATION

Charles R. Faust and James W. Mercer

U.S. Geological Survey
Reston, Va. 22091

Our research effort has concentrated on developing theoretical and

numerical models for the purpose of simulating geothermal reservoirs. The
first heat-transport model we developed was single-phase (1 iquid water),
two-dimensional (areal), and was based on the Galerkin, finite-element
method. This model was applied to the Wairakei geothermal field, which we
were able to simulate until approximately 1962 at which time the reservoir
became two-phase.

More recently we have formulated the equations of two-phase (steam-

water), heat transport in terms of enthalpy and pressures2 Formulation of
the basic mass, momentum and energy balances in terms of fluid pressure and
enthalpy yields two nonlinear, partial differential equations that are valid
f o r both liquid- and vapor-dominated hydrothermal reservoirs, as well as for
reservoirs that may include both single- and two-phase regions. In addi-
tion, this formulation eliminates the interphase condensation terms.

Solution of these equations is performed using both finite-element

and finite-difference techniques. The finite-element method is capable of
using higher order elemects, including Hermite cubics. Also, Newton-Raphson
iteration may be used in both models (finite-difference and finite-element).

Model results for one- and two-dimensional problems have been com-
pared with both analytical solutions and laboratory resul ts.3 Hypothetical
problems have keen simulated and a sensitivity analysis of some parameters
has been made. Results of these numerical experiments have given insight
into the question of which numerical techniques are suitable for a particu-
lar geothermal reservoir problem. Based on these results, work on extending
the Wairakei simulation has been initiated.

REFERENCES

1. Mercer, J . W., G. F. Pinder, and 1 . G. Donaldson: "A Galerkin-Finite

Element Analysis of the Hydrothermal System at Wairakei, New Zealand,"
J . Geophys. Research (1975) -
80, No. 17, 2608-2621..
2. Mercer, J. W., and C. R. Faust: "Simula ion of Water- and Vapor-dominated
Hydrothermal Reservoirs," paper SPE 5520 presented at 50th Annual Fall
Meeting o f SOC. of Pet. Eng. o f AIME, Da las, Texas, Sept. 28-Oct. 1, 1975.
3 . Faust, C. R., and J. W. Mercer: "An Ana ysis of Finite-Difference and
Finite-Element Techniques for Geothermal Reservoir Simulation," paper SPE
5742 to be presented at 4th SPE Symp. on Numerical Simulation of Reser-
voir Performance, Los Angeles, CA., Feb. 19-20, 1976.
4. Faust, C. R., and J. W. Mercer: "Mathematical Model of Geothermal Systems,"
paper presented at 2nd UN Symp. on Development & Use o f Geothermal
Resources, San Francisco, CA., May 20-29, 1975.

- 198-
 THE PRINCETON GEOTHERMAL RESEARCH PROGRAM

George P i nder
Department o f C i v i l Engineering
Princeton U n i v e r s i t y
P r i n c e t o n , N.J. 08540

The research program c u r r e n t l y underway i n t h e Department of C i v i l

Engineering a t P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y can be s u b d i v i d e d i n t o f i v e s e p a r a t e
i n t e r a c t i n g components. Each component addresses a s p e c i f i c problem encoun-
t e r e d i n t h e numerical s i m u l a t i o n o f geothermal r e s e r v o i r s . I n t h i s summary,
t h e components w i l l be examined independently a l t h o u g h i n f a c t t h e r e a r e
many f a c e t s o f t h e work which o v e r l a p and t h e r e b y p r o v i d e a f o u n d a t i o n f o r
t h e exchange o f ideas between i n d i v i d u a l s .

The n a t u r a l e x t e n s i o n o f t h e two- dimensional s i n g l e phase a r e a l model

o f t h e Wairakei r e s e r v o i r i s t h e f u l l y three- dimensional problem. Although
t h e development o f a three- dimensional f i n i t e element energy t r a n s p o r t code
was r e a t i v e l y s t r a i g h f o r w a r d , t h e c a t a l o g u i n g , o r g a n i z a t i o n and m a n i p u l a t i o n
o f t h e l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f p e r t i n e n t f i e l d d a t a was more d i f f i c u l t . I n pre-
p a r i n g t h e i n p u t d a t a t r e n d s u r f a c e s o f t h e i m p o r t a n t h y d r o l o g i c a l and geo-
l o g i c a parameters were generated. I n t h i s way t h e r e q u i r e d i n f o r m a t i o n f o r
each f n i t e element node can be determined r e a d i l y . The s i m u l a t o r i s c u r -
r e n t l y o p e r a t i o n a l and t h e l a s t elements o f d a t a a r e b e i n g prepared.

W h i l e t h e c o r r e c t f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e e q u a t i o n s governing m u l t i - p h a s e
(steam-water) f l o w i n porous media i s now a v a i l a b l e i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e , t h e
development o f an a c c u r a t e and e f f i c i e n t three- dimensional s i m u l a t o r s t i l l
remains a f o r m i d a b l e t a s k . Because o f t h e f l e x i b i l i t y and accuracy o f t h e
f i n i t e e l e m e n t - G a l e r k i n approach, t h i s method has been chosen as t h e b a s i s
f o r our general s i m u l a t o r . To overcome l i m i t a t i o n s i n h e r e n t i n t h e c l a s s i c a l
f i n i t e - e l e m e n t approach, h i g h l y e f f c i e n t c o e f f i c i e n t g e n e r a t i n g schemes a r e
combined w i t h i t e r a t i v e methods f o r t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h e r e s u l t i n g l a r g e s y s -
tems o f a l g e b r a i c e q u a t i o n s .

A l t h o u g h t h e B i o t system o f e q u a t i o n s based on t h e t h e o r y o f e l a s t i -
c i t y i s g e n e r a l l y recognized as a r gorous e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e p h y s i c s of sub-
sidence, i t does n o t d e s c r i b e impor a n t phenomena observed i n t h e f i e l d . In
p a r t i c u l a r , i t i s observed t h a t p h y s i c a l systems a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by param-
e t e r s which e x h i b i t memory. A c o r r e c t f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e problem, t h e r e f o r e ,
must be based upon v i s c o - e l a s t i c r a t h e r than e l a s t i c t h e o r y . Because o f t h e
l a c k o f understanding o f t h e e x a c t f o r m o f t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p ,
we have assured g e n e r a l i t y by c o n s i d e r i n g an approach which e x t r a c t s t h e
form o f t h i s e q u a t i o n d i r e c t l y from a v a i l a b l e l a b o r a t o r y experiments r a t h e r
than d i c t a t i n g i t a p r i o r i . The r e s u l t i n g system o f equations i s solved u s i n g
t h e l a p l a c e t r a n s f o r m i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a f i n i t e e l e m e n t - G a l e r k i n scheme.

A l t h o u g h e q u a t i o n s f o r energy t r a n s p o r t i n porous media have been i n

use f o r some time, we deemed i t necessary t o v e r i f y t h a t these equations had
a sound t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s . A s y s t e m a t i c t e c h n i q u e o f l o c a l volume averaging

- 199-
o f t h e continuum e q u a t i o n s was adopted and app i e d t o t h e thermal energy
e q u a t i o n . T h i s t e c h n i q u e a l l o w s one t o d e r i v e an e q u a t i o n f o r each phase
which c o n t a i n s terms a c c o u n t i n g f o r mechanical d i s p e r s i o n , i n t e r p h a s e
energy c o n d u c t i o n and phase change.

When t h e assumption o f thermal e q u i l i b ium between t h e v a r i o u s phases

i s reasonable, t h e e q u a t i o n s f o r each phase may be added t o g e t h e r and t h e
c o u p l i n g terms between t h e phases w i l l d r o p o u t . However, i f c o n d i t i o n s
a r e such t h a t thermal e q u i l i b r i u m i s n o t e s t a b l i s h e d , a p p r o p r i a t e c o n s t i t u -
t i v e r e l a t i o n s can be found f o r t h e c o u p l i n g term and t h e e q u a t i o n s a r e
s o l v e d s e p a r a t e l y f o r each phase.

For t h e case o f c o l d water i n j e c t i o n i n t o a f r a c t u r e d geothermal

r e s e r v o i r , one m i g h t expect t h e c o l d water t o move a t d i f f e r e n t v e l o c i t i e s
i n t h e f r a c t u r e s and pores and thermal e q u i l i b r i u m between t h e pore and
f r a c t u r e f l u i d may n o t e x i s t . To model t h i s case, t h e p o r e f l u i d and f r a c -
t u r e f l u i d were c o n s i d e r e d t o be d i f f e r e n t phases and f l o w and energy equa-
t i o n s were developed f o r each o f t h e two f l u i d phases as w e l l as f o r t h e
s o l i d m a t r i x . A t p r e s e n t , a G a l e r k i n - f i n i t e element computer code i s b e i n g
developed which s o l v e s t h e complete coupled s e t o f equations. The unknown
v a r i a b l e s a r e expanded i n terms o f a new t y p e o f b a s i c f u n c t i o n which
a l l o w s f o r increased accuracy and a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e number of f i n i t e
element e q u a t i o n s which must be s o l v e d .

-200-
 NUMERICAL CALCULATION OF MULTIPHASE FLUID AND HEAT FLOW
I N HYDROTHERMAL R E S E R V O I R S

J . W. P r i t c h e t t
Systems, Science and Software
P.O. Box 1620
La J o l l a , CA. 92038

I n t h i s paper one aspect o f an ongoing research program w i l l be

d e s c r i b e d . The o v e r a l l o b j e c t i v e i s t o develop r e l i a b l e computer s i m u l a t o r s
whereby f i e l d i n f o r m a t i o n f o r a s p e c i f i c l i q u i d - o r vapor- dominated geo-
thermal system can be used t o p r e d i c t r e s e r v o i r performance and, i n a d d i t i o n ,
subsurface environmental e f f e c t s . These l a t t e r e f f e c t s i n c l u d e land s u r f a c e
subsidence, induced s e i s m i c a c t i v i t y , and p o l l u t i o n o f f r e s h water a q u i f e r s
by geothermal b r i n e s . The approach is t o develop l a r g e - s c a l e computer pro-
grams and t o v a l i d a t e them u s i n g b o t h l a b o r a t o r y measurements and f i e l d data.

So f a r , s e p a r a t e codes have been developed f o r d e s c r i b i n g t h e

m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l m u l t i p h a s e unsteady f l o w o f steam and water and o f heat
i n a heterogeneous g e o l o g i c s e t t i n g i n t h e absence o f r o c k deformation,
and f o r c a l c u i a t i n g t h e response o f a m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l r o c k m a t r i x t o
p r e s c r i b e d p o r e p r e s s u r e changes w i t h o u t s p e c i f i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f f l u i d
f l o w . These codes a r e p r e s e n t l y being combined t o produce a s i n g l e f u l y-
i n t e r a c t i v e f l u i d f l o w / r o c k d e f o r m a t i o n s i m u l a t o r . The separate codes n
themselves may be of some i n t e r e s t , however; S. K. Garg discussed t h e
f i n i t e - e l e m e n t rock- deformation s i m u l a t o r i n another p r e s e n t a t i o n a t t h S
workshop. Here, t h e f l u i d - f l o w s i m u l a t o r w i l l be discussed.

Mathematical F o r m u l a t i o n

Brownel 1 -- .
e t a1 (1975) have presented elsewhere t h e equations govern-
ing t h e f l o w o f water and steam i n a non- deforming r o c k m a t r i x . These may be
summarized as f o l l o w s :

Fluid Mass Conservation:

Eneryy Conservation:

+K VTJ

-201-
 Ts = T

where
s=o S = l
( a l l liquid) (all vapor)

0
aL

CI
V

0
8,

% l/u

and

E Bulk f uid internal energy per unit fluid rolurne.

Evap Latent heat o f vaporization per unit fluid volume.
ES Sol id nternal energy per unit total volume.
P Bulk f uid density.
Vapor phase density = pQ/S.
pV
PL Liquid phase density = p ( 1 - Q ) / ( l - S ) .
Q Steam quality.
S Steam saturation.
Bulk fluid ( 1 iquid; vapor phase) viscosity.
Relative vapor (liquid) permeability.
Absolute solid permeability.
M i x tu re ( rock- 1 i qu i d-va por ) hea t conduct i v i ty .
Poros i ty .
Pressure.
Fluid temperature.
Sol id temperature.
Acceleration of gravity.
Local fluid mass source/sink rate.
Local heat source/sink rate.

-202-
 These balance laws a r e t o be s o l v e d s u b j e c t t o a p p r o p r i a t e i n i t i a l
and boundary c o n d i t i o n s . Furthermore, c o n s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n s must be
p r e s c r i b e d b o t h f o r t h e r o c k m a t r i x and f o r t h e i n s t i t i a l f l u i d . For t i l e
rock, the density, p o r o s i t y , d i r e c t i o n a l absolute peremeabilities, r e l a t i v e
p e r m e a b i l i t y f u n c t i o n s , h e a t c a p a c i t y and thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y must be sup-
p l i e d a t each p o i n t i n t h e system. For t h e f l u i d , a l a r g e number o f
p r o p e r t i e s must be known as f u n c t i o n s o f water d e n s i t y ( p ) and i n t e r n a l
energy ( E ) . These i n c l u d e p r e s s u r e ( P ) , temperature ( T ) , steam q u a l i t y ( Q ) y
vapor s a t u r a t i o n (S)? l a t e n t heat o f v a p o r i z a t i o n (E v a p ), and separate
v i s c o s i t i e s (LI vv) and thermal c o n d u c t i v i t i e s ( K ~ , K ~ f) o r l i q u i d and
8,
vapor. For t h i s purposey a r a t h e r e l a b o r a t e system o f s u b r o u t i n e s was
developed which uses l a r g e d a t a t a b l e s and v a r i o u s i n t e r p o l a t i o n schemes
Val i d up t o u l t r a - h i g h pressures ( s e v e r a l megabars) and temperatures t o
3OOO"C.

Computer Code and A p p l i c a t i o n s

The system o f balance e q u a t i o n s i s s o l v e d by a f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e

t e c h n i q u e which has been d e s c r i b e d elsewhere ( P r i t c h e t t -- e t a l . , 1975).
E s s e n t i a l l y , an imp1 i c i t - t i m e , f i r s t - o r d e r (upstream) space r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
of t h e e q u a t i o n s i s employed; t h e i t e r a t i v e Alternating-Direction-Implicit
(ADI) technique i s used t o reduce a s i n g l e m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l problem t o an
e q u i v a l e n t sequence o f one- dimensional problems. These one-dimensiona
problems a r e , o f course, n o n l i n e a r i n themselves- - these n o n l i n e a r i t i e s
a r e removed by i t e r a t i o n w i t h i n t h e one- dimensional "module."

The numerical scheme has been i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o a s i m u l a t o r wh ch

possesses c o n s i d e r a b l e f l e x i b i l i t y . Several qeometries
- can be conside ed :
(1) 1- D s l a b , (2) 1- D cy1 i n d r i c a l , ( 3 ) l - D s p h e r i c a l , (4) 2-D p l a n a r o r
a r e a l , ( 5 ) 2-D a x i s y m m e t r i c , o r (6) 3- D C a r t e s i a n . Each computational
zone may c o n t a i n a d i f f e r e n t r o c k t y p e , and any f a c e o f any zone may be
a boundary. P r o v i s i o n i s made f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l boundary c o n d i t i o n o p t i o n s :
(1) impermeable, i n s u l a t e d , ( 2 ) impermeable, p r e s c r i b e d heat f l u x , ( 3 ) imper-
meable, p r e s c r i b e d temperature, (4) p r e s c r i b e d mass f l u x , i n s u l a t e d ,
( 5 ) p r e s c r i b e d mass and heat f l u x , ( 6 ) p r e s c r i b e d mass f l u x and temperature,
and (7) p r e s c r i b e d p r e s s u r e and f l u i d heat c o n t e n t . Boundary c o n d i t i o n
parameters may be f u n c t i o n s o f time.

The s i m u l a t o r has been e x t e n s i v e l y t e s t e d , u s i n g b o t h s i m p l i f i e d

a n a l y t i c problems w i t h known s o l u t i o n s and bench- scale experimental
r e s u l t s . Work i s c u r r e n t l y i n p r o g r e s s t o s i m u l a t e t h e f i e l d p r o d u c t i o n
h i s t o r y a t t h e Wairakei f i e l d i n New Zealand. Garg, e t a l . (1975) presented
some o f t h e t e s t r e s u l t s a g a i n s t l a b o r a t o r y d a t a a t t h e U n i t e d Nations Con-
f e r e n c e i n San F r a n c i s c o l a s t May. B r i e f l y , one- dimensional s i m u l a t i o n s
were performed o f l a b o r a t o r y experiments c a r r i e d o u t by Kruger and Ramey
(1974) and A r i h a r a (1974) a t S t a n f o r d . These experiments i n v o l v e d f l o w i n
a narrow 60 cm l o n g tube packed w i t h sandstone. I n these experiments, non-
isothermal and m u l t i p h a s e f l o w o c c u r r e d . R e s u l t s computed by t h e s i m u l a t o r
i n c l u d e d p r e s s u r e and temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n s w i t h i n t h e tube as func-
t i o n s of time--agreement was g e n e r a l l y w i t h i n e x p e r i m e n t a l s c a t t e r f o r a l l
cases considered.

-203-
 T h i s n u m e r i c a l r e s e r v o i r s i m u l a t o r i s t h e r e f o r e c o n s i d e r e d opera-
t i o n a l and possesses s e v e r a l d e s i r a b l e f e a t u r e s . Mass and energy a r e
conserved e x a c t l y , s i n c e t h e n u m e r i c a l scheme i s based s q u a r e l y upon d e n s i t y
and i n t e r n a l energy r a t h e r t h a n o t h e r a u x i l i a r y q u a n t i t i e s . Proper t r e a t -
ment o f f l o w - t y p e ( i . e . , p r e s c r i b e d - p r e s s u r e ) boundaries e l i m i n a t e s a r t i f i c i a l
c o m p u t a t i o n a l " energy sources" a t t h e s e boundaries, even under c o n d i t i o n s o f
f l o w r e v e r s a l . The use o f t h e i m p l i c i t upstream d i f f e r e n c e t e c h n i q u e sup-
presses t h e c o m p u t a t i o n a l " j i t t e r " produced by many o t h e r s i m u l a t o r s - -
a r t i f i c i a l o s c i l l a t i o n s o f t h i s s o r t o c c a s i o n a l l y cause c o m p u t a t i o n a l c a t a s -
t r o p h e s i n s i n g l e - p h a s e r e g i o n s near t h e s a t u r a t i o n l i n e .

--
A r e c e n t paper by Coats e t a l . (1973) d e s c r i b e s a s e r i o u s computa-
t i o n a l d i f f i c u l t y t h e y encountered when p e r f o r m i n g a 2-D a r e a l s i m u l a t i o n
o f a f i v e - s p o t s t e a m f l o o d o f an o i l f i e l d . The ' ' f i v e - s p o t " p a t t e r n i s a
c h e c k e r b o a r d - l i k e system w i t h a l t e r n a t i n g i n j e c t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n w e l l s .
Coats found t h a t i f he t r e a t e d t h i s problem w i t h a g r i d o r i e n t e d such t h a t
a l i n e c o n n e c t i n g a d j a c e n t p r o d u c t i o n and i n j e c t i o n w e l l s l i e s a t 45" w i t h
r e s p e c t t o t h e axes t h e computed w a t e r i n t e r f a c e expands outward i n a
r o u g h l y c i r c u l a r manner, whereas i f t h e g r i d i s o r i e n t e d w i t h c o o r d i n a t e
1 i n e s c o n n e c t i n g a d j a c e n t p r o d u c t i o n and i n j e c t i o n we1 I s , t h i n " f i n g e r s t '
o f i n j e c t e d f l u i d p e n e t r a t e outward r a p i d l y . Times o f water b r e a k t h r o u g h
a t t h e p r o d u c t i o n w e l l d i f f e r e d by a f a c t o r o f t h r e e f o r these c a l c u l a t i o n s .
To i n v e s t i g a t e t h i s problem, o u r geothermal r e s e r v o i r s i m u l a t o r was used t o
c a l c u l a t e a f i v e - s p o t c o l d water i n j e c t i o n i n t o a producing hot- water f i e l d ,
u s i n g b o t h g r i d o r i e n t a t i o n s . Times o f c o l d w a t e r b r e a k t h r o u g h computed i n
t h e s e two c a l c u l a t i o n s agreed w i t h i n a few p e r c e n t , w h i c h i s l e s s t h a n t h e
r e s o l u t i o n of t h e f i n i t e - d i f f e r e n c e g r i d employed. T h e r e f o r e , i t i s be-
l i e v e d t h a t t h e p r e s e n t method i s n o t s u b j e c t t o t h i s d i f f i c u l t y , a t l e a s t
f o r problems o f geothermal i n t e r e s t .

Several a p p l i e d c a l c u l a t i o n s have been performed so f a r u s i n g t h e

simulator. One s e r i e s o f computations r e p o r t e d a t t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s Sym-
posium by Garg e t a l . (1975) show t h a t , i n a bounded geothermal r e s e r v o i r
I-

w i t h no i n t e r n a l o r e x t e r n a l h e a t o r mass sources, r e i n j e c t i o n of waste

w a t e r w i l l s u b s t a n t i a l l y augment t h e p r o d u c i n g l i f e and t h e t o t a l energy
d e l i v e r a b i l i t y o f t h e system. A t p r e s e n t , under a p a r a l l e l in- house p r o j e c t ,
a s e r i e s o f c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e underway which i l l u s t r a t e t h e e f f e c t of i n -
f o r m a t i o n f l a s h i n g upon w e l l h e a d p r e s s u r e h i s t o r i e s d u r i n g drawdown and
s h u t - i n w e l l t e s t i n g (Rice, 1975). As mentioned e a r l i e r , a s i m u l a t i o n o f
t h e Wairakei system i s now b e i n g undertaken.

Coupling o f t h e s i m u l a t o r w i t h t h e rock- response f i n i t e - e l e m e n t code

i s now i n p r o g r e s s . Completion o f t h i s t a s k w i l l p e r m i t more a c c u r a t e s e i s -
m i c and subsidence p r e d i c t i o n s , and w i l l a l s o a i d i n e x t e n d i n g o u r c a p a b i l i t y
t o i n c l u d e cases wherein r o c k c o m p o s i t i o n produces a s i g n i f i c a n t f r a c t i o n o f
t h e r e s e r v o i r d r i v e (such a s t h e geopressured systems of t h e G u l f C o a s t ) .
Also i n progress i s t h e extension of t h e water equation o f s t a t e t o consider
b r i n e s , and t h e a d d i t i o n o f a s o l u t e - c o n s e r v a t i o n e q u a t i o n t o t h e s i m u l a t o r .
These f e a t u r e s a r e d e s i r a b l e when c o n s i d e r i n g v e r y s a l i n e systems such as
t h e S a l t o n Sea geothermal f i e l d .

-204-
References

A r i h a r a , N., "A Study o f Non-Isothermal S i n g l e and Two-Phase Flow Through

C o n s o l i d a t e d Sandstones," S t a n f o r d Geothermal Program Report
SGP-TR-2, 1974.

B r o N n e l l , D. H., J r s . , S. K. Garg and J. W. P r i t c h e t t , "Computer S i m u l a t i o n

o f Geothermal R e s e r v o i r s , ' ' S o c i e t y o f Petroleum Engineers Paper
SPE 5381, 1975.

Coats, K. N., W. D. George and B. E. Marcus, " Three-Dimensional S i m u l a t i o n

of Steamflooding," S o c i e t y o f Petroleum Engineers Paper SPE 4500
1973
Garg, S. K., J . W. P r i t c h e t t and D. H. B r o w n e l l , Jr., " Transport o f Mass
and Energy i n Porous Media,'' Proceedings Second U.N. Symposium on
Development and Use o f Geothermal Resources, San F r a n c i s c o ,
May 19-29, 1975.

Kruger, P . , and H. Ramey, J r . , " S t i m u l a t i o n and R e s e r v o i r E n g i n e e r i n g o f

Geothermal Resources," S t a n f o r d Geothermal Program Report
SGP-TR-1, 1974.
P r i t c h e t t , J. W . , S. K. Garg, D. H. B r o w n e l l , J r . , and H. B . Levine,
"Geohydrological Environmental E f f e c t s of Geothermal Power
Production - Phase I , ' [ Systems, Science and Software Report,
SSS-R-75-2733, 1975.
Rice, L. F . , 'IPressure Drawdown and Build- Up A n a l y s i s i n Geothermal
R e s e r v o i r s , I ' Systems, Science and S o f t w a r e I n t e r n a l Report,
IR&D P r o j e c t 93102-02, 1975.

-205-
 METHODS OF SOLUTION OF THE EQUATIONS FOR CONVECTION
I N POROUS MEDIA, WITH GEOTHERMAL APPLICATIONS
R. A. Wooding*
A p p l i e d Mathematics D i v i s i o n
Department o f S c i e n t i f i c and I n d u s t r i a l Research
W e l l i n g t o n , New Zealand

V a r i o u s approaches t o t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h e e q u a t i o n s o f thermal
c o n v e c t i o n i n f l u i d s may be c l a s s i f i e d , , f o r convenience, under such headings
as: ( 1 ) t h e Stuart- Watson method, which d e a l s w i t h t h e b e h a v i o r of f i n i t e -
a m p l i t u d e i n s t a b i l i t i e s , f o r which R/Rc : 1 , where R i s t h e R a y l e i g h
number and Rc i s i t s c r i t i c a l v a l u e f o r n e u t r a l s t a b i l i t y ; (2) the Galerkin
method, a well- known n u m e r i c a l t e c h n i q u e u t i l i z i n g t r u n c a t e d expansions i n
o r t h o g o n a l f u n c t i o n s , w h i c h has been a p p l i e d up t o R/Rc z O(10); (3) t h e
v a r i a t i o n a l method, which seeks t o e s t a b l i s h bounds on t h e h e a t t r a n s p o r t ,
f o r g i v e n R a y l e i g h number, up t o l a r g e R/Rc; ( 4 ) d i r e c t numerical s o l u t i o n
o f t h e c o n v e c t i o n e q u a t i o n s , u s u a l l y i n f i n i t e - d i f f e r e n c e form, up t o
R/Rc 2 O(10).

These t e c h n i q u e s a r e c o n s i d e r e d i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e e q u a t i o n s o f con-
v e c t i o n of v a r i a b l e - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d i n a porous medium.

Since t h e p a r t i c u l a r a p p l i c a t i o n i s i n t e n d e d t o be geothermal convec-

t i o n , many s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s may have t o be accepted. F i r s t , i t i s assumed
t h a t t h e f l o w can be t r e a t e d as f l o w t h r o u g h porous media. T h i s i s n o t
n e c e s s a r i l y t r u e , a l t h o u g h t h e a p p r o x i m a t i o n becomes more s a t i s f a c t o r y i f
o n l y l a r g e - s c a l e motions a r e c o n s i d e r e d . Secondly, t h e medium may n o t be
i s o t r o p i c . T h i s i s n o t a s e r i o u s d i f f i c u l t y , b u t i s o t r o p y w i l l be assumed
f o r convenience. T h i r d l y , s a l t may be t r a n s p o r t e d as w e l l as h e a t , and can
e x e r t an i n f l u e n c e upon f l u i d buoyancy. Evidently, the transport o f s a l t
would i n v o l v e a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d g e n e r a l i z a t i o n o f t h e t r e a t m e n t f o r h e a t
t r a n s p o r t ( a l t h o u g h some new phenomena a r e e n c o u n t e r e d ) , and i s n o t c o n s i -
dered here. F o u r t h l y , chemical i n t e r a c t i o n o f t h e f l u i d w i t h t h e medium,
which would i n t r o d u c e g r e a t c o m p l i c a t i o n s , i s assumed t o be n e g l i g i b l e .

Very l a r g e temperature d i f f e r e n c e s a r e encountered i n geothermal

a p p l i c a t i o n s , so t h a t t h e dependence upon t e m p e r a t u r e o f f l u i d p r o p e r t i e s
needs t o be t a k e n i n t o account. The most i m p o r t a n t o f t h e s e i s t h e v a r i a -
t i o n of v i s c o s i t y , which may i n v o l v e an o r d e r - o f - m a g n i t u d e change. The
f l u i d and porous medium a r e assumed t o be i n c o m p r e s s i b l e , b u t d i l a t i o n and
c o n t r a c t i o n o f t h e f l u i d w i t h temperature changes may l e a d t o a 20% change
i n d e n s i t y , w h i c h i s o f some s i g n i f i c a n c e . T h i s i s most r e a d i l y taken i n t o
a c c o u n t , w h i l e r e t a i n i n g a c o n v e n i e n t form o f t h e e q u a t i o n s , by i n t r o d u c i n g
a vector p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e mass f l o w r a t e , and r e l a t i n g t h i s t o t h e
volume f l o w r a t e q by
-

Here p i s the f l u i d d e n s i t y a t temperature T, and po i s a density

*NSF F o r e i g n Energy Research Scholar a t Colorado S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , F o r t

C o l l i n s , 1975-76.

- 206-
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a r e f e r e n c e temperature To. Then t h e e q u a t i o n s o f
c o n t i n u i t y , m o t i o n and heat t r a n s p o r t t a k e a convenient form ( c . f . Wooding,
1957, 1960):

- E- +aPV * q = o
at -m

1
- V+
P kg -
P
+-V 4 = o
- k m,

Here t i s time, P i s pressure, E i s t h e p o r o s i t y o f t h e medium,

E = C(l - €)cSps + ECP}/C~, (5)

i s t h e r a t i o o f t h e heat c a p a c i t y per u n i t volume o f s a t u r a t e d medium
( a t temperature T ) t o t h a t of t h e f l u i d ( a t temperature T o ) > c s i g n i f i e s
s p e c i f i c heat and s u f f i x s denotes t h e s o l i d medium. Also, k i s the
i n t r i n s i c permeability, v i s the kinematic v i s c o s i t y o f the f l u i d , K
i s t h e thermal d i f f u s i v i t y o f t h e s a t u r a t e d medium, here taken c o n s t a n t ,
g is t h e magnitude o f g r a v i t y and k i s a u n i t v e c t o r , d i r e c t e d v e r t i c a l l y
upwards. W h i l e Equations (2) and ( 4 7 a r e s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d c o n s e r v a t i o n
r e l a t i o n s , Equation (3) ( D a r c y ' s Law) i s a f o r c e - f l u x r e l a t i o n which i n v o l v e s
some assumptions- - notably t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y k .

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e f o r e g o i n g , t h e r e must e x i s t an e q u a t i o n o f s t a t e
f o r each temperature- dependent q u a n t i t y . Here t h e r e l a t i o n f o r d e n s i t y o f t e n
i s t a k e n as

P - Po
- -
T - To
- a
PO T*
i . e . , t h e Boussinesq a p p r o x i m a t i o n , b e i n g t h e temperature c o e f f i c i e n t
o f l i n e a r expansion o f t h e f l u i d . Thermal expansion o f t h e medium i s
neglected. A more s a t i s f a c t o r y r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e thermal expansion law
requires a polynomial.

The v a r i a t i o n o f v i s c o s i t y w i t h temperature i s q u i t e s t r o n g l y non-

linear. For geothermal a p p l i c a t i o n s a s i m p l e r e l a t i o n f o r water i s

where the c o e f f i c i e n t a may be O(10) (Wooding, 1957). T h i s c o n s t i t u t e s

one o f t h e main o b s t a c l e s t o t h e d i r e c t use o f some o f t h e standard methods
o f s o l u t i o n o f the c o n v e c t i o n equations.

-207-
 A f u r t h e r i m p o r t a n t source o f n o n l i n e a r i t y i s t h e term gm*VT i n ( 4 ) .
Since most c o n v e c t i o n s t u d i e s i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e correspond t o t h e case o f
c o n s t a n t v i s c o s i t y , t h e l a t t e r n o n l i n e a r i t y has r e c e i v e d c o n s i d e r a b l e a t t e n -
t i o n , whereas t h e p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n o f v a r i a b l e v i s c o s i t y has r e c e i v e d
relatively l i t t l e .

I n v i s c o u s - f l u i d c o n v e c t i o n , t h e i m p o r t a n t case o f a small v a r i a t i o n
o f v i s c o s i t y has been t r e a t e d by p e r t u r b a t i o n methods by Palm (19601, Segel
and S t u a r t (1962), Palm and Oiann (1964), Segel (1965a, b) and o t h e r s , w i t h
c o n s i d e r a b l e success, s i n c e t h e reason f o r t h e e x i s t e n c e o f hexagonal con-
v e c t i o n c e l l s o v e r a f i n i t e range o f Reynolds number has been s a t i s f a c t o r i l y
explained.

An e q u i v a l e n t a n a l y s i s f o r f l o w i n porous media has n o t been c a r r i e d

o u t , as f a r as i s known. However, most cases o f i n t e r e s t i n porous-media
f l o w , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h geothermal a p p l i c a t i o n s , i n v o l v e v e r y l a r g e changes
o f v i s c o s i t y , f o r which a p e r t u r b a t i o n a n a l y s i s on t h e above l i n e s would
n o t be s a t i s f a c t o r y . G e n e r a l l y , i t i s c o n s i d e r e d necessary t o r e s o r t t o
numerical techniques., as i n papers by Wooding (1957, 1963) and r e c e n t
s t u d i e s by Horne (1975) and Kassoy and Zebib (1975), o r by t h e use o f
v a r i a t i o n a l techniques (e.g., Wooding, 1960, 1975).

Techniques o f S o l u t i o n o f t h e Convection Equations

A convenient c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s t h e f o l l o w i n g :

1 . The Stuart- Watson Method ( S t u a r t , 1958; Watson, 1960; S t u a r t ,

1964; e t c . ) i s used f o r t r e a t i n g f i n i te-amp1 i tude i n s t a b i 1 i t y problems,
i . e . , t o f i n d answers t o t h e q u e s t i o n : What happens t o an i n f i n i t e s m a l
d i s t u r b a n c e as i t grows t o f i n i t e a m p l i t u d e i n a s i t u a t i o n which i s l i n e a r l y
u n s t a b l e ? C l e a r l y , a s i n g l e d i s t u r b a n c e mode w i l l , t h r o u g h n o n l i n e a r i t i e s ,
g e n e r a t e a "normal-mode cascade'' (Segel, 1 9 6 5 ~ )and these i n t u r n w i l l
i n t e r a c t t o m o d i f y t h e fundamental d i s t u r b a n c e a m p l i t u d e . Generally the
e f f e c t i s t o i n t r o d u c e n o n l i n e a r damping o f t h e fundamental, so t h a t t h e
d i s t u r b a n c e grows t o a f i n i t e a m p l i t u d e and a new s t a b l e e q u i l i b r i u m r e s u l t s .
However, s p e c i a l cases o f r e i n f o r c e m e n t (e.g., resonance) may be encountered.

Since t h e Stuart- Watson method i n v o l v e s expansion i n normal modes

about t h e n e u t r a l d i s t u r b a n c e , and t h e expansion i s t r u n c a t e d a f t e r t h e t h i r d -
o r d e r terms ( c . f . Segel, 1965a), i t i s l i m i t e d t o f l o w s i t u a t i o n s where theam-
p l i t u d e remains small ( a l t h o u g h f i n i t e ) t h r o u g h o u t a l l time. This generally
r e s t r i c t s i t s use i n c o n v e c t i o n problems t o cases where t h e R a y l e i g h number
R 2 Rc - - t h e c r i t i c a l v a l u e f o r n e u t r a l s t a b i l i t y . I n s p i t e o f t h i s l i m i t a -
t i o n , t h e method y i e l d s g r e a t p h y s i c a l i n s i g h t i n t o mechanisms o f f l u i d
instability.

2. The G a l e r k i n Method ( V e r o n i s , 1966; S t r a u s , 1974; Clever and

Busse, 1974; e t c . ) i s one o f t h e o l d e s t and b e s t known. B r i e f l y , expansions
o f t h e dependent v a r i a b l e s i n t h e c o n v e c t i o n e q u a t i o n s a r e sought i n terms o f
orthonormal f u n c t i o n s which s a t i s f y t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n s term by term.
The method o f t r u n c a t i o n o f these s e r i e s , f i r s t d e s c r i b e d by V e r o n i s , i s t o

-208-
choose a "maximum total wavenumber," i.e., to retain only those terms for
which the sum of the wavenumbers in the various spatial directions does not
exceed a given upper bound. When the differential equation is linear, it
is possible to obtain relationships between the coefficients by term-by-term
comparison. Otherwise each partial differential equation may be reduced to
a set of ordinary differential equations (say in time) or an algebraic equa-
tion, by multiplying by successive terms of the orthonormal set, and
integrating over space. The resultant set of ordinary differential equations,
or of algebraic equations, can then be solved by conventional numerical
methods.
For the case of two-dimensional convection in a porous medium with
constant viscosity, Straus (1974) has calculated the dependence of Nusselt
number (Nu) upon Rayleigh number up to R 2 380, above which point (from
1 inearized stabi 1 i ty analysis), two-dimensional solutions are unstable.
For R > 100, the (R, Nu)-curve shows a significant change in slope. The
results are in good agreement with experimental measurements.

3 . The variational method of Howard (1963) and Busse (1969) has been
used by Busse and Joseph (1972) and Gupta and Joseph (1973) to calculate
upper bounds to the Nusselt number, a s a function of Rayleigh number, for
three-dimensional convection in a porous medium at constant viscosity. In
this approach, the equations of motion and heat transport are recast as a
variational problem, involving averages over the entire porous layer. Then
the dependent variables appearing in the variational problem are replaced
by a "class of admissible functions" which includes all statistically sta-
tionary solutions, and which satisfies the boundary conditions and any
supplementary conditions which may be specified. The Euler equations of the
variational problem embrace a wide class of solutions, corresponding to
extreme values of the system, and these may be represented by expansions in
orthonormal functions based upon horizontal wavenumbers an. A single wave-
number is adequate up to R = 221.5 (Gupta and Joseph, 1973), at which
point the solution bifurcates and two a-values are needed. These calcula-
tions have been carried up to about R = 500 with very good agreement with
experiment. At higher R , an asymptotic (boundary-layer) analysis based on
that of Chan (1971) predicts appropriate qualitative behavior, but these
results are not in good quantitative agreement with the numerical studies.

4. Methods o f numerical solution of the convection equations are

now the subject o f a very large literature, and extensive reviews such a s
those by Orszag and Israel i (1974), or of Horne (1975) for porous media,
are necessary to ensure adequate treatments. Because of limitations in
computer capacity and speed, most convection studies have been limited to
two-dimensional flows. Convection in viscous fluids with large variations
in viscosity has been considered, for two-dimensional flows, by Torrance
and Turcotte (1971) and by Houston and De Bremaecker (1974).

Horne (1975) has carried out some calculations with variable viscos-
ity for two-dimensional convection in porous media. in discussing his
results, Horne comments that equally-vigorous convection occurs with variable
viscosity at lower apparent Rayleigh number than in the constant-viscosity
case, since R is defined for T = To, where viscosity is high. He also

-209-
observes that the representation of a variable-viscosity convection system
with a constant-viscosity model is "inexact, but not entirely without use."
This suggests that an intermediate value of Rayleigh number might be found
which corresponds to the constant-viscosity value at the same Nusselt
number. However, in studying the onset of convection in porous media with
variable viscosity, Kassoy and Zebib (1975) conclude that the viscosity
variations have substantial effects upon the flow pattern and that a mean
value of viscosity cannot be taken to estimate a suitable intermediate
value of R.

Numerical studies of convection in three dimensions in a viscous

fluid, based on the early work of Chorin (1966), have been performed by
Veltishchev and Zelnin (1975), taking viscosity constant. In this approach
the equations are represented in finite-difference form, using ''primitive"
variables, i .e., velocity components (u, v, w), temperature and pressure.
Calculations were carried out in a rectilinear domain with horizontal
dimensions 2.34 and 4.03 times the depth. (In common with other numerical
models, the domain is limited to a finite box.) Interesting stable convec-
tive flow patterns are obtained, notably two-dimensional rolls for low to
intermediate values of the Rayleigh number, three-dimensional flows in a
higher, somewhat narrower, range, and unsteady motions above that. These
flow transitions are accompanied by changes in slope of the Rayleigh
number-heat flux curve.

For three-dimensional Convection in a porous medium, relatively few

references can be found. Holst and Aziz (1972) used a combination of
successive over-relaxation for the solution of the equation of motion
(reduced to Poisson's equation) with centered differencing for the first
derivations of the heat equation. However, the more advanced techniques of
direct solution utilized by Horne and O'Sullivan (1974) and Horne (1975)
are faster and more accurate. These employ an Arakawa (1966) finite-
difference scheme to evaluate the terms arising from gm*VT in ( b ) , and an
extension of the Buneman algorithm (Buzbee, Golub and Nielson, 1970) to
evaluate the Poisson equation. Horne (1975) has used these techniques to
calculate solutions for three-dimensional convection in a cubical box,
taking a 17 x 17 x 17 mesh, at R = 500. For a uniformly heated lower
boundary, convection is found to take the form of two-dimensional rolls,
even when the initial perturbation is three-dimensional.

It is planned to publish a more detailed treatment at a later date.

-2 10-
References

Arakawa, A , , 1966, Computational design f o r long- term numerical i n t e g r a t i o n

o f t h e e q u a t i o n s o f f l u i d m o t i o n : Two-dimensional incompressible f l o w ;
P a r t I , J . Comp. Phys. 1, 119- 43.

Buzbee, B. L., C . H. Golub and C. W. Nielson, 1970. On d i r e c t methods o f

s o l v i n g P o i s s o n ' s e q u a t i o n s ; S. I .A.M. J. Num. Anal. 7, 627-56.

Busse, F. H., 1969, On Howard's upper bound f o r heat t r a n s p o r t by t u r b u l e n t

convection; J. F l u i d Mech. 37, 457-77.

Busse, F. H. and D. D. Joseph, 1972, Bounds f o r heat t r a n s f e r i n a porous

l a y e r ; J. F l u i d Mech. 54, 521-43.

Chan, S . , 1971, I n f i n i t e P r a n d t l number t u r b u l e n t c o n v e c t i o n ; Studies i n

Appl. Math., 50, ( l ) , 13-49.

Chorin, A . J., 1966, Numerical s t u d y o f thermal c o n v e c t i o n i n a f l u i d

l a y e r heated f r o m below; AEC Res. and Dev. Rep. No. NYU-1480-61, New
York U n i v . , Aug.

C l e v e r , R. M. and F. H. Busse, 1974, T r a n s i t i o n t o tirne-dependent c o n v e c t i o n ;

J. F l u i d Mech. 65, 625-45.

Gupta, V. P. and D. D. Joseph, 1973, Bounds f o r heat t r a n s p o r t i n a porous

l a y e r ; J. F l u i d Mech. 57, 491-514.

H o l s t , P. H., and K. A z i z , 1972, T r a n s i e n t three- dimensional n a t u r a l convec-

t i o n i n c o n f i n e d porous media; I n t . J. Heat Mass T r a n s f e r , 15, 73-90.

Horne, R. N. and M. J. O ' S u l l i v a n , 1974, O s c i l l a t o r y c o n v e c t i o n i n a porous

medium heated from below; J. F l u i d Mech. 66, 339-52.

Horne, R. N., 1975, T r a n s i e n t e f f e c t s i n geothermal c o n v e c t i v e systems; Ph.D.

Thesis, School o f E n g i n e e r i n g , Univ. o f Auckland, New Zealand, 112 pp.

Houston, M. H., J r . , and J. De Bremaecker, 1974, AD1 s o l u t i o n o f f r e e con-

v e c t i o n i n a v a r i a b l e v i s c o s i t y f l u i d ; J. Comp. Phys. 16, 221-39.

Howard, L. N., 1963, Heat t r a n s p o r t by t u r b u l e n t c o n v e c t i o n ; J. F l u i d

Mech. 17, 405-32.

Kassoy, D. R. and A. Zebib, 1975, The i n f l u e n c e of v a r i a b l e v i s c o s i t y due

t o l a r g e temperature d i f f e r e n c e s on t h e o n s e t o f c o n v e c t i o n i n porous media;
Rep. CUMER 75-4, Dept. o f Mech. Eng., U n i v . o f Colorado, 18 pp.

Orszag, S. A. and M. I s r a e l i , 1974, Numerical s i m u l a t i o n o f v i s c o u s

incompressible flows; Ann. Rev. F l u i d Mech. 6, 281-318.

Palm, E., 1960, On t h e tendency towards hexagonal c e l l s i n steady convection;

J. F l u i d Mech. 8, 183-92.

-21 1-
Palm, E. and H. Oiann, 1964, Contribution to the theory of cellular thermal
convection; J . Fluid Mech. 19, 353-65.

Segel, L. A. and J. T. Stuart, 1962, On the question o f the preferred mode

in cellular thermal convection; J. Fluid Mech. 13, 289-306.
Segel, L. A., 1965a, The structure o f non-linear cellular solutions to the
Boussinesq equations; J. Fluid Mech. 21, 345-58.

Segel, L . A., 1965b, The non-linear interaction of a finite number of distur-

bances to a layer of fluid heated from below; J. Fluid Mech. 21, 359-84.

Segel, L. A., 1965c, Non-linear hydrodynamic stability theory and its appli-
cations to thermal convection and curved flows. In Non-Equilibrium Thermo-
dynamics Variational Techniques and Stability. R T J . Donne1 ly, R. Herman,
I . Prigogine, eds., Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1 1 1 .

Straus, J. M., 1974, Large amplitude convection in porous media; J. Fluid

Mech. 64, 51-63.

Stuart, J. T., 1958, On the non-linear mechanics of hydrodynamic stability;

J. Fluid Mech. 4, 1-21.
Stuart, J. T., 1964, On the cellular patterns in thermal convection;
J. Fluid Mech. 18, 481-98.

Torrance, K. E . and D. C. Turcotte, 1971, Thermal convection with large

viscosity variations; J. Fluid Mech. 47, 113-25

Veltishchev, N . F. and A. A. Zelnin, 975, Numer cal simulation of cellular

convection in air; J. Fluid Mech. 68 353-68.

Veronis, G., 1966, Motions at subcrit cal values of the Rayleigh number in
a rotating fluid; J . Fluid Mech. 24, 545-54.

Watson, J., 1960, On the non-linear mechanics of wave disturbances in stable

and unstable parallel f l o w s ; Part 2; The development of a solution for plane
Poisenille flow and for plane conette flow; J. Fluid Mech. 9, 371-89.

Wooding, R. A., 1957, Steady state free thermal convection of liquid in a

saturated permeable medium; J. Fluid Mech. 2, 273-85.

Wooding, R. A., 1960, Rayleigh instability of a thermal boundary layer in

flow through a porous medium; J. Fluid Mech. 9, 183-92.

Wooding, R. A,, 1963, Convection in a saturated porous medium at large

Rayleigh number or Peclet number; J . Fluid Mech. 15, 527-44.

Wooding, R. A., 1975, Investigation of similarity criteria for a geothermal

system; Part I , Theoretical analysis.

-21 2-
 A HELE-SHAW MODEL OF HEAT CONVECTION I N POROUS M E D I A
UNDER GEOTHERMAL C O N D I T I O N S

H. W. Shen
Department o f C i v i 1 Engineering
Colorado S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
F o r t C o l l i n s , Colorado

Evidence from New Zealand i n d i c a t e s t h a t geothermal fiaelds occur a t

reasonably r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s o f about 15 k i lometers apart. Investigators
have speculated t h a t these r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s may be i n d i c a t i o n s o f t h e s c a l e
of the heat convection c e l l s .

Wooding (1975) has described t h e f o u r we1 1-known approaches t o

s o l v e the equations of c o n t i n u i t y , motion and heat t r a n s p o r t f o r heat con-
v e c t i o n i n porous media. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t o date, none o f t h e w methods has
p r o v i d e d s o l u t i o n s f o r a i l geothermal c o n d i t i o n s w i t h a Rayleigh number up
t o the o r d e r o f 1000 and a l s o allowed t h e v i s c o s i t y t o v a r y . I n New Zealand,
the p e r m e a b i l i t y i s i n t h e o r d e r o f 3 x 10-11 cm2, t h e change o f d e n s i t y Ap
i s 0.2 gm/cm3, the l e n g t h s c a l e L i s about 5 x 105 cm, t h e dynamic v i s c o s i t y
p i s 0.001 t o 0.01 p o i s e (dependin on t h e temperature o f the f l u i d ) and t h e
thermal d i f f u s i v i t y k i s 0.003 cm /sec. 9 The range o f Rayleigh number would
be from 100- 1000.

The Stuart- Watson method has been a p p l i e d t o small v i s c o s i t y change

and low Rayleigh number ( R * Rc t h e c r i t i c a l value f o r n e u t r a l s t a b i l i t y ) .
F o r h i g h Rayleigh number t h e method i s n o t a p p l i c a b l e . The G a l e r k i n method
has been a p p l i e d t o two- dimensional constant v i s c o s i t y cases. The v a r i a -
t i o n a l method has been a p p l i e d t o three- dimensional constant v i s c o s i t y cases
with R - 500. The methods of numerical s o l u t i o n have been a p p l i e d t o b o t h
constant and v a r i a b l e v i s c o s i t y cases. Due t o t h e g r e a t c o s t i n v o l v e d i n
computer s o l u t i o n , a r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e mesh was used a t R = 5010. The accur-
acy o f these r e s u l t s i s questionable.

Since none o f these above-mentioned equations can p r o v i d e s o l u t i o n s

f o r v a r i a b l e v i s c o s i t y i n h i g h Rayleigh number regions, p h y s i c a l models a r e
p a r t i c u l a r l y a t t r a c t i v e a t t h i s stage. I f p r o p e r l y designed, p h y s i c a l models
should p r o v i d e ( 1 ) approximate f i n a l s o l u t i o n s ; (2) v e r i f i c a t i o n of numerical
and a n a l y t i c a l s o l u t i o n s ; (3) a s o l u t i o n o b t a i n e d from keeping v a r i a b l e -
v i s c o s i t y terms i n t h e e q u a t i o n versus a s o l u t i o n o b t a i n e d froin assuming
constant v i s c o s i t y i n t h e equation; and ( 4 ) change o f s o l u t i o n forms w i t h
increased Ray l e i gh number.

Analys i s

Two-dimensional experiments cannot f u l y represent the three-

dimensional s i t u a t i o n o f a geothermal region, b u t they a r e u s e f u l t o demon-
s t r a t e t h e i n f l u e n c e o f l a r g e v a r i a t i o n s o f v scosi t y on the form o f
convecting plumes o f h o t water.

-21 3-
 For two- dimensional c o n v e c t i o n i n the (x,z) plane, the usual
s t ream-f u n c t ion r e p r e s e n t a t i o n

g i v e s , a f t e r e l i m i n a t i n g p r e s s u r e from D a r c y ' s law,

-a (a x)
a* + -a (a 5)
a$ ae
= -
ax az ax
where 8 i s a dimensionless f l u i d d e n s i t y , and a = ( v / k ) / ( u / k ) o is
a dimensionless v i s c o s i t y parameter. The s u f f i x o r e f e r s t o the lowest
temperature i n the system. T y p i c a l l y , a w i l l vary from 1 a t t h e c o l d
end o f the range t o about 0.1 a t the h o t end--an order- of- magnitude change.

A f u r t h e r e q u a t i o n d e s c r i b e s heat o r mass t r a n s p o r t

(3)

where

(4)

i s the Rayleigh number. Also, in (3) -r i s a dimensionless time

def ined by

The parameters i n (4) and (5) a r e defined i n terms o f the problem

under study. ko is the p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e medium, g i s g r a v i t y , Ap i s
the d e n s i t y d i f f e r e n c e between h o t and c o l d , uo is the v i s c o s i t y o f the c o l d
fluid, K i s the d i f f u s i v i t y o f t h e d e n s i t y - c o n t r o l l i n g p r o p e r t y , and L i s
a l e n g t h s c a l e - - t y p i c a l l y the depth i n t h e case o f a s a t u r a t e d porous l a y e r
i n which convection i s t a k i n g place, E = ( ( 1 - n ) csps + ncp)/cp i s the r a t i o
of the heat c a p a c i t y o f the medium t o t h a t o f the f l u i d . The s u f f i x s r e f e r s
t o t h e medium.

Two-dimensional systems governed by the above equations may be

solved, f o r example, by p h y s i c a l m o d e l l i n g o r by computer methods.

Descr io t i on o f He le-Shaw Mode 1

A t y p i c a l p h y s i c a l model o f two- dimensional convection i s shown i n

F i g . 1 below. A Hele-Shaw c e l l i s formed from two s t r i p s o f 1/4-inch t h i c k
p o l i s h e d p l a t e g l a s s , separated by s t r i p s of w a t e r p r o o f adhesive tape. In
t h e example shown, a c a v i t y 20 cm x 1 cm is formed i n the (x,z) plane. The
t h i c k n e s s o f the c a v i t y i s v e r y small so t h a t a slow viscous f l o w occurs
between the p l a t e s . The f l o w averaged between the p l a t e s i s analogous t o
two- dimensional f l o w i n a porous medium o f p e r m e a b i l i t y k = d2/12 cm2, where
d i s t h e p l a t e spacing.

-2 1 4-
 Figure 1 . P l a n View o f Hele-Shaw Cell

The c e l l i s mounted w i t h the x - a x i s h o r i z o n t a l , and w i t h t h e z - a x i s

a t an angle a t o the h o r i z o n t a l s o t h a t t h e e f f e c t i v e g r a v i t y component i s
g s i n a . T h i s i s u s e f u l f o r a d j u s t i n g the Rayleigh number R t o a
d e s i r e d value.

I n the case shown, the c e l l i s f i l l e d w i t h a f l u i d o f d e n s i t y p 1

and v i s c o s i t y (say) which represents a geothermally heated f l u i d . The
c e l l i s immersed i n a t r a n s p a r e n t tank f i l l e d w i t h f l u i d o f d e n s i t y p o
and v i s c o s i t y u0, r e p r e s e n t i n g c o l d groundwater.

Since the w i d t h o f the c e l l i s very l a r g e compared w i t h L, the

s i d e w a l l boundary c o n d i t i o n s w i l l be ignored. The f o l l o w i n g- i n i t i a l and
boundary c o n d i t i o n s a r e taken t o apply:

W =o,e=o (t=o, - -
O < Z < l )

W = E x) 9 e = 1 (t=O, z=1>

where w is vertica velocity, ~ ( x ) i s a small n o i s e signa

w = 0, -
ae =0 ( t > 0, 2 = 0)
az
( i n s u l a t i n g impermeable boundary c o n d i t i o n )
aw
-=
az
0 , e - 1 (t>o, z = i )

( c o n s t a n t pressure, constant d e n s i t y , boundary c o n d i t i o n ) .

-2 15-
 These c o n d i t i o n s c o u l d correspond t o a geothermal f i e l d s i t u a t i o n
where a p e r i o d o f v o l c a n i c i t y has i n j e c t e d a l a r g e amount o f heat, i n t h e
form o f magmatic steam, i n t o a deep groundwater a q u i f e r , so t h a t t h e whole
a q u i f e r i s i n i t i a l l y very h o t . A f t e r t h e v o l c a n i c i t y has q u i e t e d down,
c o l d s u r f a c e water i n t r u d e s from above, d i s p l a c i n g the h o t water which
appears a t geothe m a 1 a reas.

The experiment i s aimed

(1) To model t h e deep groundwater motion ( a t l e a s t i n two dimensions)

which i s n o t a c c e s s i b l e t o geophysical o b s e r v a t i o n a t the
p r e s e n t time,

(2) To p r o v i d e an experimental r e l a t i o n s h i p between the heat f l u x

o u t o f the r e g i o n (expressed as t h e N u s s e l t number) and t h e
Rayleigh number.

I t i s necessary t h a t t h e f l u i d i n i t i a l l y i n the c e l l be marked w i t h

a dye so t h a t c o n v e c t i v e motions may be photographed and s t u d i e d . T h i s
c o l o r e d f l u i d can a l s o be used f o r p h o t o m e t r i c work- - to determine how much
o f a t h e i n i t i a l f l u i d has been d i s p l a c e d from t h e c e l l and so a r r i v e a t e s t i -
mates f o r the N u s s e l t number, a t v a r i o u s values o f t h e Rayleigh number.

F i e l d values o f parameters based upon measurements i n t h e Taupo

V o l c a n i c Zone, p a r t i c u l a r l y Wai r a k e i geothermal f i e l d , g i v e the f o l l o w i n g
approximate r e s u l t s :

Permeability k (vertical) = 3 x 1 0 - l ' cm2

Density d i f f e r e n c e Ap = 0.2 gm/cm3

V e r t i c a l scale L = 5Km

Cold water v i s c o s i t y po = 10-2 p o i s e

Thermal d i f f u s i v i t y K = 3 x 10-3 cm2/sec

R = kgApL -*
3 x x 103 x 0.2 x 5 x l o 5 =
Po IC 10-2 3 10-3
F o r the time constant based upon c o l d water v i s c o s i t y , E = 1
, and
--IELL 1 Q 1 2 seconds o r roughly 30,000 years. However, s i n c e the h o t water
R K
v i s c o s i t y p l 9 0.1 po, t h e Rayleigh number based on t h i s value would be
roughly 1000, and the t i m e constant would be reduced t o the o r d e r o f 3000
years. It seems l i k e l y t h a t the f l o w p a t t e r n would e x h i b i t some p r o p e r t i e s
o f b o t h h i g h and low Rayleigh number.

I n two recent experimental runs using sucrose s o l u t i o n s i n the

Hele-Shaw c e l l , the parameters were approximately as f o l l o w s :

-2 16-
 Run No. 3 Run No. 4
1 cm 1 cm

2.63 x cm2 2.63 x l o m 5 cm2

1.28 gm/cm3 1.28 gm/cm3

0.5 p o i s e 0.5 p o i s e

1.16 gm/cm3 1.225 gm/cm3

0.05 p o i s e 0.167 p o i s e

10 3
0.3 x loa5 cm2/sec 0.3 x loT5 cm2/sec

0.12 gm/cm3 0.055 gm/cm3

6O.5 3".5
250 50

1 1

0.37 hour 1.5 hours

74 49
The second- last e n t r i e s i n t h i s t a b l e a r e t h e cold- water time scales,
w h i l e the f i n a l e n t r i e s , T(max), a r e the maximum values o f dimensionless
t i m e achieved e x p e r i m e n t a l l y .

I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t T = 50 corresponds t o an elapsed
t i m e of 1.5 m i l l i o n years on t h e p r o t o t y p e cold- water time scale, o r
150,000 years on the hot- water time scale. These f i g u r e s b r a c k e t t h e
e s t i m a t e d l i f e of t h e geothermal a c t i v i t y i n t h e Taupo Volcan'ic Zone. It
follows t h a t the hypothesis of a phase o f i n i t i a l volcanism i r n o t c o n t r a -
d i c t e d by experiment, which shows t h a t plumes o f h o t water art: s t i l l p r e s e n t
a t T = 50.

As a supplement t o Run No. 4, a t R = 50 and pO/pl = 3, a computer

run was made u s i n g a program which s o l v e s t h e convection equations by
f i n i t e - d i f f e r e n c e methods. T h i s program i s due p r i n c i p a l l y t o D r . M. J.
O ' S u l l i v a n , o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Auckland, b u t has been m o d i f i e d t o i n c l u d e
a modest v a r i a t i o n of v i s c o s i t y and a l s o t o compute t r a n s p o r t o f d i s s o l v e d
s a l t . The development of c o n v e c t i v e plumes i n the computer rim, f o r con-
v e c t i o n i n a r e c t a n g l e o f w i d t h : h e i g h t r a t i o 4, i s q u a l i t a t i v e l y s i m i l a r t o
t h a t observed i n t h e p h y s i c a l model. However, t h e r e has n o t been time t o
make d e t a i l e d comparisons, e s p e c i a l l y of N u s s e l t numbers.

- 2 17-
 The e n t i r e study i s based on t h e assumption o f homogeneous geo-
l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s which i s n o r m a l l y n o t v a l i d . By v a r y i n g the s i z e of
the gap between the p l a t e s and by p l a c i n g sources and s i n k s i n the flow,
d i f f e r e n t g e o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s may be simulated. T h i s is planned f o r
f u t u r e studies.

Acknowledgment

T h i s model was suggested t o t h e author by D r . Robin Wooding, and

we are j o i n t l y conducting t h i s research p r o j e c t .

Reference

Wooding, R. A., 1975. Methods o f s o l u t i o n o f t h e equations f o r convection

i n porous media, w i t h geothermal a p p l i c a t i o n s . Presented a t the S t a n f o r d
Workshop on Geothermal R e s e r v o i r Engineering and We1 1 S t i m u l a t i o n ,
S t a n f o r d , C a l i f o r n i a , Dec. 15-17.

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 NUMERICAL AND ANALYTICAL STUDIES ON HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
I N VOLCANIC ISLAND GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIRS

Ping Cheng
Department o f Mechanical Engineering
U n i v e r s i t y o f Hawaii
Honolulu, Hawaii 96822

The Hawaii Geothermal P r o j e c t i s a m u l t i d i s c i p l i n a r y research e f f o r t

w i t h t h e major o b j e c t i v e s o f l o c a t i n g a s u i t a b l e geothermal resource on t h e
i s l a n d o f Hawaii and u t i l i z i n g t h e heat t o produce e l e c t r i c i t , y by means o f
a research- oriented power p l a n t . As a primary f i r s t s t e p o f t h i s p r o j e c t ,
t h e p o t e n t i a l geothermal resources on t h e i s l a n d of Hawaii must be s t u d i e d
and s u f f i c i e n t i n f o r m a t i o n obtained t o p e r m i t a reasonable p r e d i c t i o n t o be
made o f t h e behavior o f t h e geothermal f i e l d , as w e l l as t h e environmental
impact o f the u t i l i z a t i o n o f t h e resources.

The Hawaiian I s l a n d s were formed by v o l c a n i c a c t i o n . Because of t h e

h i g h p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e b a s a l t i c f o r m a t i o n , a q u i f e r s a t
shallow depth a r e l i k e l y t o be unconfined from t h e top. I t has been pos-
t u l a t e d t h a t a magma chamber a t shallow depth and t h e numerous h o t i n t r u s i v e s
t h a t form a d i k e complex can p r o v i d e t h e heat source f o r t h e h e a t i n g o f t h e
groundwater i n t h e a q u i f e r (Furumoto 1975). As t h e h i g h p e r m e a b i l i t y of
t h e f o r m a t i o n p e r m i t s a continuous recharge from t h e ocean and r a i n f a l l , i t
has been speculated t h a t most o f t h e geothermal resource a t shallow depth i n
t h e i s l a n d i s probably warm water a t low o r moderate temperatures (Macdonald
1973). Because o f a s e l f - s e a l i n g e f f e c t i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t impermeable
l a y e r s a r e formed a t g r e a t depth where h o t water may be found (Furumoto 1975).
As t h e b a s a l t i c r o c k h a r d l y deforms under pressure, a l a r g e s c a l e l a n d
s u r f a c e subsidence r e s u l t i n g from t h e withdrawal o f geothermal f l u i d s i s
n o t a n t i c i p a t e d . However, t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f geothermal resources i n t h e
i s l a n d i s n o t f r e e from o t h e r adverse environmental impacts. The most
s e r i o u s p o t e n t i a l hazard i s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e contamination of t h e
freshwater l e n s d u r i n g t h e r e i n j e c t i o n o f t h e t o x i c f l u i d s i n t o t h e formation.
The p r e d i c t i o n of t h e f a t e of t h e i n j e c t e d f l u i d s under d i f f e r e n t o p e r a t i n g
c o n d i t i o n s thus m e r i t s c a r e f u l c o n s i d e r a t i o n .

The f o l l o w i n g i s a sumnary o f t h e progress we have made i n t h e p a s t

two years on t h e t h e o r e t i c a l study o f heat and mass t r a n s f e r i n a v o l c a n i c
i s l a n d geothermal r e s e r v o i r . Many o f t h e r e s u l t s a r e o f a fundamental n a t u r e
and a r e , t h e r e f o r e , a p p l i c a b l e t o o t h e r liquid- dominated r e s e r v o i r s .

Numerical Studies on Heat and Mass T r a n s f e r i n

Liquid- Dominated Geothermal Reservoirs

Free Convection i n I s l a n d Geothermal R e s e r v o i r s . The problem o f

steady f r e e convection i n an i s l a n d a q u i f e r , confined by caprock a t t h e t q p
and heated by bedrock from below, i s considered by Cheng, Yeung E Lau (1975).
The e f f e c t s o f thermal c o n d i t i o n s a t t h e caprock, t h e geometry of t h e

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r e s e r v o i r , t h e v a r i a t i o n of R a y l e i g h number, t h e s i z e o f t h e h e a t i n g
s u r f a c e , and t h e d i k e i n t r u s i o n on f l u i d f l o w and heat t r a n s f e r c h a r a c t e r -
i s t i c s i n t h e r e s e r v o i r a r e examined. The numerical r e s u l t s show: (1) As
a r e s u l t o f geothermal h e a t i n g , c o l d seawater w i l l move i n l a n d from t h e
ocean i n t h e lower p o r t i o n of t h e a q u i f e r ; r i s e up as a thermal plume a f t e r
s u f f i c i e n t heat i s absorbed; spread around under t h e caprock and f i n a l l y d i s -
charge t o t h e ocean i n t h e upper p o r t i o n o f t h e a q u i f e r . T h i s open stream-
l i n e c o n v e c t i v e p a t t e r n always e x i s t s i n an i s l a n d a q u i f e r . (2) I f the
heating surface i s s u f f i c i e n t l y large, m u l t i p l e closed- streamline convective
c e l l s w i l l a l s o be generated i n t h e i n t e r i o r p o r t i o n o f t h e a q u i f e r . These
r e c y c l i n g c o n v e c t i v e c e l l s p r e v e n t t h e complete m i x i n g o f c o l d water from
t h e coast and t h e warmer water i n t h e i n t e r i o r . (3) The number o f these
c l o s e d - s t r e a m l i n e c o n v e c t i v e c e l l s depends n o t o n l y on t h e s i z e o f t h e
h e a t i n g s u r f a c e b u t a l s o t h e manner i n which i t i s heated, i . e . , whether i t
i s heated by bedrock from below o r t h e d i k e complex on t h e side. (4) Away
from t h e thermal plumes, v e r t i c a l temperature p r o f i l e s e x h i b i t a temperature
r e v e r s a l s i m i l a r t o t h a t measured by K e l l e r (1974). (5) The heat t r a n s f e r
r a t e on the bottom h e a t i n g s u r f a c e i s independent o f t h e thermal boundary
c o n d i t i o n a t t h e caprock. (6) The temperature g r a d i e n t i s l a r g e i n t h e
f l u i d a d j a c e n t t o t h e h e a t i n g s u r f a c e and i n t h e thermal plume; t h i s
boundary l a y e r behavior i s v e r y pronounced a t l a r g e Rayleigh number.

A p e r t u r b a t i o n a n a l y s i s was made f o r steady f r e e convection i n an

i s l a n d geothermal r e s e r v o i r unconfined from t h e t o p (Cheng E Lau 1974; Lau
E Cheng 1975). The a n a l y s i s i s a p p l i c a b l e f o r a q u i f e r s w i t h low Rayleigh
numbers ( i . e . , a q u i f e r s a t low temperature o r w i t h low p e r m e a b i l i t y ) where
heat conduction i s predominant. The e f f e c t o f geothermal h e a t i n g on t h e
u p w e l l i n g of water t a b l e i s shown. To i n v e s t i g a t e t h e u p w e l l i n g of water
t a b l e a t h i g h R a y l e i g h numbers, numerical methods must be used f o r t h e
s o l u t i o n s o f t h e governing n o n - l i n e a r p a r t i a l d i f f e r e n t i a l equations w i t h
n o n - l i n e a r boundary c o n d i t i o n s . T h i s phase o f t h e work i s c u r r e n t l y
underway.

Withdrawal and R e i n j e c t i o n o f F l u i d s i n I s l a n d Geothermal Reservoirs.

The problem o f withdrawal of f l u i d s i s i n v e s t i g a t e d by Cheng E Lau (1975)
and Cheng E Teckchandani (1975). I t i s found t h a t (1) the withdrawal r a t e
i s l i n e a r l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e withdrawal pressure; (2) a symmetric l o c a t i o n
of withdrawal s i t e s w i t h respect t o heat source w i l l enhance t h e c o n v e c t i v e
heat t r a n s f e r from t h e bottom h e a t i n g s u r f a c e and thus p r o l o n g t h e l i f e s p a n
o f a geothermal w e l l ; ( 3 ) as a r e s u l t o f withdrawal o f f l u i d , t h e temperature
above t h e s i n k w i l l decrease w h i l e t h e temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n below t h e
s i n k i s l e s s a f f e c t e d ; and (4) t h e temperature o f withdrawal f l u i d i s
r e l a t i v e l y u n a f f e c t e d by t h e withdrawal r a t e . The reasons f o r (3) and (4)
can be e x p l a i n e d as follows: As a r e s u l t o f withdrawal o f f l u i d , t h e f l o w
f i e l d below t h e s i n k w i l l experience a f a v o r a b l e pressure g r a d i e n t , thus
a i d i n g the upward movement of t h e convecting f l o w , which i n t u r n enhances
t h e c o n v e c t i v e t r a n s f e r on t h e bottom h o t s u r f a c e . On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e
f l o w f i e l d above t h e s i n k w i l l experience an adverse pressure g r a d i e n t which
w i l l r e t a r d t h e upward movement o f t h e h o t f l u i d o r , i n some cases, reverse
t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e c o n v e c t i n g f l o w i f t h e withdrawal pressure i s l a r g e .

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 The problem o f r e i n j e c t i o n o f f l u i d i s s t u d i e d by Cheng & Yeung (1975)
and Cheng & Teckchandani (1975). I f t h e i n j e c t e d f l u i d i s c o l d e r than t h e
surrounding f l u i d , a c o l d r e g i o n i s c r e a t e d above t h e i n j e c t i o n p o i n t . For
a f i x e d r e i n j e c t i o n r a t e , t h e i n j e c t i o n pressure decreases ast Rayleigh number
i s increased. I n o t h e r words, l e s s i n j e c t i o n pressure i s needed f o r an
a q u i f e r a t h i g h temperature o r w i t h h i g h p e r m e a b i l i t y . For 21 f i x e d Rayleigh
number, t h e i n j e c t i o n r a t e i s l i n e a r l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e i n j e c t i o n pressure.

A n a l y t i c a l Studies on Heat and Mass T r a n s f e r

i n Liquid- Dominated Geothermal Reservoirs

From t h e numerical s o l u t i o n s f o r f r e e convection i n ‘geothermal

r e s e r v o i r s by Cheng, Yeung E Lau (1975), i t i s observed t h a t boundary l a y e r
behavior i s pronounced f o r f l o w near t h e h e a t i n g surface and i n the thermal
plume a t l a r g e R a y l e i g h numbers. Thus t h e boundary l a y e r approximations
analogous t o t h e c l a s s i c a l viscous f l o w t h e o r y can be a p p l i e d . With these
approximations, a n a l y t i c a l s o l u t i o n s have been obtained f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g
problems.

Steady Free Convection About V e r t i c a l I n t r u d e d Bodies. W i t h i n t h e

framework o f boundary l a y e r approximations, s i m i l a r i t y s o l u t i b n s a r e o b t a i n e d
f o r f r e e convection about a v e r t i c a l h o t d i k e w i t h surface temperature being
a power f u n c t i o n o f d i s t a n c e from t h e o r i g i n ; i . e . , Tw = T, + Axh where Tw
and Tm a r e t h e w a l l temperature and t h e temperature of the surrounding f l u i d
away from t h e d i k e . For t h e s p e c i a l case o f an isothermal d i k e (A = 0) h i t h
a h e i g h t L and a w i d t h S, the l o c a l boundary l a y e r thickness 6 ( x ) , and t h e
t o t a l s u r f a c e heat t r a n s f e r r a t e Q a r e g i v e n by (Cheng E Minkowycz 1975)

6 ( x ) = 6.3
J

Q = 0.88Sk(Tw-Tm)3’2 [ PmKB!3L
!Ja

where ,p, u , and 6 a r e t h e d e n s i t y , v i s c o s i t y , and t h e thermal expansion

c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e f l u i d , K i s t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e s a t u r a t e d porous
medium, ci = k /(pC)f i s t h e e q u i v a l e n t thermal d i f f u s i v i t y where k denotes
t h e thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e s a t u r a t e d r o c k and (pC)f t h e product o f the
d e n s i t y and s p e c i f i c heat o f t h e f l u i d .

Approximate a n a l y t i c a l s o l u t i o n s f o r f r e e convection about a

v e r t i c a l cy1 i n d r i c a l i n t r u s i v e a r e a l s o o b t a i n e d (Minkowycz Cheng 1975).
I t is found t h a t t h e r a t i o o f t o t a l heat t r a n s f e r r a t e f o r a c y l i n d e r t o
t h a t f o r a f l a t p l a t e depends o n l y on t h e dimensionless parameter

-221-
tL where 6~ E 2 'I2
w i t h ro d e n o t i n g t h e r a d i u s o f t h e

cylinder. The r a t i o v a r i e s between 1 t o 3 when EL v a r i e s between 0 and 10.

Buoyancy induced Flows Adjacent t o Heated impermeable H o r i z o n t a l
Surfaces. S i m i l a r i t y s o l u t i o n s f o r f r e e c o n v e c t i o n above a heated h o r i z o n t a l
impermeable s u r f a c e w i t h a power law v a r i a t i o n o f w a l l temperature a r e a l s o
o b t a i n e d by Cheng E Chang (1975). The l o c a l thermal boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s
~ T ( X >and t h e t o t a l s u r f a c e heat t r a n s f e r r a t e f o r a h o r i z o n t a l h e a t i n g
s u r f a c e w i t h a l e n g t h L and a w i d t h S a r e :

and

Q = C2Sk(T,-T,) 4/3 [ pmKBL

Pa
3 1/3
Y

where t h e values o f C1 and c2 depend on t h e values o f A and a r e t a b u l a t e d

i n Table 1 .

To g a i n some f e e l i n g o f t h e o r d e r o f magnitude o f v a r i o u s p h y s i c a l
q u a n t i t i e s g i v e n by Eqs. (1- 4), computations a r t c a r r i e d o u t f o r a h e a t i n g
s u r f a c e o f 1 km by 1 km a t a temperature o f 300 C embedded i n an a q u i f e r a t
15°C. The p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s used f o r t h e computations a r e B = 3.2 x 10-4/c,
p, = 0.92 x 106 g/m3, C = 1 cal/g-"C,p = 0.18 g/sec-my k = 0.58 cal/sec-"C-m,
and K = 10-l2m2. With these values, t h e boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s along a
d i k e increases from z e r o a t t h e o r i g i n t o 70 m a t 1 kin; t h e t o t a l heat
t r a n s f e r r a t e i s 75 MW. For a h o r i z o n t a l h e a t i n g s u r f a c e o f t h e same s i z e ,
t h e boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s increases from z e r o a t t h e o r i g i n t o 200 m a t
1 km w i t h a t o t a l heat t r a n s f e r r a t e equal t o 20 MW.

Table 1 VALUES OF C,I ANE C, L FOR EQS. ( 3 ) & ( 4 )

x c2

0.5 4.9 1.23

1.o 4.4 1.32

1.5 4.0 1.45

2.0 3.6 1.57

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 Buoyancy Plumes Above a H o r i z o n t a l L i n e Source. S i m i l a r i t y s o l u t i o n s
f o r plume r i s e above a h o r i z o n t a l l i n e source i n a s a l i n e a q u i f e r have been
o b t a i n e d by Cheng (1975). The problem i s an e x t e n s i o n of t h e work by
Wooding (1963). The spreading o f t h e buoyancy plume o r t h e boundary l a y e r
t h i c k n e s s o f t h e plume i s g i v e n by

6 = (5)

where Q i s t h e r a t e of heat generated p e r u n i t l e n g t h o f t h e l i n e source.

Eq. (5) shows t h a t t h e spreading o f t h e plume increases as ~ 2 . 1 3 ,and
decreases as K o r Q a r e increased. Using t h e previous p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s
and w i t h Q = 20 kw, t h e plume spreading i s about 120 m a t 1 km above the
p o i n t source.

F u t u r e Work

Continuous e f f o r t w i l l be devoted t o t h e numerical s o l u t i o n s o f

f r e e c o n v e c t i o n i n unconfined geothermal i s l a n d a q u i f e r s w i t h recharge from
t h e ocean and r a i n f a l l . The i n t e r a c t i o n o f p r o d u c t i o n and withdrawal w e l l s
w i l l a l s o be examined. The e f f e c t s o f n o n - l o c a l thermodynamic e q u i l i b r i u m ,
t h e l a y e r s t r u c t u r e o f t h e rock f o r m a t i o n , and t h e i r r e g u l a r boundary o f
t h e r e s e r v o i r w i l l a l s o be s t u d i e d . Boundary l a y e r a n a l y s i s i s being
pursued f o r o t h e r problems o f f r e e and f o r c e d convection i n geothermal
r e s e r v o i 1-5.

T h i s study i s p a r t o f the Hawaii Geothermal P r o j e c t funded i n p a r t

by t h e R A N N program o f t h e N a t i o n a l Science Foundation o f t h e United States
(Grant No. Gl-38319), t h e Energy Research and Development A d m i n i s t r a t i o n
o f the U n i t e d States (Grant No. E(04-3)-1093), and by the S t a t e and County
o f Hawai i .

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References
Cheng, P., "Buoyancy Plumes above a Horizontal Line Source in a Porous
Medium,'' in preparation.
Cheng, P. & Chang, I-Dee, "Buoyancy Induced Flows in a Porous Medium
Adjacent to impermeable Horizontal Surfaces,'' Hawaii Geothermal Project,
Engineering Program, Technical Report No. 12, December 1 , 1975.
Cheng, P. & Lau, K.H., "Steady State Free Convection in an Unconfined
Geothermal Reservoir,'' J. of Geophysical Research, V. 79, 4425-4431 (1975).
Cheng, P. E, Lau, K.H., "The Effect of Steady Withdrawal of Fluid in Confined
Geothermal Reservoirs." To appear in the Proceedings of the Second United
Nations Symposium on the Development and Use of Geothermal Resources.
Cheng, P. & Minkowycz, W . J . , "Similarity Solutions for Free Convection About
a Dike,'' Hawaii Geothermal Project, Engineering Program, Technical Report
No. 10, October 1975.

Cheng, P. E Teckchandani, L . , "Transient Behavior of Liquid-Dominated

Geothermal Systems," in progress.
Cheng, P., Yeung, K.C. & Lau, K.H., "Numerical Solutions for Steady Free
Convection in Confined Island Geothermal Reservoirs," presented at the
1975 fnternational Seminar on Future Energy Production--Heat and Mass
Transfer Problems, August 25-30, 1975, Drubrovnik, Yugoslavia. Also Hawai i
Geothermal Project, Engineering Program, Technical Report No. 8, August 1975.
Cheng, P. G Yeung, K.C., "Steady Reinject on of Flu ds in Island Geothermal
Reservo i r s ,I ' i n prepara t ion.
Furumoto, A . S . , "A Systematic Program for Geotherma Exploration on the
Island o f Hawaii," presented at the Annua I nternat onal Meeting of Society
of Exp oration Geophysicists, Denver, Colorado, October 13-17, 1975.

Kel ler G.W., "Drilling at the Summit of Kilauea Volcano," Report submitted
to the National Science Foundation by Colorado School of Mines (1974).
Lau, K.H. & Cheng, P., "The Effect of Dike Intrusion on Free Convection in
Unconfined Geothermal Reservoirs," accepted for publication in the Inter-
national Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 1975.
Macdonald, G . A . , "Geological Prospects for Development of Geothermal Energy
in Hawaii," Pacific Science, V. 27, No. 3, 209-219 (1973).
Minkowycz, W.J. & Cheng, P . , "Free Convection About a Vertical Cylinder
Embedded in a Porous Medium," Hawaii Geothermal Project, Technical Report
No. 11, November 1975.
Wooding, R.A., "Convect on in a Saturated Porous Medium at Large Rayleigh
Number or Peclet Number J. of Fluid Mechanics, V. 15, 527-544 (1963).

-224-
 RESEARCH ON NUMERICAL MODELING OF LIQUID GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS

Michael Sorey
U.S. Geological Survey
Menlo Park, CA 94025

We have developed a numerical code, c a l l e d SCHAFF, whtich can t r e a t

problems i n v o l v i n g s l i g h t l y compressible f l u i d and heat t r a n s f e r i n m u l t i -
dimensional porous media. Solutions t o the appropriate p a r t i a l d i f f e r e n t i a l
equations a r e obtained by t h e i n t e g r a t e d f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e method which i s
e s s e n t i a l l y e q u i v a l e n t t o making mass and energy balances over f i n i t e sub-
regions o r elements. The r e s u l t a n t system o f f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e equacions
i s s o l v e d by an i t e r a t i v e procedure and s o l u t i o n s t o the f l u i d flow and
energy equations a r e coupled by i n t e r l a c i n g i n t i m e so t h a t t h e temperature
and v e l o c i t y f i e l d s a r e interdependent. The u s e f u l concepts o f f l u i d and
thermal t i m e constants as i n d i c a t o r s o f nodal response times and numerical
s t a b i l i t y l i m i t s a r e an i n h e r e n t p a r t o f t h e numerical scheme.

I n a p p l y i n g t h e numerical model t o t h e problem of c i r c u l a t o r y convec-

t i o n i n s a t u r a t e d porous media, we have discussed t h e r e l e v a n t aspects as
t h e y p e r t a i n t o geothermal systems and show i n F i g . 1 t h a t r e s u l t s from
SCHAFF on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e Rayleigh number and t h e dimensionless
heat t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t o r Nusselt number a r e i n good agreement w i t h
numerical and experimental r e s u l t s from o t h e r a u t h o r s . We then used t h e
numerical model t o extend these r e s u l t s t o i n c l u d e t h e e f f e c t s o f temperature
dependent parameters and d e n s i t y v a r i a t i o n s w i t h pressure. V a r i a t i o n s i n
f l u i d v i s c o s i t y and thermal e x p a n s i v i t y w i t h temperature r e s u l t i n s u b s t a n t i a l
d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e values o f t h e c r i t i c a l Rayleigh number f o r t h e onset o f
convection and t h e Rayleigh number-Nusselt number r e l a t i o n s h i p compared w i t h
corresponding constant parameters r e s u l t s ( F i g . 2 ) . However, cons i d e r a t i o n
o f f l u i d d e n s i t y a s a f u n c t i o n o f pressure produced no n o t i c e a b l e e f f e c t
on convective motion.

Numerical s i m u l a t i o n s o f more r e a l i s t i c models for c i r c u l a t o r y

convection show t h a t f o r l a t e r a l l y bounded r e s e r v o i r s , conduction o f heat
across t h e v e r t i c a l s i d e w a l l s r e s u l t s i n s i g n i f i c a n t l o w e r i n g o f t h e r a t e
of v e r t i c a l heat t r a n s f e r through t h e r e s e r v o i r . For a l a t e r a l l y e x t e n s i v e
r e s e r v o i r , c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f impermeable o r l e s s permeable l a y e r s above and
below t h e convecting l a y e r removes t h e r e s t r i c t i v e assumption of constant
temperatures boundaries on t h e permeable l a y e r and has t h e e f f e c t o f l o w e r i n g
t h e v a l u e o f t h e c r i t i c a l Rayleigh number Rac w h i l e r e t a r d i n g convective
heat t r a n s f e r a t values o f Ra above Ra,. The i s o t h e r m p a t t e r n f o r Ra = 100
i s shown i n F i g . 3 .

Heat and mass t r a n s f e r associated w i t h hot s p r i n g systems was

analyzed t o determine t h e amount o f heat l o s t by conduction t o t h e rocks
surrounding t h e s p r i n g c o n d u i t . As i s o l a t e d c y l i n d r i c a l c o n d u i t model and
a f a u l t p l a n e c o n d u i t model were considered, and t h e temperature drop i n

-225-
the hot spring water between the source reservoir and the surface due to
the conductive heat loss as determined numerically as a function of flow
rate is shown in Fig. 4. The steady state temperature distribution for
the case where the rock surrounding the spring is impermeable (Fig. 5)
shows that heat loss from the spring distorts the normally horizontal
position of the isotherms out to distances comparable to the depth of the
spring conduit. Conductive heat flux at the land surface is high near the
spring but near the normal or background level beyond one conduit depth.
Using a radiation boundary condition at the land surface as in F i g . 5
produces a more realistic surficial temperature distribution than a
constant temperature boundary condition. The time required for the con-
ductive thermal regime to equilibrate following the development of hot spring
activity can be approximated by the expression L 2 3 2 K , where L is the depth
to the source reservoir. For unconsolidated sediments with low thermal
conductivity, the equilibration time is about 50,000 years for a reservoir
at 1 km.

The effects of fluid circulation in the rock surrounding the

spring conduit were examined for systems in which the equivalent Rayleigh
number (in the absence of hot spring activity) was both above and below
the critical value of 4 T*. With Ra<h2, circulatory convection is set up
due t o the presence of the hot spring, but causes only slight effects on
the thermal regime in the rock surrounding the spring conduit and on the
conductive heat loss and temperature drop associated with the spring. For
the case with Ra>47r2, circulatory convection resulting from the temperature
differenceTb-T, between the source reservoir and the land surface
dominates the thermal and hydrologic regimes and significantly reduces
the conductive heat loss and temperature drop for the spring.

The results of this investigation demonstrate the usefulness of

numerical modelling to describe the natural conditions of heat transfer
and f l u i d flow in geothermal areas. Given preliminary thermal, hydrologic,
and geochemical information, this technique can be used effectively ss
a guide t o further data collection in undeveloped areas. As sufficient
parametric and geometric information is obtained to allow simulation of
the natural systems, the numerical model can be used to evaluate methods for
energy development. In particular, studies are being planned o f energy
development under conditions of fluid reinjection which can maintain the
reservoir fluid in a liquid state and possibly result in the recovery
of significant fractions of stored heat. Numerical studies of the
feasibility of storing and recovering waste thermal water from power plant
operations in cold water aquifers are also anticipated. In addition, a
modification of the SCHAFF program to include stress-strain behavior
of porous media i s currently being tested for simulation of land subsidence
associated with geothermal reservoir development.
Further work on the calculational model is also planned. Incorporation
of a suitable scheme for treating anisotropy and associated tensorial
quantities such as permeability and thermal dispersivity would extend the
range of the problems which could be analyzed with SGHAFF. I t would also
be desirable to include a general mesh-generating routine and a graphics
capability for fluid velocity vector plotting.

- 226-
References

Sorey, M.L., Numerical mode i n g o f l i q u i d geothermal systems, Ph.D

d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a a t Berkeley, 1975.

Witherspoon, P.A., Neuman, .P., Sorey, M.L., and Lippmann, M . J . ,

Modeling geothermal systems, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory r e p o r t ,
LBL-3263, May 1975.

Sorey, M.L., and Lewis, R.E., Convective heat flow from h o t s p r i n g s

i n t h e Long V a l l e y Caldera, Mono County, C a l i f o r n i a , t o be published
i n J G R s p e c i a l i s s u e on Long V a l l e y , February, 1976.

Lachenbruch, A.H., Sorey, M.L., Lewis, R.E. and Sass, J.M., The near
surface hydrothermal regime of Long V a l l e y Caldera, t o be p u b l i s h e d i n
J G R s p e c i a l i s s u e on Long V a l l e y , February, 1976.

-227-
3 Z I
0 0
u >
m m u m
I I
3 o u
3 a;
3 0 0
L *
U
u
.-
o m
3-0
- a
Y-u
m
u 3
c-
o m
0 u >
K Q )
E o
a m
0 ori
(3 -0
3 I I
0 m c
"00 'J r m 22
e, c 3
\
0
hl
u1
..
o
.- m
3 c urn
a
I >
czc o I

$
.-0 Eo
a3
U
z N U uw
Q)

.- rT:
.-3 E
u m

LL

s m u
n r -
5 E
K m
E c-
3 O O E m
C Nv) 0 1

m o *-

a, - m o
n
E .-c r c u c
I

,I-
o - ,,-
3 L-0
rn

o o
c m
m @
I
a-

-228-
Figure 3. isotherms for 3-layer cellular convection
model with Ra = 100.

-229-
 T,=O
h

I
1\
Cylindrical h4odcl L

2
c J . >
X r
Tb

Figure 4. Relationships between dimensionless flow rates (Mc, MP) and

dimensionless temperature drop (1-0 ) due to conductive
SP
heat loss in cylindrical and fault plane hot spring models.

-23 0-
1 Km 180°C

F i g u r e 5. Steady s t a t e t e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n f a u l t p l a n e h o t
spring model w i t h d i s c h a r g e = IO5 Kg/d, W = lorn,
D = I Knl, and Ra = 0 ( k = 01, and H = cal/sec -OC
-an2 a t land s u r f a c e .

-231-
 FINITE ELEMENT SOLUTION OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY EXTRACTION

Z. P . BaZant, S . Nemat-Nasser, and H. Ohtsubo*

Department of Civil Engineering
Northwestern University
Evanston, I L 6021

The objective of this theoretical work is to simulate numerically

the following two basic problems in the area of geothermal energy extraction:
( 1 ) initiation and extension of fracture in hot dry rocks by hydraulic
fracture; and ( 2 ) circulation of water through the fractured zone and back
up to the ground surface. In addition, it has become evident that the
following third problem area also requires careful consideration: ( 3 ) the
study of thermally induced secondary cracks and their effects on power
production. The basic method of approach involves a finite-element
numerical simulation coupled with some analytical computations.
Basic Eauations
The basic field equations for the water flow and heat transfer in
a crack have been formulated for one-and two-dimensional cases. These
equations include (a) crack width varying arbitrarily in time and space;
(b) heat convection due to flow of water, heat conduction in water, and
heat supply by conduction from the rock; (c) an accurate mathematical model
for the thermodynamic properties of water (according to 1968 ASME Steam
Tables), i .e., the pressure-density-temperature relationship (with the
dependence of compressibility, thermal expansion coefficient and heat
capacity on pressure and temperature). The basic differential equations
have been obtained by applying the conditions of conservation of mass,
of linear momentum, and of energy to the cross-section of crack, using an
assumed velocity profile. In the case of unidirectional flow, for example,
these equations are:

momentum;
3--
da t s .axa L' ap w ~ -

energy; PdW Z
a t+ c w q % + {

- - (@
a(OW)
ax

equation of state for water; p f(p,T) ; = (4)

- - _ -. --_ . -._ --_ __-II _ - -

"Visiting Research Scholar; on leave from University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.

-232-
where p i s t h e mass d e n s i t y ; q i s t h e mass f l u x across the w i d t h o f t h e
crack; p i s t h e pressure; T i s t h e shear f o r c e a t the i n t e r f a c e between
f l u i d and rock; gx i s t h e average body f o r c e on the f l u i d , ; Cw, k , and h
d e f i n e t h e heat c a p a c i t y , heat c o n d u c t i v i t y w i t h i n t h e f l u i d , and heat
c o n d u c t i v i t y between f l u i d and rock, r e s p e c t i v e l y ; T and Tr a r e t h e f l u i d ' s
and t h e r o c k ' s temperature, r e s p e c t i v e l y . The equation of s t a t e f o r water
i n t h e range o f pressure and temperature r e l e v a n t t o t h e geothermal problem
i s given i n t h e 1968 ASME steam t a b l e s . T h i s equgtion i s used i n t h e
numerical c a l c u l a t i o n s .

The parameters cx and 6, as w e l l as t h e shear f o r c e T , i n Eqs. ( 2 )

and ( 3 ) depend on t h e geometry o f t h e v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e across the c r a c k
width. For a p a r a b o l i c p r o f i l e , f o r example, one has CL = 1.2, B = 1.54 and
T = 61-142 ' where u i s the f l u i d v i s c o s i t y . However, i n the o p e r a t i o n stage,
PW
t h e f l u i d v e l o c i t y can be h i g h and a t u r b u l e n t f l o w w i t h an almost u n i f o r m
p r o f i l e o f mean v e l o c i t y may be a more a p p r o p r i a t e assumption.

F i n i t e Element Formulation f o r t h e F l u i d-

To o b t a i n t h e corresponding f i n i t e - e l e m e n t equations, l i n e a r s p a t i a l
v a r i a t i o n f o r pressure, temperature, and mass f l o w w i t h i n each element is
assumed. Then a systematic a p p l i c a t i o n o f G a l e r k i n ' s method g i v e s t h e
b a s i c f i n i t e - e l e m e n t equations f o r the f l u i d f l o w . For t h e i u n i d i r e c t i o n a l
f l o w , f o r example, these equations a r e

0s (5)
N

02 (6)
N

= o .
H
(7)

I n these equations superimposed d o t denotes the p a r t i a l t i m e d e r i v a t i v e ; p

T,
%
and q denote pressure, temperature, and mass f l o w a t t h e two nodes of each
element: and t h e c o e f f i c i e n t m a t r i c e s , as we1 1 as t h e corresponding f o r c i n g
f u n c t i o n s , a r e e i t h e r Songtant o r n o n l i n e a r f u n c t i o n s o f p , w, and 8, as w e l l
as l i n e a r f u n c t i o n o f p , w, and $.
Equations (5) -
( 7 ) t o g e t h e r w i t h , t h e e q u a t i o n of s t a t e f o r water,
Eq. (4) a r e s u f f i c i e n t f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e f l u i d flow, provided t h a t
t h e c r a c k w i d t h i s known a t a l l nodal p o i n t s . For an assumed crack w i d t h
(obtained i n a p r e v i o u s time step) these equations a r e solved f o r p , q, p,
and T i s t i m e steps w i t h i t e r a t i o n a t each step, u n t i l t h e maximum change
o f each q u a n t i t y w i t h respect t o t h e p r e v i o u s v a l u e i s l e s s than a p r e s c r i b e d
l i m i t ; see, however, t h e f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n .

-233-
Combination o f F i n i t e Element Model w i t h A n a l y t i c a l S o l u t i o n s

Test runs o f the f i n i t e element program f o r t h e s o l i d i n combination

w i t h the f i n i t e element program f o r t h e f l o w i n t h e c r a c k have i n d i c a t e d
t h a t t h e requirements f o r computer t i m e a r e extremely h i g h and convergence
v e r y slow. The e x t e n s i o n jumps o f t h e c r a c k i n t h e f i n i t e element g r i d
must be v e r y small, o r e l s e enormous spurious changes o f pressure i n t h e
f l u i d a r e obtained. Dense spacing o f t h e nodes i n t u r n r e q u i r e s very
s h o r t t i m e steps, i n o r d e r t o a v o i d numerical i n s t a b i l i t i e s . However, t h e
response o f t h e e l a s t i c r o c k due t o pressure i n t h e c r a c k as w e l l as
c o o l i n g from t h e c r a c k can be q u i t e a c c u r a t e l y d e s c r i b e d by a n a l y t i c a l
formulas, and t h i s a l l o w s r e d u c t i o n o f computer t i m e as w e l l as h i g h e r
accuracy o f numerical c a l c u l a t i o n s . I t i s t h e r e f o r e concluded t h a t t h e
f o l l o w i n g numerical approach i s most e f f e c t i v e :

(a) I n case o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g , t h e pressure i n wate i n excess o f

h y d r o s t a t i c remains e s s e n t i a l l y u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d a t a 1 times and
water temperature i s equal t o t h a t o f t h e a d j a c e n t rock. n t h i s case,
t h e f i n i t e - e l e m e n t program f o r t h e s o l i d alone may be used t r e a t i n g t h e
f l u i d pressure as t h e i n p u t ;

(b) I n case o f o p e r a t i o n stage, t h e f i n i t e - e l e m e n t program f o r t h e f l u i d

f l o w and t h e heat t r a n s f e r i n t h e f l u i d may be used i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h
a n a l y t i c a l s o l u t i o n s f o r t h e e l a s t i c s o l i d ( r o c k ) and t h e heat conduction
i n the r o c k (using t h e concept of c o o l i n g p e n e t r a t i o n depth and t h e heat
transfer coefficient)..

F i n i t e Element Formulation f o r t h e S o l i d (Rock)

For a n a l y z i n g t h e f r a c t u r e o f t h e s o l i d ( r o c k ) , a two-dimensional
f i n i t e element program w i t h a w a t e r - f i l l e d c r a c k has been w r i t t e n . The
c r i t e r i o n f o r t h e propagation o f the c r a c k can be f o r m u l d t e d i n t h i s program
e i t h e r by means o f a s t r e s s - i n t e n s i t y f a c t o r , o r by means of a s t r e n g t h
( l i m i t i n g s t r e s s v a l u e i n the f i n i t e element). The former type o f s t r e n g t h
c r i t e r i o n i s u s u a l l y more a p p r o p r i a t e , p r o v i d e d t h e r o c k i s r e l a t i v e l y
homogeneous and f l a w l e s s and t h e c r a c k i s s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e . Among t h e
v a r i o u s methods o f e v a l u a t i n g t h e s t r e s s i n t e n s i t y f a c t o r i n t h e f i n i t e
element a n a l y s i s , t h e method o f c a l i b r a t e d c r a c k - t i p element of o r d i n a r y
t y p e has been chosen as t h e most e f f i c i e n t one. T h i s program must be
subjected t o more t e s t i n g , and t h e method by which t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n s
r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e surrounding i n f i n i t e s o l i d can be b e s t simulated, must be
identified.

Examples and Estimates

I n o r d e r t o develop an understanding f o r t h e v a r i o u s p h y s i c a l
processes which a r e i n v o l v e d i n t h i s general area, some simple a n a l y t i c a l
r e s u l t s have been developed. I n t h e f o l l o w i n g , these r e s u l t s a r e b r i e f l y
discussed.
 Crack Extension: The extension of a crack in a rock mass as a
function of the total mass flow can be estimated in the following manner.
I f the maximum crack opening i s A and the crack radius is R , then for an
4 2
elliptical opening the total fluid volume in the crack i s given by -vAR .
3
On the other hand, according to the Griffith criterion, one has p - S = AR-'
and A = B(p-S)R where A = EY , S is the tectonic stress normal to the
2 (1 -v2)
2
face of the crack, B = 4 ( 1 - v ) , y is the surface energy, E is the elastic
modulus of the rock, and v is the corresponding Poisson's ratio. If M = pV
i s the total mass of the fluid in the crack, one then obtains

R = R
0
(E) 0
2/5
I

-1/5
p - s =(Po - s> (E)
0
9
(9)

where subscript o refers to the initial values. For example, i f the fluid
is pumped in at a constant rate q , one has M = M, + gt, and Eqs. (8) a n d
( 9 ) give the crack radius and the corresponding pressure as functions o f
time; the latter is illustrated in Fig. 1. Except for the transient effects,
it i s seen that (p- S) remains relatively constant as the crack grows.

Heat Extraction: For the heat extraction in a steady-state operation

the following equation estimates the temperature of the fluid along a
"stream tube'' (see Figs. 2 and 3) :

-235-
where
T = water temperature
W
T = r o c k temperature
r
= l e n g t h o f t h e stream tube
a = 2K/cwq
q = mass f l o w p e r u n i t l e n g t h measured normal t o t h e stream tube
C = water heat c a p a c i t y ,
W
and where " i n " denotes t h e " i n l e t " and "0" denotes t h e o u t l e t values. Here
i s g i v e n by

where
= r o c k ' s mass- density
'r
k = r o c k ' s heat c o n d u c t i v i t y
r
C r = r o c k ' s heat c a p a c i t y
t = time
F i g . 2 shows t h e r e s u l t o b t a i n e d from (10) f o r a case i n which Ro = 1200rn,
TLn= 3OO0C, T; = 24OoC, TAn = 6soC, and q = 0.2 kg/m sec. These r e s u l t s
check very a c c u r a t e l y w i t h t h e numerical r e s u l t s . T h i s i s shown i n F i g . 3
where the r e s u l t s o f t h e f i n i t e - e l e m e n t s o l u t i o n of t h e complete s e t of
equations a r e shown by s o l i d l i n e s .

It should be noted t h a t t h e thermal boundary l a y e r i n t h e rock, i n

which a thermal g r a d i e n t e x i s t s , i s v e r y small when compared w i t h t h e l e n g t h
o f the crack. T h i s requ r e s t h a t t h e numerica c a l c u l a t i o n s be coupled
w i t h some a n a l y t i c a l e s t mates.

The example o f F gs. 2 and 3 does n o t nclude t h e secondary c r a c k i n g

due t o t h e v e r y l a r g e thermal s t r e s s e s which may develop as t h e r o c k i s
cooled. Both a n a l y t i c a l and numerical c a l c u l a t i o n s have shown t h a t these
secondary cracks a r e v e r y l i k e l y t o develop and change t h e n a t u r e of t h e
heat f l o w as w e l l as t h a t o f t h e f l u i d f l o w . These and o t h e r r e l a t e d
problems a r e now being s t u d i e d .

-236-
 A -
p = p- s
2-
-
P/Po
I-
/ %
/
Y
I I I I I

I 2 3 4 5
-
M
MO

Figure 1

-237-
 fracture
A/

t
outlet

stream tu be

inlet

300
initial rock temperature
-I-<
1-

250

I ---qq == 0.2 kg/m sec

I
T, "C
200

I50
I 0.1 kg/m sec
175
0
4
100.

Ti"=65OC
I I I I
I /4 1/2 3/4 I

Figure 2
 30C

200
T, "c

100

65

I I

500 1000 m
X

Figure 3

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 NUMERICAL MODELING OF HYDROTHERMAL REACTIONS
IN GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIRS

Charles G. Samis
Pennsylvania State University
University Park, PA 16802

Although the corrosion and scaling problems associated with handling

geothermal fluids are well known, the effects of hydrothermal reactions
are often overlooked in geothermal reservoir modeling. Water-rock chemistry
can be expected to affect the evolution of a reservoir in at least three
ways: (a) the thermodynamic properties of water are affected by the dis-
solved solids - this i s especially important in two-phase regimes, (b) the
porosity and permeability change with time due to dissolving and precipita-
tion as well as due to the volume change associated with alteration, and
( c ) the heats of reaction may contribute directly to the energy production.

Table 1 summarizes the important hydrothermal reactions in a granitic

source rock together with the heats of reaction and associated volume
changes. Note that the available chemical energy is comparable to the
thermal energy while the associated volume changes are an order of magni-
tude larger than those due to thermal contraction.
Although significant chemical energy exists, it cannot always be
extracted. One of the first questions we addressed was the delineation
of reservoir conditions under which one could expect to extract significant
chemical heat. For the case o f d i s s o l v i n g - p r e c i p i t a t i o n reactions, a com-
parison of thermal energy with chemical energy leads to a simple relation
between solubility and heat o f reaction for a given ratio of chemical to
thermal energy extracted. Because the rate of dissolving is controlled
by the solubility at the outlet temperature, the resulting relation is
independent of all crack and flow parameters. In the case of quartz, the
solubility at 3OO0C is too low for chemical heat to make a contribution -
thermal energy is extracted far faster than chemical in all cases.
In the case of alteration reactions, however, the reaction rate is
not limited by solubility and, depending on the alteration rate, significant
chemical energy may be extracted. We have delineated the combinations of
flow parameters, crack parameters, heats of reaction and alteration rates
for which chemical energy associated with the alteration may be extracted.
One of the objectives of our qxperimental program is to determine alteration
rates in typical reservoir rocks, and thus assess the importance of such
reactions to the total thermal regime.
The changes in porosity and permeability associated with both dis-
solving and alteration reactions are easily incorporated into the standard
finite difference schemes commonly used in numerical reservoir modeling.
Our approach t o the inclusion of such effects will be discussed.
 PROGRESS REPORT ON A MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF A
PARALLELEPIPED RESERVOIR WITH NO PENETRATING
WELLBORE AND MIXED BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
A. Barelli and G. Manetti
ENEL Centro Ricerca Geotermica, Pisa, Italy
R. Celati
CNR - lstituto lnternazionale per le Ricerche Geotermiche,
Pisa, Italy
and
G. Neri
ENEL - Gruppo Minerario Larderello, Italy

The object of this work is to develop a mathematical model, as sug-

gested by H. J. Ramey E l ] , for simulating unsteady flow in geothermal
reservoirs containing a single phase fluid.
The reservoir is a homogeneous, isotropic parallelepiped with no-flux
or constant pressure walls, according to the most probable geological con-
d i t ions.
At present our model considers a non-penetrating wellbore as it will
first be applied to Travale geothermal field where many data are available
for a productive well with no penetration at all.
The computer program i s easily modified, however, to suit other well
conditions such as partial penetration or fractured wells. The finite
radius of our well was simulated computing the pressure drop at a given
distance from the point sink.
A parallele7iped with no-flux walls and top, constant pressure at the
bottom, was obtained from Green's instantaneous source functions VI I (x),
VI1 ( y ) , I X ( z ) according to the nomenclature used in ref. [21.
The solution for constant rate q is:

i-
h-4

-242-
If we define the dimensionless g r o u p s as follows:

eq. ( I ) gives:

nz 7

Subst i tut
 We c a r r i e d o u t summations f o r s e v e r a l values o f t along w i t h
DA
numerical i n t e g r a t i o n .

We had some computing d i f f i c u l t y i n e v a l u a t i n g t h e s e r i e s w i t h very

small values o f tDAas they do n o t r a p i d l y converge. We t e s t e d our method
by s o l v i n g two-dimensional problems whose s o l u t i o n s were a l r e a d y known by
t h e s u p e r p o s i t i o n i n space o f e x p o n e n t i a l i n t e g r a l s [31.

The g r e a t advantage o f t h i s method i s t h a t we can change boundary

c o n d i t i o n s s i m p l y by changing a FORTRAN s u b r o u t i n e . The program was f i r s t
used t o produce Horner graphs f o r comparing t h e t h e o r e t i c a l and e x p e r i -
mental p l o t s , w i t h a view t o s e l e c t i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e model.

F i g u r e s 1, 2 , 3 and 4 show t h e Horner p l o t s f o r a cube and a square

p a r a l l e l e p i p e d b o t h having a constant pressure o r c l o s e d bottom. These
t h e o r e t i c a l Horner p l o t s do n o t g i v e t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e s e c t i o n w i t h s l o p e
o f 1.15 found i n two-dimensional models. T h i s means t h a t t h e procedure
commonly used f o r e v a l u a t i n g t h e kh product cannot be d i r e c t l y a p p l i e d
when t h e h y p o t h e s i s o f t h i s model a r e a p p r o p r i a t e .

REFERENCES

[l] H. J . Ramey, W r i t t e n communication (1975).

[2] A. G r i n g a r t e n , H. J . Ramey, "The use o f source and Green's f u n c t i o n s

i n s o l v i n g unsteady- flow problems i n r e s e r v o i r s , " SOC. Pet. Eng. J.
285-296 (Oct. 1973); Trans., AIME, v o l . 2 5 5 .

[31 H. J . Ramey, A. Kumar, M. S. G u l a t i , "Gas w e l l t e s t a n a l y s i s under

w a t e r - d r i v e c o n d i t i o n s , " American Gas A s s o c i a t i o n , A r l i n g t o n ,
V i r g i n i a (1973).

-244-
 NOMENCLATURE

c = compressibility
k = permeabi 1 i ty
M = point where pressure is measured
pD = dimensionless pressure drop
A = pressure drop
P
q = flow rate
t = time
= area-based dimensionless time
t~~
X9Y = hor i zonta 1 coord i nates
z = vertical coordinate
r~ = hydraulic diffusivity
'DA' T D A = dimensionless variables of integration
3 = viscosity

T = variable of integration
= porosity

SUBSCR i PTS

e = reservoir dimensions
w = source o r sink location
V l i ( x ) , V I 1 (y) = Basic instantaneous source functions, for <an infinite
plane source in an infinite slab reservoir with prescribed flux at
the boundary, applied to the -
x and y coordinates.

I X ( z ) = Basic instantaneous source function for an infinite Iplane source

in an infinite slab reservoir with prescribed flux at z:=O and
prescribed pressure at z=ze.

-245-
 F i g . 1 - Closed cube with costant pressure at the bottom fig .Z-Closed cube

HORNER PLOT

80- I
ul
z
CI

-I
.-
52

= 10
1
1 10 103 1b 4
Fip.3 --Closed parallelepiped with costant pressure at the bottom
Fig.4 - Closed ParailelePiQtd

-246-
 FUNDAMENTAL STUDY OF CHANGING OF PHASE I N POROUS MATERIALS

Serge B o r i e s
l n s t i t u t de Mechanique des F l u i d e s
Toulouse, France

The research program on geothermal energy developed i n our l a b o r a t o r y

f o r t h e l a s t two years i s m a i n l y focussed on t h e fundamental problem o f
changing o f phase i n porous media.

I n t h i s r e p o r t I would l i k e t o d i s c u s s two p o i n t s : the main

o b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s program and our c u r r e n t a c t i v i t i e s .

Statement o f t h e Problem

A h i g h energy geothermal system i s g e n e r a l l y d e f i n e d as an a q u i f e r

i n which thermodynamic c o n d i t i o n s , i.e., pressure and temperature, a r e
r e l a t i v e l y important and thus may be used t o produce mechanical and
e l e c t r i c a l energy.

A number o f s t u d i e s have been conducted d u r i n g t h e l a s t t e n years

t o understand t h e e x i s t e n c e o f h o t temperature geothermal f i e l d s ; convection
i s now recognized as one of the main causes.

The e f f e c t o f c o n v e c t i o n i s t o induce an important upward head

f l u x and t h e r e f o r e v e r y h i g h temperatures i n t h e upper p a r t of t h e r e s e r v o i r .

The heat accumulation i n t h e upper p a r t o f a geothermal f i e l d , i.e.,

t h e s t o r e d energy, i s composed o f two p a r t s :

(1) The energy s t o r e d w i t h i n t h e sol i d phase. T h i s i s general l y

t h e more important aspect, and

(2) The energy s t o r e d w i t h i n t h e f l u i d phase.

Although d u r i n g p r o d u c t i o n o n l y the f u i d i s recovered, due t o changing o f
phase i n t h e r e s e r v o i r , heat t r a n s f e r occurs between t h e s o l i d matrix
and t h e f l u i d phase. It i s therefore evident t h a t s o l i d contr bution t o
t h e v a p o r i z a t i o n may be considered as most important as f a r as the recovery
o f energy and t h e thermodynamic e v o l u ion o f the reservoir are concerned.

T h i s problem o f heat t r a n s f e r between t h e porous m a t r i x and t h e

f l u i d i s p a r t i c u l a r l y important i n t h e case o f a f i s s u r e d medium w i t h l a r g e
b l o c k dimensions, which o f t e n occurs i n geothermal f i e l d s . I n t h a t case
i t i s u n r e a l i s t i c t o assume an e q u i l i b r i u m temperature between t h e f l u i d
and t h e m a t r i x b l o c k s w h i l e t h e f l u i d i s f l o w i n g and changing 'of phase w i t h i n
t h e f i s s u r e s i s t a k i n g place. The best we can do i s t o t r y t o d e f i n e a
mean heat t r a n s f e r between t h e rocks and t h e f l u i d . I f t h e blsocks a r e micro-
porous, t h e problem i s very s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f heat t r a n s f e r w i t h changing
o f phase i n a dispersed medium. This i s t h e problem we a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n .

-247-
Mathematical Model, Dimensionless Parameters

I n a f i r s t approach, by making t h e f o l l o w i n g assumptions:

a. R i g i d porous media
b. Capillary effects negligible
c. N e g l i g i b l e c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y work
d. Steam i s considered as a p e r f e c t gas
e. E q u i l i b r i u m Temperature between the f l u i d and t h e s o l i d .

The governing e q u a t i o n may be w r i t t e n as

Mass c o n t i n u i t y equation, heat t r a n s f e r e q u a t i o n
and t h e pressure e q u a t i o n
Dimensional a n a l y s i s from these equations leads t o dimensionless
q u a l i t i e s , t a k i n g i n t o account the i n f l u e n c e o f
Porosity
Nature o f porous medium
G r a i n - s i z e o r pore diameter
I n i t i a l conditions
Boundaries c o n d i t i o n s
T h i s model w i l l be t e s t e d and used t o determine experimental
c o r r e l a t i o n s by u s i n g t h e data o b t a i n e d on an experimental model which
i s described n e x t .

Exper iment a 1 Model

T h i s model i s one dimensional w i t h a c i r c u l a r s e c t i o n of 5 an

diameter and a l e n g t h o f two meters. To a v o i d p e r t u r b a t i n g i n f l u e n c e s i n
t h e p r o d u c t i o n s e c t i o n i t i s c o n s t i t u t e d o f two symmetrical p a r t s so t h e
temperature g r a d i e n t i n t h i s s e c t i o n i s equal t o 0 and then no ends
e f f e c t s can modify t h e steam q u a l i t y .

The porous media is s e t i n s i d e an i n s u l a t i n g envelope and an o u t s i d e

metal c y l i n d e r m a i n t a i n s the pressure and ensures c o n t r o l l e d h e a t i n g .

The f l u i d i s i n j e c t e d i n t o the porous media and maintained under

pressure, s a t u r a t i o n (gamma r a y a b s o r p t i o n ) , mass balance and steam
qual it y (condenser).

By u s i n g these r e s u l t s and having d e f i n e d t h e heat t r a n s f e r from

envelope t o t h e porous media ( t h i s parameter takes an important p l a c e i n
t h e energy balance), we w i 1 1 determine (1) t h e porous m a t e r i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n
t o t h e v a p o r i z a t i o n , and (2) t h e o s s i b i l i t i e s o f t e s t i n g t h e mathematical
model.

The experimental mode i s now almost f i n i s h e d and a simple numerical

model has been e s t a b l i s h e d t o e s t mate t h e heat t r a n s f e r from t h e envelope
t o t h e porous media.

We have o b t a i n e d a q u a l i t a t i v e s i m u l a t i o n o f t h e e f f e c t , i n t h e
example where s a t u r a t i o n i s u n i f o r m l y v a r y i n g i n t h e porous media.

-248-
 THERMAL DEPLETION OF LIQUID-DOMINATED
GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIRS WITH FRACTURE AND PORE PERMEABILITY

P. W. Kasameyer and R. C. Schroeder

E a r t h Sciences Geothermal Group
Lawrence Livermore Laboratory
U. o f C a l i f o r n i a / L i v e r m o r e , Ca 94550

The l i f e t i m e o f a geothermal power p l a n t i s s t r o n g l y dependent on

t h e f r a c t u r e spacing and f r a c t u r e p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e geothermal r e s e r v o i r .
T h i s c o n c l u s i o n i s based on s o l u t i o n o f t h r e e coupled l i n e a r r a t e equations
f o r t h e t i m e dependence o f t h e average temperature o f t h e rock, pore f l u i d
and f r a c t u r e f l u i d . By averaging temperature over t h e e n t i r e r e s e r v o i r and
assuming a l l t h e f l u i d i s r e i n j e c t e d , e f f e c t s such as drawdown a r e ignored,
and an upper bound f o r t h e r e s e r v o i r heat c o n t e n t and average w e l l b o r e
temperature i s determined as a f u n c t i o n o f time. Heat t r a n s f e r from the
r o c k t o t h e f l u i d by conduction b o t h i n f r a c t u r e s and i n pores and by t h e
f l o w o f f l u i d through t h e pores i s accounted f o r i n t h i s model.

Several approaches t o t h e problem o f thermal d e p l e t i o n o f a geo-

thermal r e s e r v o i r a r e p o s s i b l e . A v o l u m e t r i c e s t i m a t e o f heat i n p l a c e may
be based on an e s t i m a t e o f t h e volume o f f l u i d a v a i l a b l e (Towse, 1975).
Heat o b t a i n e d from t h e r o c k may be estimated and included i n the thermal
resource e s t i m a t e . An e s t i m a t e f o r the resource l i f e t i m e i s then made by
assuming some f r a c t i o n o f the thermal resource i s recoverable (White and
W i 1 1 iams, 1975). A complete numerical s i m u l a t i o n o f t h e coupled h e a t - f l o w
and mass- flow equations f o r s p e c i f i e d w e l l and r e s e r v o i r geometries can be
attempted. Numerical s i m u l a t i o n s a r e complex and o f t e n i n v o l v e so many
a d j u s t a b l e parameters t h a t i t i s o f t e n d i f f i c u l t t o g a i n i n s i g h t i n t o a
problem from such a s o l u t i o n . Our approach i s t o i d e a l i z e t h e problem
(see e.g., Bodvarsson, 1972) and consider o n l y the e s s e n t i a l aspects of the
heat and mass t r a n s p o r t as discussed below. I n t h i s way, a model i s
obta ned which i n v o l v e s a small number o f parameters and p r o v i d e s i n s i g h t
i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r behavior d u r i n g p r o d u c t i o n .

The s p e c i f i c quest ions o f i n t e r e s t a r e : 1 ) how much heat can be

e x t r a c t e d from t h e r e s e r v o i r rocks when r e s e r v o i r f l u i d i s produced w i t h
complete r e i n j e c t i o n ; and 2) how w i l l the r e s e r v o i r heat e x t r a c t i o n be
a f f e c t e d by t h e presence o f f r a c t u r e s ?

For a porous r e s e r v o i r , e s s e n t i a l l y a l l o f t h e heat above t h e r e -

i n j e c t i o n f l u i d temperature can be removed from t h e rock. If fractures
a r e present i n t h e r e s e r v o i r , they may s h o r t - c i r c u i t t h e i n j e c t i o n - p r o d u c t i o n
process and cause a r a p i d temperature d e c l i n e .

Our model o f t h e system i s represented by F i g . 1 . The resource

c o n s i s t s o f t h r e e components: r o c k m a t r i x , f l u i d i n i n t e r s t i t i a l pore space,
and f l u i d i n t h e f r a c t u r e s ( f i s s u r e s , f a u l t s , e t c . ) . The two f l u i d s a r e
represented by t h e s i n g l e box i n F i g . 1 . Three coupled d i f f e r e n t i a l
equations represent t h e i d e a l i z e d model. I n d e f i n i n g t h e equations, we do
n o t need t o g i v e t h e number o r d i s t r i b u t i o n p a t t e r n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l
geothermal w e l l s . Rather, i t i s assumed t h a t a system o f p r o d u c t i o n and
i n j e c t i o n w e l l s e x i s t s which can accommodate t h e r e q u i r e d f l o w r a t e s f o r a
s p e c i f i e d l e v e l o f power e x t r a c t i o n from t h e f l u i d . I n t h i s summary, we
consider o n l y t h e case o f f r a c t u r e s which a r e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e w e l l b o r e s
o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n and i n j e c t i o n w e l l s . For v e r t i c a l w e l l s t h e f r a c t u r e s a r e
assumed t o be h o r i z o n t a l . I f i n c l i n e d (or h o r i z o n t a l ) w e l l s are d r i l l e d , the
f r a c t u r e s a r e a g a i n p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e f l o w i n t h e w e l l system.

The f r a c t u r e s a r e modeled by a s e r i e s o f channels between p a r a l l e l

p l a t e s , as shown i n F i g . 2. Two parameters a r e used t o s p e c i f y t h e f r a c t u r e
d i s t r i b u t i o n , w, t h e a p e r t u r e o r opening o f t h e f r a c t u r e , and D , t h e d i s t a n c e
between f r a c t u r e s .

The r a t i o o f f r a c t u r e f l u i d t o pore f l u i d f l o w i n g i n t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n
w e l l i s c a l c u l a t e d from t h e assumed p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e porous s l a b s and t h e
c a l c u l a t e d p e r m e a b i l i t y due t o t h e f r a c t u r e s . The heat t r a n s f e r from r o c k
t o pore f l u i d i s g i v e n by t h e s t e a d y - s t a t e conduction equation. An exact
c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e heat exchange from r o c k t o f r a c t u r e f l u i d i s t o o d i f f i c u l t ,
because i t would depend on t h e e n t i r e temperature h i s t o r y o f t h e f l u i d
passing t h e rock. We e s t i m a t e t h a t heat t r a n s f e r term a t any t i m e from t h e
instantaneous average temperature d i f f e r e n c e between t h e r o c k and t h e f r a c t u r e
fluid. T h i s approximation i s t e s t e d i n r e s u l t s t o be shown l a t e r ( F i g . 5 ) .

C a l c u l a t e d upper bound curves f o r t h e average temperature o f a

r e s e r v o i r a r e shown i n F i g . 3 . The r e s e r v o i r has t h e volume estimated f o r
t h e S a l t o n Sea KGRA (Towse, 1975). The f l o w r a t e from t h e p r o d u c t i o n w e l l s
i s s u f f i c i e n t t o produce 1000 MW o f e l e c t r i c power, assuming t h a t 16% o f
the energy coming from t h e r e s e r v o i r i s converted t o u s e f u l power.

I f no f r a c t u r e s a r e present, t h e temperatures o f t h e f l u i d and r o c k

remain equa? and t h e heat c o n t e n t decays e x p o n e n t i a l l y . The t i m e c o n s t a n t
o f t h e decay can be c a l c u l a t e d from t h e t o t a l thermal mass o f t h e r o c k and
.Fluid. The t o p l i n e i n F i g . 3 represents t h e e x p o n e n t i a l decay, b u t t h e
s c a l e i s expanded so t h a t t h e l i n e looks almost s t r a i g h t .

When f r a c t u r e s a r e present, t h e d e p l e t i o n curves a r e c a l c u l a t e d by

keeping t h e pore f l u i d and r o c k i n e q u i l i b r i u m . We assume t h a t t h e f r a c t u r e s
communicate between i n j e c t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n w e l l s . The f l u i d produced i s a
m i x t u r e of f r a c t u r e f l u i d , which c o o l s r a p i d l y , and p o r e f l u i d , which c o o l s
s l o w l y . The r a p i d decay of average temperature f o r t h e m i x t u r e i s apparent
i n Fig. 3 .

Although t h i s v e r y simple c a l c u l a t i o n leads t o an a p p r e c i a t i o n o f

t h e e f f e c t s of f r a c t u r e s on f i e l d l i f e t i m e , i t does n o t represent a good upper
bound f o r t h e u s e f u l l i f e t i m e o f a geothermal r e s e r v o i r because regions o f
cool r e n j e c t e d f l u i d a r e averaged w i t h r e g i o n s o f h o t f l u i d near p r o d u c t i o n
we1 Is.

F i g . 4 shows how we e s t i m a t e t h e temperature p r o f i l e between t h e

p rod uc t on and i n j e c t i o n w e l l s . The r e s e r v o i r i s represented by several
vo 1 umes i n s e r i e s . Each volume may have a v e r y complicated shape and i s
n o t n e c e s s a r i l y s i n g l y connected. The f l u i d i s assumed t o move through t h e
r e s e r v o i r w i t h no m i x i n g , i . e . , t h e f i r s t volume f i l l s completely w i t h
c

-250-
reinjection fluid before any reinjection fluid reaches tfje second volume.
We choose a time-step sufficient to exchange fluid in one volume, solve for
the temperature decline in each volume independently using the method described
above, and then move the fluid to the next volume. In several steps, we can
calculate the temperature decline at the last volume, which represents the
region nearest the production well.
The most important assumption we have made is that the fluid moves
without mixing, which i s consistent with our desire to find an upper bound.
To test our method, and our approximation o f the heat-transfer between rock
and pore fluid, we compared our calculations to the numerical results of
Gringarten, et al. (1975), for hot dry rock with multiple fractures. As
shown in Fig. 5, the two numerical methods agreed closely.

Fig. 6 shows our calculated wellbore temperatures for a resource

with the volume of the Salton Sea Geothermal Field (SSGF) (Towse, 1975),
and an effective power production of 400 MW. Power could be produced at
that level for 20 years from the hot fluid alone. Our calculations for a
porous medium with no fractures indicate a lifetime of up to 3 . 3 times
as long, because of heat extraction from the rock.

Fractures cause a more rapid decline of production temperature. The

calculated temperature drop after 20 years is used as a measure of the effect
o f fractures. In Fig. 7, that temperature drop is contoured for a variety
of values o f w and D. The dashed lines indicate different ratios of pore
fluid and fracture fluid in the production well.
For small w or D, the depletion i s the same as i f fractures were
absent. I f more than 10% of the flow occurs in widely separated fractures,
the wellbore temperature declines more rapidly. The depletion increases when
D > 50 -
m and w3 > 2.~10'12 (m2).
D
In summary, resource estimates should consider the heat in the rock
matrix in addition to that in the geothermal fluid. Fracture:; may cause a
significantly greater temperature decl ine than would be predicted from
estimates based on porous flow alone. This result is very important for the
design and production of a liquid-dominated hydrothermal system, because
&ells are targeted on fractures whenever possible, in order to increase the
flow rate per well. Our results emphasize that if reinjection wells and
production wells intersect the same fracture system, the useful lifetime of
the production wells may be dramatically reduced.
References
G. Bodvarsson, "Thermal Problems in the Siting o f Reinjection Wells,"
Geothermics, Vol. 1 , No. 2 (1972).
D. Towse, "An Estimate of the Geothermal Energ Resource in the Salton
Trough, Cal ifornia," UCRL-51851 (June 18, 1975r.
D. F. White, D. L . Williams eds., "Assessment of Geothermal Resources of
-
the United States 1975," U . S . Geological Survey Circular 726.
S
.-
0
*.r
0 .
L
I

0
0 L
t; 3
aJ
L
a cr:
%
0
e

+.r
S
m
+.r
E E
0
2 0
2 e

-252-
FIGURE 2.

-25.3-
 Y

A COMPARISON OF FRACTURE APERTURE FOR THE

SALTON SEA KGRA, 1000MWe, 1500 m FRACTURE
SPACING.

0.
F
6O 5 10
w=l.xlO

15 20 25 30 35
Time (years)

FIGURE 3.

-254-
w
a
3
I-
a
U
W
e
z
W

-255-
 ..-
HOT DRY ROCK WITH MULTIPLE FRACTURES RESULTS FROM
TWO NUMERICAL METHODS

6oo r- I 1 I I

- 160 m

E"
Q)
u
I\ - $3 This study
Gringarten, et al. [1975j
\

I I I I
20 40 60 80 1
Time (yrs)

FiGURE 5 .

k! WELLBORE TEMPERATURE VS. TIME

.-_-____
SSG F-400megawatts initial power extracted (with fractures)

I I I

_----- ~

L,

I
-
I
Injection
-- - . temperature -1
'300 - I"' -- - I

FIGURE 6 .
-256-
 ..-

!k! CONTOURS OF PRODUCTION FLUID TEMPERATURE

DECLINE AFTER 20 YEARS, FOR DIFFERENT
FRACTURE DISTR1BUTIONS (SSGF, 400MW)

AT = 35 K
-
I

A T = l K
R = 1.0
10 f I I I I l l I I I
3 X 10'3 3 x 10-3
Wrn)

FIGURE 7 .
 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY FROM A BOREHOLE
I N HOTDRY ROCK - A PRELIMINARY STUDY

Devraj Sharma & Tidu Maini

Advanced Technology Group
Dames & Moore
London, S W 1 4 8SN, England

A simple procedure for calculating heat transfer between circulated

water and hot dry rock in a single, concentric-annulus geothermal well is
presented. Also presented are the results of an application of the
procedure to a proposed well in Sweden.
The concept examined consists essentially of pumping water, at
naturally-occurring temperatures, down a cylindrical well drilled several
kilometers into the earth, and extracting it in a heated state through an
annular cylinder (see for example, Smith --et al., 1 9 7 3 ) . Two different
schemes embodying the same concept are examined in the present investi-
gation. These are illustrated in Figs. 1 and 2 . In the first, cold water
is pumped into the inner cylinder and extracted through the annular space.
In the second, the situation i s exactly reversed.
The problem, in both schemes, i s to predict the outlet temperature
of water under given conditions on the one hand; and on the other, to
predict the temperature drop in the rock mass surrounding the well, other-
wise known as energy depletion of the geothermal reservoir. (See
Gringarten --
et al., (1975) for analytical solutions to a plane-crack
situation embodying a similar concept.) Such prediction was undertaken
in two stages.
Methodology Adopted

I n order to render the problem tractable to simple mathematical

analysis in Stage 1 , certain simplifying assumptions are made. By virtue
of these assumptions, the process of thermal energy gain by the flowing
water was decoupled from that of energy loss by the surrounding rock mass.
Then, an ordinary differential equation was formulated to represent the
energy-gain process, and solved analytically with specified rock tempera-
tures as boundary condition. A series of such solutions was obtained and
the influence of significant parameters was investigated. During this
stage, only a rough estimate of rock-mass energy depletion was made.
This estimate indicated that such a depletion would be minimal.
In Stage 2 , the coupled, and essentially unsteady-state, processes
were modelled by partial-differential equations, which were solved by an
integrated, finite-difference technique. A computer program embodying
this technique was used to investigate the influence o f significant
parameters. Such investigations are continuing and the results presented
here are prel iminary.
Mathematical Details
1. Simplifying Assumptions

The following assumptions are made, in both Stage 1 and Stage 2

calculations, concerning the process of thermal energy gain by circulating
water:
a) The flow is ful ly-developed, i .e., essentially one-dimensional
in nature, both within the inner tube and in the annular space.
b) The flow i s turbulent.

c) Within the temperature range encountered, the circulating-water

properties remain essentially constant.

d) The rock-mass temperature varies linearly with depth below the

earth's surface.

2. Stage 1 Calculations
The ordinary differential equation governing the steady-state
energy gain by circulating water in Scheme 1 is

and, in Scheme I 1 is

The symbols in the above equations are defined in Fig. 3 , and in

the nomenclature'. The solution to Equation ( 1 ) is (Sharma,.1975)

and to Equation ( 2 ) is

-259-
 These s o l u t i o n s , o b t a i n e d w t h known values of rock temperature,
a r e represented i n F i g s . 4 and 5. n o r d e r t o make these r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s ,
t h e values o f h e a t - t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c e n t h were e x t r a c t e d from t h e work o f
Kays and Leung ( 1 963). Furthermore a borehole o f 4 i n . was presumed and
a thermal g r a d i e n t "a" o f 0.034.

I t can be observed from F i g . 5 t h a t Scheme I I i s p r e f e r a b l e t o

Scheme 1 . However, t h e i n f l u e n c e o f c i r c u l a t i n g water f l o w i n c o o l i n g t h e
adjacent rock and hence d e p l e t i n g t h e geothermal energy source cannot be
observed by t h e decoupled technique. I n order t o c a l c u l a t e t h i s d e p l e t i o n ,
i t i s necessary t o perform c a l c u l a t i o n of the coupled processes.

3. Stage 2 C a l c u l a t i o n s

The Stage 2 c a l c u a t i o n s involved t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e coup ed

problem. This problem i s expressed mathematically thus:

C i r c u l a t i n g - w a t e r energy g a i n

w i t h t h e i n i t i a l and boundary c o n d i t i o n s :

- ; t c o
Tw - L o
-- -
7 t ) / O
T,,,

Rock-rnass energy l o s s

-260-
w i t h the i n i t i a l and boundary c o n d i t i o n s :

r 3
t2 0

The coupled s o l u t i o n s t o Equations ( 5 ) and (7) w i t h boundary

c o n d i t i o n s (6) and (8) were obtained w i t h an i n t e g r a t e d f i n i t e - d i f f e r e n c e
procedure described by Sharma (1975). I n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t h i s connection
are s t i l l continuing. However, a r e s u l t o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e procedure
t o Scheme I I (Fig. 2 ) i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fig. 6. This r e s u l t appears t o
i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e rock- face temperature drops more r a p i d l y due t o t h e
c i r c u l a t i n g - w a t e r energy gain, than t h e replenishment p o s s i b l e due t o heat
conduction from t h e surrounding rock mass. I t i s c l e a r t h a t a simple
borehole type o f approach i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t f o r e x t r a c t i n g geothermal
energy i n meaningful q u a n t i t i e s . I t i s concluded from the present study
t h a t e i t h e r e x p l o s i v e s o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g w i l l have t o be used i n o r d e r
t o p r o v i d e s u f f i c i e n t c o n t a c t area f o r e f f e c t i v e energy e x t r a c t i o n . In
c o u n t r i e s such as Sweden where abnormally h i g h h o r i z o n t a l stresses e x i s t ,
i t i s l i k e l y t h a t h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s can be created, thereby p r o v i d i n g
a v a s t s u r f a c e area o f c o n t a c t a t constant h i g h temperature ( t h i s i s c l e a r l y
an advantage over o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d where v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s a r e more
common). We a r e c u r r e n t l y studying t h e problem o f geothermal energy g a i n
from c i r c u l a t i n g water f l o w through a r b i t r a r i l y - s h a p e d f r a c t u r e s . T h i s
study i s based upon a mathematical model i n v o l v i n g the numerical s o l u t i o n
o f p a r t i a l d i f f e r e n t i a l equations governing c o n v e c t i v e heat and mass t r a n s f e r .
I n a c o n t i n u i n g study, account w i l l be taken o f phase change, d i s s o l u t i o n ,
turbulence and o t h e r i n f l u e n c e s on thermal energy t r a n s f e r .

Acknowledgment

The authors wish t o thank Professor P.A. Witherspoon of U n i v e r s i t y

o f C a l i f o r n i a , Berkeley, D r . U. Lindblom o f Hagconsult, Stockholm and D r .
R.J. Hopkirk o f E l e k t r o w a t t , Z u r i c h f o r t h e i r encouragement and support.

-26 1 -
References

Gringarten, A.C. , P.A. Witherspoon and Y . Ohnishi (1975). "Theory o f

heat e x t r a c t i o n from f r a c t u r e d h o t d r y rock," J . Geophys. Res., 80, (8)
pp. 1120-1 124.

Kays, W.M. and E . Y . Leung (1963). -

I n t . J . Heat and Mass T r a n s f e r , 6, pp.
537-57
Sharma, D . (1975). "A f i n i t e - d i f f e r e n c e procedure f o r c a l c u l a t i n g
simultaneous heat and mass t r a n s f e r i n geothermal a p p l i c a t i o n s . " Paper i n
print.

Smith, M . , R. P o t t e r , D. Brown and R.L. Aamodt (1973). " I n d u c t i o n and

growth o f f r a c t u r e s i n h o t rock" i n Geothermal Energy, Stanford U n i v e r s i t y
Press, Stanford, Ca. 94305, Ch. 14, pp. 251-265.

Nomenclature

geothermal gradient

s p e c i f i c heat capacity o f rock mass and

c i r c u l a t i n g water respectively

water-rock surface heat-exchange c o e f f i c i e n t

depth of borehole

c i r c u l a t i n g water mass flow r a t e

perimeter of borehole
radius coordinate

r a d i i of borehole a n d rock mass considered

respect i vely
time coordinate

velocity o f c i r c u l a t i n g water
depth coordinate
P dens i t y
X i nverse depth coordinate

-262-
 hot water out cold water i n

F i g . 1 I l l u s t r a t i o n of geothermal
well; Scheme I .

c o l d wa ter out

F i g . 2 I l l u s t r a t i o n o f geothermal
w e l l ; Scheme 11.

-263-
Fig. 3 I l l u s t r a t i o n o f coordinate
sys tern.

- 2 64 -
 1oc

8C
T
(OC)

60 RI = 0.102 m
L = 900 ni

40

20
10

F i g . 4. Effect of flowrate on temperature r i s e of

ci rcul a t i ng water, Scheme I .
1c
---rm-r-r---r-r~
//

80

T
(OC)

60
R I = 0.102 m
L = 900 m

40

20

10 lo2 x(n1) 1o3

F i g . 5 Effect of flowrate on temperature r i s e of
circulating water, Scheme 11.

-265-
 100 I I I I I I I l l I I I I I I I
R I = 0.102 in
L = 900 m
m = 10 kg/s
80
T = 20 OC
w90
T Ro = 100 m
(OC)

60

40

20

Fig. 6 Outlet temperature o f c i r c u l a t i n g water;

coupled problem.

%
.

-266-
 THE USE OF GENERAL SENSITIVITY THEORY TO ANALYZE THE GEOTHERMAL
RESERVOIR MODEL'S SENSITIVITY TO THE PERMEABILITY FUNCTIONS

Robert W. Atherton
Systems Control, Inc.
1801 Page M i 1 1 Road
Palo A l t o , Ca. 94304

S e n s i t i v i t y theory i s concerned w i t h studying how a model depends

upon i t s parameters, constants o r f u n c t i o n s . Models o f r e a l p h y s i c a l
processes, such as f l o w i n a geothermal r e s e r v o i r , a r e implemented v i a
numerical s i m u l a t i o n s . The r e s u l t s o f t h e model u a r e a v a i l a b l e o n l y f o r
c e r t a i n values of t h e parameters po. Because t h e exact dependence of u
on p i s n o t known, s e n s i t i v i t y s t u d i e s a r e t y p i c a l l y done by random o r
quasi-organized searches of t h e parameter space p , and computer o u t p u t i s
generated f o r s e t s o f p o i n t s po f o r the parameters.

The mapping u (p) and i t s d e r i v a t i v e s a r e of great i n t e r e s t . The

d e r i v a t i v e s a r e d e f i n e d t o be s e n s i t i v i t y f u n c t i o n s . For constant parameters.
au
-
I

the s e n s i t i v i t y f u n c t i o n s a r e and f o r parametric functions u 06p where

aPj P
u ' * i s t h e Frechet d e r i v a t i v e o f u ( p ) , and 6p i s a v e c t o r o f p e r t u r b a t i o n
P
f unct ons.

I have developed a general s e n s i t i v i t y theory (1,2,3) which a l l o w s the

formu a t i o n o f an a u x i l i a r y o r dual model from which the s e n s i t i v i t y
funct ons can be c a l c u l a t e d d i r e c t l y . Thus, the s t a t e and s e n s i t i v i t y
f u n c t i o n s can be generated f o r " l i k e l y " values o f p, and t h e s e n s i t i v i t y
f u n c t i o n s i n d i c a t e how u w i l l change f o r changes i n p i n t h e neighborhood
o f Po.

I n the f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s I w i l l summarize general s e n s i t i v i t y

theory and i t s usefulness by presenting two examples from r e s e r v o i r
modeling.

General Sens it i v i t y Theory

The d e r i v a t i o n o f t h e general s e n s i t i v i t y theory i s based upon the

use of t h e i m p l i c i t f u n c t i o n theorem f o r o p e r a t o r s on Banach spaces. I
view t h e model as

Then the imp1 i c i t f u n c t i o n theorem a s s e r t s the e x i s t e n c e of u ( p )

such t h a t
N(U(P), P) = 0 (2)

-267-
 We now differentiate (2) in the sense of Frechet to get
I
u' + " 0 ) 6p = 0 (3)
Nu P P
In the case o f constant parameters (3) becomes
au
(4)

We will exhibit specific examples in the next section.

Flow in Anisotropic Porous Media

For the model I take the following set of equations (4)

VP + p 0 ' v = 0
-
. " - .
A * V = O
..,

Where V is the superficial velocity. D... i s the dispersion tensor;

..
e.. = F-',
.. and 5
%
.
i s the permeabi 1 i ty tensor. Equations

(5) and , ( 6 ) define a model R- -(u, p) where u."=

. . ,
(vl, V 2 ' V3' p) and

P = (Dll. DI2' D
I l
Computing derivatives R and R
U P

t
R.
U
=
I
r V
ci
V
0
-

v2 v3 0 3

0
K' . 0 v2 v3
P 0 0 0
v2
0 0 0 0

Let ~p = u l * 6p
P
Then we have 24 sensitivity equations in the form

Ri* + R;. 6p-. = 0

-268-
 ..-

where bp are the perturbations in the dispersion or permeability functions,

and @ = 0 on the boundary of the domain.
-
Because R i s linear in u, the sensitivity and the model are
governed by the same basic operator.

A Nonlinear Example

For a nonlinear example, I turn to a model of Peaceman and Rachford

[51

k @ are functions of x and y only.

kx' y'
Nonlinearities are introduced via

1-I = f(P,C) Y = f(c)

In addition

The state i s given by u = (P,c) and the parameters o f P = (kx,ky)

,.
I will not write out R' and R'.However, it is of interest to
U P
note that because of the nonlinear coupling, 5c can affect p even if
u p is zero; and conversely.

Summary and Conclusions

I have briefly sketched sensitivity theory and its application to

two problems. A key point to recognize i s that the sensitivity model i s
the complement of the physical model. A powerful result i s that regions
in p of unusual behavior for u can be found more easily from studying the
behavior of the sensitivities than from studying u alone. This observation
is true even in cases where u(p) i s known.

-269-
 ..-

I expect the techniques of general sensitivity analysis to be

useful in formulating and using geothermal reservoir simulators under
conditions of large parameter uncertainty.

References

[l] Atherton, R. W . , "The Application o f Operator Derivatives to

Problems in Chemical Engineering," 68th National AICHE Meeting, Los
Angeles, Ca., November 1975, and submitted t o Chem. Eng. Comnun.
[21 Atherton, R. W . , "On the Model-Sensitivity Operator: Part I Constant
Parameters" S l A M Fall Meeting, San Francisco, Ca., December 3 5,-
1975 and submitted to SlAM J. Appl. Math.
[31 Atherton, R. W., "On the Model-Sensitivity Operator: Part I I
Parametric Funct ons," Ibid.
141 Slattery, J. C., Momentum, Energy, and Mass Transfer in Continua,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1972, pp. 190-215.

[51 Peaceman, D. W . , and H. H. Rachford, Jr. , "Numerical Calculations

of Multidimensional Miscrible Displacement,'' - - J, December 1962,
SPE
327-339

-270-