Chapter 1

Introduction of Wireless Communication

1.1 Overview of wireless communication systems

 At the 18th century, Claude Chappe invented the optical telegraph (1794), that long-
distance wireless communication was possible with technical means. Optical
telegraph lines were built almost until the end of the following century.

 Wired communication started with the first commercial telegraph line between
Washington and Baltimore in 1843, and Alexander Graham Bell’s invention and
marketing of the telephone in 1876 (others tried marketing before but did not succeed,
e.g., Philip Reis, 1834-1874, discovered the telephone principle in 1861).

 In Berlin, a public telephone service was available in 1881, the first regular public
voice and video service (multimedia) was available in 1936 between Berlin and
Leipzig.

 Guglielmo Marconi (1874-1937) gave the first demonstration of wireless telegraphy

in 1895 using long wave transmission with very high transmission power (>200 kw).

 The first radio broadcast took place in 1906 when Reginald A. Fessenden (1866-
1932) transmitted voice and music for Christmas. In 1915, the first wireless voice
transmission was set up between New York and San Francisco. The first commercial
radio station started in 1920.

 In 1981, the northern European countries of Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden
agreed upon the Nordic mobile telephone (NMT) system. The analogue NMT uses a
450 MHz carrier.

 In 1983, the US system advanced mobile phone system (AMPS) started. AMPS are
an analog mobile phone system working at 850 MHz.

 Telephones at homes went wireless with the standard CT1 (cordless telephone) in
1984 (following its predecessor the CT0 from 1980).

 In 1991, ETSI adopted the standard digital European cordless telephone (DECT)
for digital cordless telephony. DECT works at a spectrum of 1880-1900 MHz with a
range of 100-500 m.120 duplex channels can carry up to 1.2 Mbit/s for data
transmission.

 Finally in 1991,GSM came, that works at 900 MHz and uses 124 full-duplex
channels.GSM offers full international roaming, automatic location services,
authentication, encryption on the wireless link, efficient interoperation with ISDN
systems, and a relatively high audio quality. Its data rate is 9.6 kbit/s. Up to now; over

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 400 providers in more than 190 countries have adopted the GSM standard (over 70
percent of the world’s wireless market).

 In 1998 the European agreed on the universal mobile telecommunications system

(IMTS) as the European proposal for the International telecommunication Union
(ITU) IMT-2000 (International mobile telecommunications). In the first phase, UMTS
combines GSM network technology with more bandwidth-efficient CDMA solutions.

 The IMT-2000 recommendations define a common, worldwide framework for future

mobile communication at 2 GHz. This includes, e.g., a framework for services, the
network architecture including satellite communication, strategies for developing
countries, requirement of the radio interface, spectrum considerations, security and
management frameworks ,and different transmission technologies.

 Then, IEEE published 802.11b offering 11 Mbit/s at 2.4 GHz. The same spectrum is
used by Bluetooth, a short-range technology to set-up wireless personal area networks
with gross data rates less than 1 Mbit/s.

 The wireless application protocol (WAP) started at the same time as i-mode in Japan.
The year 2000, came with higher data rates and packet-oriented transmission for
GSM.

 Most of the hype is over, but the third generation of mobile communication started in
2001 in Japan with the FOMA service, in Europe with several field trials. In e.g.,
Korea with cdma2000.

 IEEE released a new WLAN standard, 802.11a; operating at 5 GHz and offering
gross data rates of 54 Mbit/s. This standards uses the same physical layer as
HiperLAN2.

1.2 Principles of cellular communication

 The term cellular communication refers to a wide variety of wireless access and
personal mobility services provided through certain terminals with a goal of enabling
communication.

 Each mobile uses a separate, temporary radio channel to talk to the cell site. The cell
site talks to many mobiles at once, using one channel per mobile.

 Channels use a pair of frequencies for communication-one frequency (Uplink) for

transmitting the signal from mobile station to the cell site and one frequency
(Downlink) from the cell site to receive calls to the users.

 Radio energy dissipates over distance, so mobiles must stay near the base station to
maintain communications. The basic structure of mobile networks includes telephone
systems and radio services.

 The mobile radio service operates in a closed network and hence has no access to the
telephone system. The mobile telephone service on the other hand allows
interconnection to the telephone network.

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  Mostly common telephone networks are connected to the PSTN (Public Switched
Telephone Network). Some examples of widespread communication networks are
GSM, CDMA, AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone Service) etc.

 Cellular communication has developed over a few generations of inventions such as

1G, 2G, 2.5G and 3G. Presently 4G is still under development stage and will be soon
marketed as the new era in cellular communications.

1.3 Overview of 1G, 2G, 2.5G, 3G and 4G technologies

The wireless communication is divided into various generations. The International Standards
bodies are currently engaged in defining the fourth generation mobile systems.

Following is the classification of all the generations of wireless communication.

0G:
 PTT
 MTS
 IMTS
 AMTS

0.5G

 Autotel/PALM
 ARP

1G

 NMT
 AMPS
 Hicap
 CDPD
 Mobitex
 DataTAC

2G

 GSM
 iDEN
 D-AMPS
 IS-95/CDMAONE
 PDC
 CSD
 PHS

2.5G

 GPRS
 HSCSD

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  WiDEN

2.75G

 CDMA,2000 IXRTT/IS-2000
 EDGE

3G

 W-CDMA
 UMTS
 FOMA
 IXEV-DO/IS-856
 TD-SCDMA
 GAN/UMA

3.5G

 HSDPA

3.75G

 HSUPA

4G

 Frequency bands
 SMR
 Cellular
 PCS

1.3.1 1 G

 It is the first generation wireless telephone technology, cellphones. These are analog
cellphone standards introduced in 80’s and were later replaced by 2G digital
cellphones.

 Radio signals used by 1G networks are analog and 2G is digital. But, both systems
use digital signaling to connect the radio towers to the rest of the telephone system.

 But the call itself is encoded to digital signals in 2G whereas; 1G is only modulated to
high frequency. One such standard is NMT (Nordic Mobile Telephone) used in
Nordic countries, Eastern Europe and Russia.

 Others include AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) used in US. TACS (Total
Access Communication System) in UK, C-450 in West Germany, Portugal and South
Africa, Radiocom2000 in France and RTMI in Italy.

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1.3.2 2G

It is second generation wireless telephone technology. Main difference between 1G and 2G is

that the radio signals used by 1G are analog, while 2G networks are digital.

2G Standards

 2G technologies are of two types: TDMA based and CDMA based, depending on the
type of multiplexing used.

 The main 2G standards are:

 GSM (TDMA based), originally from Europe, but used worldwide.
 iDEN (TDMA based), by Nextel in US and Telus Mobility in Canada.
 IS-136/ D-AMPS (TDMA based), used in America.
 IS-95/cdmaOne (CDMA based), used in America and Asia.
 PDC (TDMA based), used in Japan.
 2G is known as PCS (Personal Communication Services) in US.

1.3.3 2.5G

 The second and a half generation is a stepping stone between 2G and 3G cellular
wireless technologies. It has implemented a packet switched domain in addition to the
circuit switched domain.

 It does not necessarily provide faster services (HSCSD) as well. 2.5G was invented
only for marketing purpose and is not officially defined as 2G and 3G, 2.5G provides
some benefits of 3G (e.g., it is packet switched) and can use some of the existing 2G
infrastructure in GSM and CDMA networks.

 GPRS is 2.5 technology used by GSM operators. Some protocols, such as EDGE for
GSM and CDMA-2000 IXRTT for CDMA, can qualify as 3G, because of data rate
above 144 kbps; but are considered by most to be 2.5G or 2.75G, as they are many
times slower than true 3G services.

1.3.4 3G

 It is the third generation technology with ability to transfer both voice and non-voice
data. It was introduced on a large commercial scale in Japan.

 In marketing 3G services, video telephony has often used as the flag ship killer
application for 3G. But, real life usage of video telephony on 3G network is only a
very small fraction of all services.

 Downloading of music finds very strong demand by customers. 3G networks are not
IEEE 802.11 networks. IEEE 802.11 networks are short range, primarily internet
access networks, while 3G wireless networks are the evolution of wide area cellular
telephone networks which hope to incorporate high speed internet access and video
telephony to these networks.

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1.3.5 4G

 This wireless access technology is the fourth generation successor of 3G. The IEEE
official name for 4G is “3G and beyond”.

 4G is the future standard for wireless devices. A Japanese company is testing $G

communication at 100 Mbps while moving and 1 Gbps while stationary. Its first
commercial release is planned in 2010.

 Pervasive network: An amorphous and presently entirely hypothetical concept, where

the user can be simultaneously connected to several wireless access technologies and
can seamlessly move between them. These access technologies can be Wi-Fi, UMTS,
EDGE, etc. included in this concept is also smart radio/ cognitive radio technology to
efficiently manage spectrum use and transmission power as well as the use of mesh
routing protocols to create a pervasive network.

 Ideally, 4G would provide users with on demand high quality video and audio. Video
is one of the big differences between 4G and 3G. 4G may use OFDM (Orthogonal
Frequency Division Multiplexing), and also OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency
Division Multiple Access) to better allocate network resources to multiple users.

 4G devices may use SDR (Software Defined Radio) receivers, which allow for better
use of available bandwidth as well as making use of multiple channels
simultaneously.

 Unlike 3G networks, which are a jumble of circuit and packet switched networks, 4G
will be based on packet switching only. This will allow low-latency data transmission.

1.4 Multiple Access Schemes for Wireless Communication

(Ref. : Page no. 449; Wireless Communication: T S Rappaport)

Multiple access schemes are used to allow many mobile users to share simultaneously a finite
amount of radio spectrum. The sharing of spectrum is required to achieve high capacity by
simultaneously allocating the available bandwidth (or the available amount channels) to
multiple users. For high quality communication, this must be done without severe
degradation in the performance of the system.

1.4.1 Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)

 Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA) controls the radiated energy for each user in
space. It serves different users by using spot beam antennas.

 These different areas covered by the antenna beam may be served by the same
frequency (in a TDMA or CDMA system) or different frequencies (in an FDMA
system).

 Sectorized antenna may be thought of as a primitive application of SDMA. In the

future, adaptive antennas will likely be used to simultaneously steer energy in the

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 direction of many users at once and appear to be suited for TDMA and CDMA base
station architectures.

 The reverse link presents the most difficulty in cellular systems for several reasons.
First; the base station has complete control over the power of all the transmitted
signals on the forward link.

MS

MS
MS

Figure: 1.1 Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA) by using filtered base station.

 However, because of different radio propagation path between each user and the base
station, the transmitted power from each subscriber unit must be dynamically
controlled to prevent any single user from driving up the interference level for all
other users.

 Second, transmit power is limited by battery consumption at the subscriber unit;

therefore there are limits on the degree to which power may be controlled on the
reverse link.

 If the base station antenna is made to spatially filter each desired user so that more
energy is detected from each subscriber, then the reverse link for each user is
improved and less power is required.

 Adaptive antenna used at the base station promise to mitigate some of the problems
on the reverse link.

 In the limiting case of infinitesimal beam width and infinitely fast tracking ability,
adaptive antennas implement optimal SDMA, thereby providing a unique channel that
is free from the interference of all other users in the cell.

 With SDMA, all users within the system would be able to communicate at the same
time using the same channel.

 In addition, a perfect adaptive antenna system would be able to track individual

multipath components for each user and combine them in an optimal manner to
collect all of the available signal energy from each user. The perfect adaptive antenna
system is not feasible since it requires infinitely large antennas.

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1.4.2 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) assigns individual channels to

individual users. It can be seen from figure that each user is allocated a unique
frequency band or channel.

 These channels are assigned on demand to users who request service. During the
period of the call, no other user can share the same channel.

 In FDD systems, the users are assigned a channel as a pair of frequencies; one
frequency is used for the forward channel, while the other frequency is used for the
reverse channel.

Code

Frequency

F1 F2 - - - - - - - FN

Time

Figure: 1.2 FDMA where different channels are assigned different frequency bands.

 The features of FDMA are as follows:

 The FDMA channel carries only one phone circuit at a time.

 If an FDMA channel is not in use, then it sits idle and cannot be used by other users to
increase or share capacity. It is essentially a wasted resource.

 After the assignment of a voice channel, the base station and the mobile transmit
simultaneously and continuously.

 The bandwidths of FDMA channels are relatively narrow (30 kHz in AMPS) as each
channel supports only one circuit per carrier. That is, FDMA is usually implemented in
narrowband systems.

 The symbol time of a narrowband signal is large as compared to the average delay
spread. This implies that the amount of inter-symbol interference is low and, thus little
or no equalization is required in FDMA narrowband systems.

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  The complexity of FDMA mobile systems is lower when compared to TDMA systems,
though this is changing as digital signal processing methods improve for TDMA.

 Since FDMA is a continuous transmission scheme, fewer bits are needed for overhead
purposes (such as synchronization and framing bits) as compared to TDMA.

 FDMA systems have higher cell site system cost as compared to TDMA systems,
because of the single channel per carrier design, and the need to use costly bandpass
filters to eliminate spurious radiation at the base station.

 The FDMA mobile unit uses duplexers since both the transmitter and receiver operate
at same time. This results in an increase in the cost of FDMA subscriber units and base
stations

 FDMA requires tight RF filtering to minimize adjacent channel interference.

 Disadvantages of FDMA

 In a FDMA system, many channels share the same antenna at the base station. The
power amplifiers or the power combiners, when operated at or near saturation for
maximum power efficiency, are nonlinear.

 The nonlinearities causes signal spreading in the frequency domain and generate inter-
modulation (IM) frequencies.IM are undesired RF radiation which can interfere with
other channels in the FDMA systems.

 Spreading of the spectrum results in adjacent-channel interference. Inter-modulation is

the generation of adjacent services, while those present inside the band cause
interference to other users in the wireless systems.

1.4.3 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) systems divide the radio spectrum into time
slots and in each slot only one user as allowed either transmit or receive.

 It can be seen from figure that each user occupies a cyclically repeating time slot, so a
channel may be thought of as a particular time slot that reoccurs every frame, where N
time slots comprise a frame.

 TDMA systems transmit data in a buffer and burst method, thus the transmission for
any user is non-continuous. This implies that, unlike in FDMA systems which
accommodate analog FM, digital data and digital modulation must be used with
TDMA.

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 Code

FN
-
-
- Frequency
F1

Time

Figure: 1.3 TDMA schemes where each channel occupies a cyclically repeating time slot.

 The features of TDMA include the following:

 TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users, where each user makes use
of non-overlapping time slots. The number of time slots per frame depends on several
factors, such as modulation technique, available bandwidth, etc.

 Data transmission for users of a TDMA system is not continuous, but occurs in burst.
This results in low battery consumption, since the subscriber transmitter can be turned
off when not in use.

 Because of discontinues transmissions in TDMA, the handoff process is much simpler

for a subscriber unit, since it is able to listen for other base station during idle time
slots. An enhanced link control, such as that provided by mobile assisted handoff
(MACHO) can be carried out by a subscriber by listening on an idle slot in the TDMA
frame.

 TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and reception, thus duplexers are not
required. Even if FDD is used, a switch rather than a duplexer inside the subscriber unit
is all that is required to switch between transmitter and receiver using TDMA.

 Adaptive equalization is usually necessary in TDMA systems, since the transmission

rates are generally very high as compared to FDMA channels.

 In TDMA, the guard time should be minimized. If the transmitted signals at the edges
of a time slot are suppressed sharply in order to shorten the guard time, the transmitted
spectrum will expand and cause interference to adjacent channels.

 High synchronization overhead is required in TDMA systems because of burst

transmissions. TDMA transmissions are slotted, and this requires the receivers to be
synchronized for each data burst. In addition, guard slots are necessary to separate users
and this result in the TDMA systems having larger overheads as compared to FDMA.

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  TDMA has an advantage in that it is possible to allocate different numbers of time slots
per frame to different users. Thus, bandwidth can be supplied on demand to different
users by concatenating or reassigning time slots based on priority.

1.4.4 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

 In Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) systems, the narrowband message signal
is multiplied by a very large bandwidth signal called the spreading signal. The
spreading signal is a pseudo-noise code sequence that has a chip rate which is order of
magnitude greater than the data rate of the message.

 All users in a CDMA system use the same carrier frequency and may transmit
simultaneously. Each user has its own pseudorandom codeword which is
approximately orthogonal to all other codeword.

 The receiver performs a time correlation operation to detect only the specific desired
codeword. All others codeword appear as noise due to decorrelation.

 For detection of the message signal, the receiver needs to know the codeword used by
the transmitter. Each user operates independently with no knowledge of the other
users.

 In CDMA, the power of multiple users at a receiver determines the noise floor after
decorelation. If the power of each user within a cell is not controlled such that they do
not appear equal at the base station receiver, then the near-far problems occur.

Code

Channel 1
-

-
- Frequency
-
-
-
-
Channel N

Time
Figure: 1.4 CDMA scheme.

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 The features of CDMA including the following:

 Many users of a CDMA system share the same frequency. Either TDD or FDD may be
used.

 Unlike TDMA or FDMA, CDMA has a soft capacity limit. Increasing the number of
users in a CDMA system raises the noise floor in a linear manner.

 Multipath fading may be substantially reduced because the signal is spread over a large
spectrum.

 Channel data rates are very high in CDMA systems. Consequently, the symbol duration
is very short and usually much less than the channel delay spread.

 CDMA uses co-channel cells; it can use macroscopic spatial diversity to provide soft
handoff. Soft handoff is performed by the MSC, which can simultaneously monitor a
particular user from two or more base stations.

 Self-jamming is a problem in CDMA system. Self jamming arises from the fact that the
spreading sequences of different users are not exactly orthogonal.

 The near-far problem occurs at a CDMA receiver if an undesired user has a high
detected power as compared to the desired user.

1.5 Cellular system architecture & operation

(Ref.: Page- 7; Mobile Cellular Telecommunication- W. C. Y. Lee)

A basic cellular system consists of three parts:

a) A mobile unit
b) A cell site
c) A mobile telephone switching office(MTSO)

a) Mobile units:

A mobile telephone unit contains a control unit, a transceiver, and an antenna system.

b) Cell site:

The cell site provides interface between the MTSO and the mobile units. It has a control
unit, radio cabinets, antennas, a power plant, and data terminals.

c) Mobile Telephone Switching Office (MTSO):

The switching office, the central coordinating element for all cell sites, contains the
cellular processor and cellular switch. It interfaces with telephony company zone offices,
control call processing, and handles billing activities.

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Connections:

The radio and-speed data links connect the three subsystems. Each mobile unit can only use
one channel at a time for its communication links. But the channel is not fixed; it can be any
one in the entire band assigned by the serving area, with each site having multichannel
capabilities that can connect simultaneously too many mobile units.

Land telephone network

Voice circuits

Switches and Dedicated voice

Processor (MTSO) grade circuits

MS Voice link

Data link

Cell 1 Cell 2

Figure: 1.6 Cellular systems.

 The MTSO is the heart of the cellular mobile system. Its processor provides central
coordination and cellular administration.

 The cellular switch, which can be either analog or digital, switches calls to connect
mobile subscribers to other mobile subscribers and to the nationwide telephone
network.

 It uses voice trunks similar to telephone company interoffice voice trunks. It also
contains data links providing supervision links between the processor and the switch
and between the cell sites and the processor.

 The radio link carries the voice and signaling between the mobile unit and the cell
site. The high-speed data links cannot be transmitted over the standard telephone
trunks.

 And therefore must use either microwave links or T-carriers. Microwave radio links
or T-carriers carry both voice and data between the cell site and the MTSO.

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1.6 Performance Criteria
There are three categories for specifying performance criteria:

1) Voice quality

 Voice quality is very hard to judge without subjective tests from users opinions. In
this technical area engineers cannot decide how to build a system without knowing
the voice quality that will satisfy the users.
 In military communications, the situation differs: armed forces personnel must use the
assigned equipment.

 For any given commercial communications system, the voice quality will be based
upon the following criterion: a set value x at which y percent of customers rate the
system voice quality (from transmitter to receiver) as good or excellent, the top two
circuit merits(CM) of the five listed below:

CM Score Quality scale

CM5 5 Excellent (speech perfectly understandable)
CM4 4 Good (speech easily understandable, some noise)
CM3 3 Fair (speech understandable with a slight effort, occasional repetitions
needed)
CM2 2 Poor (speech understandable only with considerable effort, frequent
repetitions needed)
CM1 1 Unsatisfactory (speech not understandable)

 As the percentage of customers choosing CM4 and CM5 increases, the cost of
building the system rises.

 The average of the CM scores obtained from all the listeners is called mean opinion
score (MOS).Usually the toll-quality voice is around MOS>=4.

2) Service quality

Three items are required for service quality.

i. Coverage:

 The system should serve an area as large as possible. With radio coverage, however,
because of irregular terrain configurations, it is usually not practical to cover 100 percent
of the area.

 Therefore, systems usually try to cover 90 percent of an area in flat terrain and 75
percent of an area in hilly terrain. The combined voice quality and coverage criteria in
AMPS cellular systems state that 75 percent of users rate the voice quality between good
and excellent in 90 percent of the served area, which is generally flat terrain. The voice
quality and coverage criteria would be adjusted as per decided various terrain conditions.

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 ii. Required grade of service

 For a normal start-up system the grade of service is specified for a blocking probability
of 0.02 for initiating calls at the busy hour. This is an average value.

 However, the blocking probability at each cell site will be different. At the busy hour,
near freeways, automobile traffic is usually heavy.

 So the blocking probability at certain cell sites may be higher than 2 percent, especially
when car accidents occur. To decrease the blocking probability requires a good system
plan and a sufficient number of radio channels.

iii. Number of dropped calls:

 During Q calls in an hour, if a call is dropped and Q-1 calls are completed, then the call
drop rate is 1/Q.

 This drop rate must be kept low .A high drop rate could be caused by either coverage
problems or handoff problems related to in adequate channel availability.

3) Special features

A system would like to provide as many special features as possible, such as call forwarding,
call waiting, voice stored (VSR) box, automatic roaming, or navigation services. However
and sometimes the customers may not be willing to pay extra charges for these special
services.

Cellular systems and related concepts

 Cellular systems for mobile communications implement SDM. Each transmitter,

typically called a base station, covers a certain area, a cell. Cell radii can vary from
tens of meters in buildings, and hundreds of meters in cities, up to tens of kilometers
in the countryside.

 The shape of cells are never perfect circles or hexagons, but depend on the
environment (buildings, mountains, valley etc.), on weather conditions, and
sometimes even on system load.

 Typical systems using this approach are mobile telecommunication systems, where a
mobile station within the cell around a base station communicates with this base
station and vice versa.

1.7 Advantages of cellular systems with small cells are the following:
1) Higher capacity:

 Implementing Space Division Multiplexing (SDM) allows frequency reuse. If one

transmitter is far away from another, i.e., outside the interference range, it can reuse
the same frequencies.

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  As most mobile phone systems assign frequencies to certain user (or certain hopping
pattern), this frequency is blocked for other users. But frequencies are a scarce
resource and, the number of concurrent users per cells very limited.

 Huge cells do not allow for more users. On the contrary, they are limited to less
possible users per square km. this is also the reason for using very small cells in cities
where many more people use mobile phones.

2) Less transmission power:

 While power aspects are not a big problem for base stations, they are indeed
problematic for mobile stations. A receiver far away from a base station would need
much more transmit power than the current few watts. But energy is a serious
problem for mobile handheld devices.

3) Local interference only:

 Having long distances between sender and receiver results in even more interference
problems. With small cells, mobile stations and base stations only have to deal with
local interference.

4) Robustness:

 Cellular systems are decentralized and so, more robust against the failure of single
components. If one antenna fails, this only influences communication within a small
area.

1.8 Small cells also have some disadvantages

1) Infrastructure needed:

 Cellular systems need a complex infrastructure to connect all base stations. This
includes many antennas, switches for call forwarding, location registers to find a
mobile station etc, which makes the whole system quite expensive.

2) Handover needed:

 The mobile station has to perform a handover when changing from one cell to
another. Depending on the cell size and the speed of movement, this can happen quite
often.

3) Frequency planning:

 To avoid interference between transmitters using the same frequencies, frequencies

have to be distributed carefully. On the one hand, interference should be avoided, on
the other, only a limited number of frequencies are available.

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 Questions Bank

1. Give the overview of wireless communication systems.

2. Write down the principle of wireless communication.

3. Give the overview of 1G, 2G, 2.5G, 3G and 4G technologies.

4. Explain the evolution of cellular system.

5. Explain the cellular system architecture & operation.

6. What are the performance criteria of cellular system?

7. Explain the different multiple access schemes for wireless communication.

8. What are the advantages of cellular systems with small cells?

9. What are the disadvantages of Small cells in cellular system?

10. Write down the short notes on:

a) Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)

b) Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
c) Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
d) Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
e) Cellular systems

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