Variables – shs track, the career they prefer , college course, gender,

achievements..
 Any characteristic or quality that varies among the members of a particular
group.
 A property or characteristic or quality whereby the members of a group or
set differ from one another.
 Are sets of data that differ from one individual, object, or procedure to
another, such as physical height, achievement scores, family incomes,
styles of teaching, and varieties of books.
A. Quantitative versus Categorical
 Quantitative variable – a variable that varies in amount or degree but not in
kind.
Less/more, or assign numbers to individuals to indicate how much of the
variable they possess.
Example: height, weight, length
 Categorical variable - a variable that varies only in kind, not in degree or
amount. Are qualitatively different.
Example: eye color, gender, religious preference, occupation, political party,
etc.

B. Independent versus Dependent

 Independent variable
 is a variable presumed to affect or somehow influence
one/more variables.
 a variable that is manipulated to examine its impact on a
dependent variable.
 it is that factor, characteristic, or condition, that is introduced,
removed, or manipulated to cause a change in the dependent
variable that is to be observed or measured.
- also called treatment variable, factor, predictor variable,
stimulus, input, or experimental variable.
  Dependent variable
 is a variable presumed to be affected by one or more
independent variables.
 a variable that is measured to see whether the treatment or
manipulation of the independent variable had an effect.
 it is that factor, characteristic, or condition that is observed
and measured to find out how the independent variable
affects it.
- also called outcome variable, results variable, criterion variable,
response, output.
 Examples:
 level of intelligence (independent variable) may influence how
quickly students learn (dependent variable)
 different methods of teaching (independent variable) may
influence students’ enjoyment of school (dependent variable)

C . Continuous, Discrete, and Dichotomous Variables

 Continuous variable – show gradational differences; individuals possess

more or less of the same trait, which varies in small increments along a
continuum. One that can take an infinite set of values

Example: weight, height, length, intelligence, anxiety

 Discrete variableare categorical in nature. Individuals may be classified into

one of several categories. One that can take only a finite or potentially
countable set of values
 Example: socio-economic status, ethnicity, ratings such medium to
low, family size, number of classrooms, number of words correctly spelled
 uch medium to low, family size, number of classrooms, number of words
correctly spelled
 Dichotomous variable –are special case of discrete variables where there
are only two possible categories.
 Example: sex, (male/female), handedness (right/left), school district
(urban/rural)
 are special case of discrete variables where there are only two possible
categories.
 Example: sex, (male/female), handedness (right/left), school district
(urban/rural)
 handedness (right/left), school district (urban/rural)
D. Moderator variable

E. Control variable

 is a variable that has a potential influence on the dependent

variable, the influence of which must be removed or controlled.
 variable controlled by the researcher in which the effects can be
neutralized by eliminating or removing the variable.

- also called restricting variable

Example: X – independent variable

Y – dependent variable

Z – control variable

F. Confounding variables

 are traits or conditions, whose presence may or may not be

recognized by the researcher, that may taint research
outcomes.

(a) Extraneous variable

 is an independent variable that may have unintended effects on

a dependent variable in a particular study.
 a variable that is related to the dependent variable or
independent variable that is not part of the experiment.
 is a variable that has an unpredictable impact upon the
dependent variable.

- also called threatening variable

(b) Intervening variables

  innate traits such as motivation and intelligence of participants.

(c ) Organismic variables

 relatively permanent physical traits that cannot be changed

easily, such as poor eyesight, and hearing.

Most research in education studies the relationship between either:

(1) two (or more) quantitative variables

(2) one categorical and one quantitative variable

(3) two or more categorical variables

Example

2. One categorical and one quantitative variable

– Method used to teach reading and reading achievement

– Counseling approach and level of anxiety
– Nationality and liking for school
– Student gender and amount of praise given by teachers

3. Two categorical variables

– Ethnicity and father’s occupation

– Gender of teacher and subject taught
– Administrative style and college major
– Religious affiliation and political party

What is experimental research?

Research in which at least one independent variable is manipulated, other
relevant variables are controlled, and the effect on one or more dependent
variables is observed.
The Uniqueness of Experimental Research
It is the only type of research that directly attempts to influence a particular
variable.
It is the only type that can really test hypotheses about cause-and-effect
relationships.