CARBOHYDRATES
“CHO”
→ Organic compounds (come from the
Greek word Saccharides = starches and
sugar) composed of Carbon, Hydrogen,
and Oxygen
→ Hydrogen and Oxygen usually occur in
ratio of 2:1 as in H2O → polyhydroxy
aldehyde and ketones which vary from
simple sugars containing 3-7 carbon
atoms to very complex polymers
→ Excellent or major source of energy for
the body or for as much as 80-100%
calories
→ Primarily found in plants
→ Convenient and cheaper source of
calories 80% (source in low income
families_
→ 55-60% kcal of CHO recommended per
day
→ Primarily fuel of different cells in the body
especially cells in the nervous system and
RBC
FUNCTIONS
• Chief and main source of energy
• Cheap energy food
• Protein sparer
• Regulator of fat metabolism
• Sole energy source of the brain and nerve
tissue
• Storage form of energy as glycogen
• Regulator of intestinal peristalsis and
provides bulk
Classification
According to Complexity:
Sugar – simplest form of CHO
Mono - 1 sugar unit
Di - 2 sugar unit
Oli - 3-10 sugar unit
Poly - 10,000 sugar unit
According to Digestibility
a. Digestible
Starch: rice, wheat, cereals, grains
Dextrins: toasted bread
Glycogen/animal starch: liver, oyster,
muscle meat
b. Partially digestible
Galactogens: snail, agar-agar, pectin
Inulin: tubers, onions, garlic
Mannosans: legumes
Pentosans: fruits, gums
Glycogen
CHO – energy stored in the liver and in muscles
Amount in adult muscles 150 grams = 600 kcal
Amount in adult liver 90 grams = 360 kcal
Limited source of energy compared with the
amounts of energy stored in body fat
Conversion of CHO to glycogen
DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF CHO
MOUTH: Mechanical digestion breaks food
into smaller pieces and mixes with amylase (an
enzyme of the saliva secreted by the parotid
glands) → acts on starch to begin its
breakdown to dextrins and maltose) “ptyalin”
Usually it does not stay long in the mouth
for this change to be completed, so the food is
conveyed into stomach mostly in starch form
STOMACH
Above action by ptyalin may continue to a
minor degree
SMALL INTESTINES
Intestinal enzymes and pancreatic enzymes,
amylopsin, converts starch to dextrins and
maltose.
Intestinal juice → contains 3 disaccharides:
sucrose, lactose and maltose (which acts on
their respective disaccharides to produce
monosaccharides: glucose, galactose and
fructose)
BRUSH BORDER CELLS
• Secrete specific enzymes for disaccharides
hydrolysis
Maltose → maltase → glucose
Sucrose → sucrase → fructose
Lactose → lactase → galactose
Monosaccharides are then absorb by the
absorptive cells in the small intestine
Glucose, fructose, galactose are carried in the
circulatory system to be transported to the
liver
Liver converts fructose and galactose to
glucose that may be used immediately for
energy or glycogen formation (future use)
CLASSIFICATION of CHO:
A.MONOSACCHARIDES:
• Simple sugars, the simplest form of CHO
• Are sweets, requires no digestion, it can be
absorbed directly into the blood stream
from the small intestine
• It includes the following:
1. GLUCOSE – principal monosaccharide
▪ Known as “dextrose” or “grape sugar”
or “blood sugar” most important sugar
in human metabolism “physiologic
sugar”
SOURCES: found free in nature in fruits,
honey, corn syrup, sweet corn and certain
roots
▪ Principal product of hydrolysis from
starch and cane sugar
▪ In the body: formed from starch
digestion and metabolism; glucose is
circulating CHO
▪ All other sugars are converted into
glucose and is oxidized in the cells to
release energy
▪ Muscle cells can also store glucose as
glycogen but they amass most of their
supply using it just for themselves during
exercise
▪ Only glucose can provide energy for the
brain, other nerve cells and developing
red blood cells
▪ If the person does reload used up
glycogen stores, body CHONs are
dismantled allowing glucose to fuel
these special cells
▪ Gluconeogenesis is the process in which
CHON is converted to glucose.
▪ Insufficient supply of CHOs combined
with accelerated breakdown of fat can
budge the body’s energy metabolism in
an unsafe direction.
▪ With less available CHOs for energy,
more fats may be broken down, but not
all the way to energy
 ▪ Instead, fat fragments combine with
each other and form ketone bodies
▪ Muscle and other tissues can use
ketones bodies for energy but when
their production exceeds their use, they
can mount up and cause ketosis, a state
that disturbs the body’s normal acid-base
balance
▪ If more CHOs are consumed than what is
needed the body must find a way to
store excess glucose
▪ The liver breaks it into smaller
molecules, putting them together to
form fat → the fat then travels to the
fatty tissues of the body for storage.
The fat cells can store limitless
quantities of fat, unlike the liver which 1. MALTOSE
can store only half a day’s worth of
glycogen
2. FRUTOSE
• Also called LEVULOSE
• Fruit sugar
• Sweetest of simplest sugars
• Changed to glucose in the liver to yield
energy
SOURCES: honey, ripe fruits, and some SOURCES: can be found in certain infant
vegetables
3. GALACTOSE
• A component of some compound lipids 2. SUCROSE
called CEREBROSIDES which are found in
brain and nerve tissues
• Not abundant in nature (not found free in
foods)
• Produced from lactose (milk sugar) by
digestion and is converted into glucose in
the body
• Changed to glucose in human metabolism,
which in turns enters the krebs cycle to
release energy
• Some infants are born with an inability to
metabolize galactose, a condition called
GALACTOSEMIA
B. DISACCHARIDES
• Or DOUBLE SUGARS are made up of 2
monosaccharides
• They are sweet and unlike
monosaccharides, they must be changed
to simple sugars by hydrolysis before they
can be absorbed
• They include the following
• 2 glucose molecules
• Not found free in foods
• Produced by the hydrolysis of starch and is
converted into glucose in digestion
• Also called “malt sugar” form digestion of
starch with the aid of the enzyme,
“diastase” – former name of amylase
• It occurs in malt products and in
germinating cereals
formulas, beer and malt beverage products. It
is less sweet compared to glucose and sucrose.
• 1 molecule of glucose and 1 molecule of
fructose
• Most common form of sugar in cooking
and in table service “table sugar”
• (an ordinary table sugar-granulated,
powdered, or brown) is processed from
cane and beet sugar
• Sometimes called “cane sugar” from the ▪ Most abundant
sugarcane SOURCES: storage form of CHO in
SOUCES: abundant in plants, molasses, plants/grain seeds, root crops, unripe fruits,
maple syrup, and some fruits cereal grains, potatoes and other
vegetables, and legumes
3. LACTOSE
• “milk sugar” which is found in milk and milk b. Dextrins – are not found free in foods
products except cheese. ▪ They are formed as intermediate
• It is converted into glucose and galactose products in the breakdown of starch
in digestion and is less soluble and least
sweet among common sugars: only 1/6 as c. Glycogens – (animal starch) are formed
sweet than sucrose (less sweet than form glucose and stored in liver and
sucrose) muscle tissues
• It remain in the intestine longer than other ▪ They are converted entirely in to
sugars, and encourages the growth of glucose upon digestion
certain useful bacteria. ▪ The hormone, Glucagons, help the
• It forms approximately 40% of milk solids liver convert glycogen into glucose
• Cow’s milk contains 4.8% lactose while every time the body needs energy
human milk has 7% ▪ Animal glycogen
• It favors Ca and P assimilation ▪ Storage form of CHO in the body
• g______ and g________ chiefly
• known as “m____ s_____” SOURCES: mainly in meats and
seafoods
C. POLYSACCHARIDES
• complex carbohydrates in liver and muscles
2. INDIGESTIBLE (crude fiber)
a. Cellulose – forms the framework of plants
• composed of many molecules of simple
found in unrefined grains, and vegetables
sugars
and fruits
• they are commonly known as complex
▪ Fibers are the structural parts of plants
sugars
▪ It is non-digestible by humans; no specific
• it includes the following:
enzyme is present but provides important
bulk in the diet which helps move digestive
1. DIGESTIBLE
food mass along and stimulates peristalsis.
a. Starch – most significant polysaccharide in
✓Digestive enzymes are unable to break
human nutrition
the Beta bonds of fiber
▪ It is converted entirely into glucose upon
▪ They lower the blood glucose levels of
digestion
people with diabetes mellitus
▪ More complex than sugars
▪ Dietary fiber “roughage”
▪ Requires a longer time to digest; thus it
▪ Cellulose, lignin, gum, pectin
supplies energy over a longer period of time
▪ RDA: 25-30g/day
 SOURCES: stems and leaves of vegetables, 5. Decreases glucose absorption – utilize a lot of ATP – molecule that stores and releases energy c. Acesulfame – K
seed and grain coverings, skins, and hulls energy and slows down peristalsis and as required by the cells  Composed of an organic salt 200x

▪ They are classified into: absorption sweeter

MAINTENANCE OF BLOOD SUGAR LEVEL  (Sweet One)

1a. SOLUBLE CHO Malnutrition ⬧ Normoglycemia – 90-120 mg/100ml of

⬧ Found in fruits and legumes, barleys and oats, 1. Deficiency blood d. Sucralose
which delays gastrointestinal transit and ⬧ Decreases blood glucose level ⬧ Insulin – only hormone which decreases  Made form sucrose 600x sweeter

glucose absorption and lower blood ⬧ Loss of weight blood sugar level  (splenda)

cholesterol ⬧ Retarded growth - Secreted by Beta cells of islets of

⬧ Dissolves in water and forms a gel 2. Excess – obesity Langerhans in pancreas 2. Sugar replacers – composed of sugar alcohol
⬧ Binds with cholesterol from the bile and GLUCOSE, other than CHO sources may also be • Ex: Mannitol, Sorbitol, Xylitol
prevents reabsorption and recirculation in the obtained from: HORMONES that increases blood sugar level (1/2 caloric value of sugar)
blood effective in controlling/lowering blood ✓ Break down of glycogen 1. Glucagon – Alpha cells of islets of
cholesterol (GLYCOGENOLYSIS) Langerhans
✓ Products of intermediary metabolism of lactic acid and 2. Steroid Hormone – adrenal cortex
pyruvic acid
1.b. INSOLUBLE ✓ Non – CHO sources (promotes glucose formation form CHON)
▪ Found in wheat brans, corn brans, whole grain (GLUCONEOGENESIS) such as Non-Essential Amino Acids 3. Growth hormone and ACTH (functions as
(NEAA) and fats
breads, cereals, and vegetables which insulin inhibitor)
accelerates gastrointestinal transit, increase GLUCOSE becomes one of the following: 4. T4 – thyroid gland
fecal weight, slow down starch, hydrolysis, ⬧ Blood glucose  enhances intestinal absorption of glucose

delay glucose absorption ⬧ Glycogen (stored glucose) and epinephrine

▪ Do not dissolve in water. Instead it tends to ⬧ Part of the NEAA  enhances fast conversion of glycogen to

absorb water and increase in bulk, ⬧ Constituents of body structures, brain and glucose
contributing to the volume of stools cells (Cerebrosides)
b. Pectins – non-digestible, colloidal ⬧ Adipose fat (lipogenesis) and glycerol ALTERNATIVES TO SUGAR:
polysaccharides having a gel quality provides the source of this action 1. Artificial Sweetener/Non-nutritive
• Used to treat diarrhea s they absorbed ⬧ Pyruvate, which is the key metabolite in the Sweeteners (yield)
toxins and bacteria in the intestine Kreb’s cycle A.D. I. – 5mg/kg BW/day
• They bind cholesterol reducing the
amount the blood can absorb ENERYG PRODUCTION FROM GLUCOSE a. Saccharin
SOURCES: mostly fruits and are often used  450x sweeter than sucrose (Sugar
▪ Glucose releases energy and is converted to
as base for jellies CO2 AND H2O through Glycolysis and Kreb’s Twin, Sweet n Low)
Cycle
FUNCTIONS of FIBER ▪ GLUCOSE undergoes 2 major pathways b. Aspartame
1. Provides b_____ to the stool  from 2AA

2. Prevents c_____  Aspartic acid and phenylalanine and

Kreb’s Cycle – the final common pathway for
3. Acts as a b_____ in the digestive tract glucose, fatty acids and certain amino acids in methyl group
4. Reduces incidence of c____ CA  (NutraSweet, Equal)
the formation of energy