Thesis

Faculty of Computers and Artificial Intelligence Benha University
Department of Computer Science
Wireless Sensor Networks Localization

Based on Meta-heuristic Algorithms
Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Computers and Artificial Intelligence,
Benha University, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of
Computers and Information in "Computer Science"
By
Huthaifa Mohammed Kanoosh AL Jubori
Department of Computer Science
Faculty of Computers and Artificial Intelligence,
Benha University,
Egypt.
Supervised By
Prof. Mazen Mohamed Selim Dr. Essam Halim Houssein
Professor of CS, Vice-Dean for Education & Associate Prof. of CS, Vice Dean for
Student Affairs, Faculty of Computers Postgraduate Studies and Research Affairs,
and Artificial Intelligence , Faculty of Computers & Information,
Minia University, Egypt.
Benha University, Egypt.
2019
Wireless Sensor Networks Localization Based on Meta-heuristic Algorithms
Certification of the Examination Committee
Chairman and members of the examination committee, certify that we have

studied the thesis entitled (Wireless Sensor Networks Localization Based on
Meta-heuristic Algorithms) presented by the student (Huthaifa Mohammed
Kanoosh Al jubori) and examined him in its content. Consequently, we have
found it worthy to be accepted for a master degree (M.Sc.) in computers and
informatics.
Signature:
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Title:
Data: / / 2019
Signature:
Name:
Title:
Data: / /2019
Signature:
Name: Prof. Mazen Mohamed Selim
Title:
Data: / /2019
Vice-Dean for Education & Student Affairs, Faculty of Computers &
Artificial Intelligence, Benha University.
Supervisor Certification
We certify that this thesis was prepared under our supervision at Department of
Computer Sciences, Faculty of Computers and Informatics, Benha University, by
(Huthaifa Mohammed Kanoosh AL Jubori) as a partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of Master in computers and informatics from Faculty
of Computers and Informatics.
Signature:
Name: Prof. Mazen Mohamed Selim
Title:
Data: / /2019
Vice-Dean for Education & Student Affairs, Faculty of Computers &
Artificial Intelligence, Benha University.
Signature:
Name: Dr. Essam Halim Houssein
Title:
Data: / /2019
Vice Dean for Graduate Studies and Research, Faculty of Computers and
Information, Minia University.
‫‪Wireless Sensor Networks Localization Based on Meta-heuristic Algorithms‬‬
‫اَّلل ه ِاَّل َين آ َمنُوا ِمنْ ُ ُْك َو ه ِاَّل َين ُآوتُوا‬

‫﴿ يَ ْرفَع ِ ه ُ‬
‫ون َخبِير ﴾‬ ‫اَّلل ِب َما تَ ْع َملُ َ‬
‫ات َو ه ُ‬ ‫الْ ِع ْ َْل َد َر َج ٍ‬
‫﴿اجملادةل‪﴾11 :‬‬
Biography of The Author
Name: Huthaifa Mohammed Kanoosh AL Jubori
Date of Birth: 22/10/1980
1- Educational Degrees: B.Sc. in Computer Science

Educational Institution: Al Rafiden Unieversity College - Department of
Computer Science
Date of Educational 2002
2- Educational Degrees: High Diploma in Computer Science
Educational Institution: Collage of computer & Math. - Department of
Computer Science – University of Mousel
Date of Educational 2012
Degrees:
M.Sc. Registration Date: 1 / 7/ 2017
Acknowledgements
All the praises and thanks are to Allah, the most beneficent, and the most merciful.
I am grateful to my supervisors (Prof. Dr. Mazen Mohamed Selim and Dr.

Essam Halim Houssein) for their great efforts in guiding me to achieve my
project.
It is fair to record my special thanks and gratitude to all my family members for
their support throughout my life, this thesis is simply impossible without them.
My sincere thanks go to members of staff of Computer Science Department,

Faculty of computers and Informatics and Benha University for their help.
My sincere thanks go to my friends for their support to me in my pilgrimage and

In My country and without Geld any one from them.
Dedicate my work
To my country dear Iraq
To the symbol of tender and light

My dear father...
To my rose and my love

My dear mother …
To My sweet heart
My Wife and my sons Yaman, Rawan, Yara, Shaam
To love and to meet

My dear brothers...
To Tenderness and beauty

My dear sister...
To my friends and all those who helped me
Huthaifa
ABSTRACT
Nowadays, wireless sensor networks (WSNs) play a vital role in many real-life
applications such as healthcare, military applications, traffic surveillance, and
environmental monitoring. In many cases, the nodes of WSNs are deployed randomly.
However, many of these applications cannot perform their function properly without
knowing the accurate location of the sensor nodes used to collect the data. Therefore,
accurate node localization is extremely important in WSNs. Node localization means
estimating the locations of unknown nodes with the help of some nodes with known
positions called anchors or beacons.
In this thesis, a node localization scheme is proposed based on a recent bio-inspired
metaheuristic algorithm called the Salp Swarm Algorithm (SSA) in which the
localization problem is addressed as an optimization problem. The proposed algorithm
has been implemented and validated in different WSN deployments using different
numbers of target nodes and anchor nodes. Moreover, the proposed algorithm has been
evaluated and compared to four well-known optimization algorithms, namely particle
swarm optimization algorithm (PSO), butterfly optimization algorithm (BOA), firefly
algorithm (FA), and grey wolf optimizer (GWO) in terms of localization accuracy,
computing time, and a number of localized nodes. The obtained simulation results
have proved the superiority of the proposed algorithm compared to the other
localization algorithms regarding the different performance metrics.

Abstract
Keywords: Wireless Sensor Networks, Node Localization, Optimization problems, Salp

Swarm Optimization.
List of Contents
Subject…………....………………………...……………….……….....….…. Page No.

List of Contents…………...…………………………………....….………………...….... i
List of Figures……………………….…………………………….…...……...................iii
List of Tables……………………...……………………….…….…………..….…......... iv
Abbreviations……………………………...…...……………….....................................v
Chapter 1: Introduction...……………………………...…….………..…………….1
1.1. Introduction……….…………………….………….……….…….....………………….2
1.2. Motivation …….…………….….....………………………………………………........3
1.3. Problem Statement ……………………..………………......……...…….………….….4
1.4. Research Objectives ………………….………….….…...….....…...…………..……...5
1.5. Thesis Contribution …………………………………………………………………….6
1.6. Thesis Organization ………………………………………………………………...….7
Chapter 2: Background and Related Work …..………….….….……..........9
2.1. Introduction ………………………………….…………………………...…......….…10
2.2. Introduction to Wireless Sensor Networks ………….…………………..….…….......10
2.2.1. Application of WSNs ……………………………….……………….….………....12
2.3. Introduction to Metaheuristic Algorithms …………….…………….……….……….13
2.3.1. Single-Solution Based Metaheuristic Algorithms ………………………………...15
2.3.2. Population Based Metaheuristic Algorithms ………….………….…………….....16
2.4. Related Work…….………………………………………. ….……….……………...17
2.5. Summary……………………………………………...…………………...……..……29
Chapter 3: Metaheuristic Algorithms for Localization in Wireless
Sensor Networks……………..…………….……….…………….………...……...….30
3.1. Introduction………………………….....……… ……………………….…...…..........31
3.2. Taxonomy of Node Localization Algorithms ……...…………………………............31
3.3. Localization in Sparce and Dense Networks …………………….…………………...33
3.4. Anchor Based Vs. Anchor Free Localization Scheme …...…………………..……....34
3.4.1. Anchor Based Localization …………...………...……………….…..…...............34
3.4.2. Anchor Free Localization ………….…….………...………...……….…………....35
3.5. Indoor Localization …………………………………….……………………..………...….36
3.6. Localization in Static and Mobile Sensor Networks ……………………………….....37
3.7. Applications of Localization ……………………....………….……………...……….37
i
Table of Contents
3.8. Metaheuristic Algorithms for Localization in WSN ………………….………….......39

3.8.1. Particle Swarm Optimization ……………………………………………………..41
3.8.2. Butterfly Optimization Algorithm ……………………………………………...…43
3.8.3. Firefly Algorithm ……………………………………………...………………….47
3.8.4. Grey Wolf Optimizer …………………………………………………..…………49
3.8.5. Salp Swarm Algorithm ……………………………………………………………52
3.9. Summary ………………………………………………………………………………56
Chapter 4: Node Localization Using Salp Swarm Algorithm .............58
4.1. Introduction………………….…………………………….…….……...…….…...…..59
4.2. Formulation of WSN Localization Problem …………………………………….........59
4.3. Experimental Analysis …...............................................................................................61
4.3.1. Sensor Nodes Localization Using SSA ………..…………………..…..………....62
4.3.2. Comparison among Different Localization Algorithms …….…….……………...64
4.4. Summary…………………………………….……………………………………..….69
Chapter 5: Conclusion and Future Work…………………..….……...…….70
5.1. Conclusion ……………………………………………….......…………………….....71
5.2. Future Work …………………………………....…….…………………..…………...72
List of Publications and Bibliography ……...…….………...………............74
• List of Publications …………….………………...………………….…………........75
• List of Bibliography …………………………...…...………...…….…..…….…......76
ii
List of Figures
Figure No: Figure Name……………...…...…………....…...…. …. Page No.
Figure.2.1 : The Architecture of a node in WSN ………….....………....……..….11
Figure.2.2 : WSNs and their relationship to infrastructure-based networks………11
Figure.2.3 : Taxonomy of WSNs applications.....….……...………………....…....12
Figure.2.4 : The classification of optimization problems ………….......................13
Figure.2.5 : Single-solution based metaheuristic algorithms …………….............15
Figure.2.6 : Population based metaheuristic Algorithms ……….……..................26
Figure.3.1 : A Taxonomy for the node localization schemes ……………….........32
Figure.3.2 : The pseudocode of the PSO algorithm …………………...…….........42
Figure.3.3 : The flow chart of the PSO algorithm ……………………….….....….43
Figure.3.4 : The pseudocode of the BOA algorithm ………………………..….…45
Figure.3.5 : The flow chart of the BOA algorithm ………………..….………......46
Figure.3.6 : The pseudocode of the FA algorithm………………………………...48
Figure.3.7 : The flow chart of the FA algorithm ………..….………………….….49
Figure.3.8 : The pseudocode of the GWO algorithm …….....................................51
Figure.3.9 : The flow chart of the GWO algorithm ………….…..……………….52
Figure.3.10 : (a) Individual salp. (b) Salps chain …………………………..….…...53
Figure.3.11 : The pseudocode of the SSA algorithm……………………...…….….55
Figure.3.12 : The flow chart of the SSA algorithm …………….……….…....…...56
Figure.4.1 : Node localization using different numbers of target nodes and anchor
nodes……………………………………………………………........64
Figure.4.2 : The localization error of the different localization algorithms in
different WSN deployments …………………………………………67
Figure.4.3 : The computing time of the different localization algorithms in different
WSN deployments……………………………………...…………….68
Figure.4.4 : The number of localized nodes of the different localization algorithms
in different WSN deployments ………………………………………68
iii
Table of Contents
List of Tables
Table No: Table Name……………………………………………….....Page No.
Table.4.1 : Parameters setting of simulation environment ............................................61
Table.4.2 : Performance metrics of different localization algorithms …………...........65
Table.4.3 : Summary of experimental results of the different localization algorithms ….
……………………………………………...……………………………...66
iv
Abbreviations
Abbreviation : Description…………………….………….……........................
ABC : Artificial Bee Colony ……………………………..………………..
AoA : Angle of Arrival …………………………….……………………...
BBO : Biogeography-Based Optimization ………………………………..
BFA : Bacterial Foraging Algorithm ……………………………..………
BOA :
Butterfly Optimization Algorithm ……………………………..…..
BOA : Bat Optimization Algorithm ……………………………..………...
BSO : Brain Storm Optimization ……………………………..…………...
CS : Cuckoo Search ……………………………..………………………
DA :
Dragonfly Algorithm ……………………………..………………..
DE : Differential Evolution……………………………..………………..
DWPSO : Dynamic Weight Particle Swarm ……………………………..……
EC :
Evolutionary Computation ……………………………..…………..
EFWA :
Enhanced Fireworks Algorithm ……………………………..……..
FA : Firefly Algorithm ……………………………..……………………
FPA : Flower Pollination Algorithm ……………………………..……….
GA :
Genetic Algorithm ……………………………..…………………..
GSA : Gravitational Search Algorithm ……………………………..……..
GPS : Global Positioning System ……………………………..…………..
GWO : Grey Wolf Optimizer ……………………………..………………..
HS :
Harmony Search ……………………………..…………………….
IOT : Internet of Things ……………………………..……………………
ITS :
Intelligent Transport System ……………………………..………...
LM : Linearization Method ……………………………..………………..
v
Table of Contents
LSA : Lightening Search Algorithm ……………………………..……….
MAP : Mobile Anchor Positioning ……………………………..…………
MCS :
Modified Cuckoo Search ……………………………..……………
MDS : Multi-Dimensional Scaling ……………………………..………….
MWSN : Mobile Wireless Sensor Networks ……………………………..…..
PFA : Parallel Firefly Algorithm ……………………………..…………...
PGSA :
Plant Growth Simulation Algorithm ……………………………….
PSO : Particle Swarm Optimization ……………………………..………..
RSS : Received Signal Strength ……………………………..……………
SAABC : Self-Adaptive Artificial Bee Colony ……………………………….
SA :
Simulated Annealing ……………………………..………………...
SDP : Semi-Definite Programming ……………………………..………...
SI : Swarm Intelligence ……………………………..………………….
SL-PSO : Social Learning based Particle Swarm Optimization ……………..
SSA :
Salp Swarm Algorithm ……………………………..………………
TDoA : Time Difference of Arrival ……………………………..………….
ToA : Time of Arrival ……………………………..……………………...
WSNs :
Wireless Sensor Networks ……………………………..…………..
vi
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1. Introduction
Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are networks that consist of a number of
autonomous sensor nodes that are distributed in a specific area for cooperatively
sensing their environment. In the last decade, WSNs have been employed in
many real-life applications such as healthcare, home automation, traffic
surveillance, and environmental monitoring [1].
Accurate node localization is a critical issue in WSNs. Localization problem
in WSNs means calculating the positions of unknown sensor nodes. In many
environments where the sensor nodes of a WSN are deployed, people may not
be able to go and fix these nodes. In these environments, the sensor nodes are
usually randomly scattered in random locations; therefore, the sensor nodes
usually take random positions. On the other hand, in many applications, the
information collected by the sensor nodes of a WSN may be useless if the
positions of the sensor nodes that gathered the information are unknown. This
emphasizes the need for an accurate node localization scheme [2].
In order to localize the sensor nodes of a WSN, a GPS can be attached to each
sensor during the network deployment. Then, the GPS can be used to find the
coordinates of the sensor nodes. However, using GPS for localizing sensor
nodes is undesirable and impractical solution because of many reasons such as
2
cost, inaccessibility, sensor nodes may be deployed indoors, or climatic
conditions may disturb the GPS reception ability [2]. An alternative approach is
to attach GPS to some nodes which are called anchor nodes or beacon nodes.
Thus, the positions of these nodes with attached GPS are known after deploying
the nodes of the wireless sensor network. Using the known locations of anchor
nodes, localization algorithms can be employed to estimate the positions of the
unknown nodes [2]. There are two classes of non-GPS based localization
algorithms namely, rang-free and range-based algorithms [3]. Angle-based or
point-to-point distance estimation among the sensor nodes is used with rang-
based localization algorithms. In these algorithms, the positions of sensor nodes
are calculated by the assist of anchor’s trilateration [3]. Unlike range-based
localization algorithms, range-free localization algorithms do not need range
information to estimate the positions of the unknown nodes. It only depends on
the topological information. Compared to range-free localization algorithms,
range-based localization algorithms can achieve higher localization accuracy but
at the expense of cost [4].
1.2. Motivation
In many WSNs based applications, the gathered information is useless unless
the locations of the used sensor nodes are known. These applications include
environment monitoring, rescue, object tracking, etc. Hence, node localization in
3
wireless sensor networks is an important issue that needs to be addressed. In the
last two decades, many approaches have been developed to handle this problem.
Recently, node localization in WSNs is handled as a multi-modal and multi-
dimensional optimization problem that can be solved using population-based
stochastic approaches.
In the literature, many metaheuristic algorithms have been employed to
solve the localization problem in WSNs. These algorithms have succeeded in
reducing the localization error dramatically. These algorithms attempt to solve
an optimization problem by trial and error in which the feasible solutions are
processed and the nearest optimal solution is identified. Currently, various
optimization algorithms such as genetic algorithm (GA), cuckoo search (CS),
gravitational search algorithm (GSA), butterfly optimization algorithm (BOA),
particle swarm optimization (PSO), artificial bee colony (ABC), etc. have been
employed effectively in specifying the positions of the unknown nodes in WSNs
[5]. However, there is a big room for improvements in terms of localization
accuracy, number of localized nodes, and computation time. Hence, more efforts
are needed to propose more efficient and effective localization approaches.
1.3. Problem Statement
Sensor nodes of WSNs are usually scattered in an ad-hoc fashion in which the
node locations are unknown. However, accurate node localization is extremely
important for many applications that deploy WSNs to perform its mission. A
4
simple solution for this problem is to equip each sensor node with a GPS
receiver. Unfortunately, this solution is impractical for many reasons including:
• Using a GPS receiver requires high energy consumption which is
unavailable with the battery-based sensor nodes.
• Using a GPS receiver with each sensor node increases the total cost of the
WSN.
• A GPS receiver cannot work appropriately in certain environments such
indoor and dense forests.
• A GPS receiver can highly affected by the climatic conditions.
Hence, an alternative to GPS-based node localization was needed. Many
approaches have been proposed to address the node localization problem in
WSN in which some nodes are equipped with GPS receivers (anchors or
beacons) and the rest of nodes (unknown or target nodes) are localized with the
help of them. However, more research work is needed to improve the
localization accuracy, to increase the number of localized nodes, and to decrease
the computation time.
1.4. Research Objectives
Accurate node localization is a great objective that needs to be achieved in
order to allow many WSN-based applications to accomplish their pre-
determined tasks. Hence, the objective of this thesis is to propose an accurate
5
and efficient localization approach that can estimate the locations of target nodes
with the help of anchor nodes. Additionally, intensive experimentations are
required to evaluate the performance in terms of well-known performance
metrics against a number of recent localization approaches. We passed through a
number of steps in order to accomplish the thesis’s objectives:
1. Reviewing the current node localization approaches proposed in the
literature.
2. Reviewing the recent optimization algorithms in order to select one of
them build the proposed node localization scheme.
3. Formalizing the node localization problem as multi-model multi-
dimensional optimization problems.
4. Designing and implementing the proposed localization scheme that can
accurately localize the maximum number of sensor nodes in short time.
5. Evaluating the performance of the proposed localization scheme in terms
of the known performance measures against a number of recently
proposed localization schemes.
6. Writing the thesis.
1.5. Thesis Contribution
In this thesis, the localization problem is treated as model-model multi-
dimensional localization problem. The main contribution of this thesis is using
6
the Salp Swarm Algorithm (SSA) for the first time ever to localize the nodes of
WSNs. SSA is a swarm optimization algorithm which inspired by the swarming
attitude of salps. The performance of the proposed SSA based localization
algorithm is analyzed and compared with particle swarm optimization (PSO),
butterfly optimization algorithm (BOA), firefly algorithm (FA), and grey wolf
optimizer (GWO) algorithms. The results have shown that the SSA based
localization algorithm is better than the previously mentioned localization
algorithms in terms of computing time, number of localized nodes, and
localization accuracy.
1.6. Thesis Organization
This thesis is concerned with designing and implementing a node localization
scheme based on a recent swarm optimization algorithm which can optimize the
different performance measures. The remaining chapters of the thesis are
organized as follows:
• Chapter 2 introduces the different terminologies need to understand the
proposed work including the concepts of optimization and swarm
intelligence. In addition, a number of recently proposed localization
schemes are reviewed.
• Chapter 3 presents taxonomy for the different localization approaches.
7
• Chapter 4 presents the proposed localization scheme and the conducted
experiments to evaluate its performance under different scenarios.
• Chapter 5 contains the conclusion and the future work of the thesis.
8
Chapter 2: Background and Related Work
2.1. Introduction
This chapter presents the basic concepts that are relevant to the topic of the
thesis. It starts with providing and an overview of WNSs. Then, it dedicates a
section to describe the basic ideas behind the different metaheuristic algorithms.
Finally, it is concluded by reviewing a number of recent works that are focused
on addressing the node localization problem in WSNs.
2.2. Introduction to Wireless Sensor Networks
In general, wireless sensor networks (WSNs) includes hundreds or even
thousands of spatially distributed, low-cost, low-power, multifunctional,
autonomous sensor nodes and communicate over short distances [6]. Each node
is usually provided with a sensor unit, a processor, a radio transceiver, an A/D
converter, a memory unit, and a power supply (battery). The typical architecture
of a WSN node is illustrated in Figure 2.1. A WSN node may also be equipped
with application-dependent components, such as the location finding system and
mobilizer. Through combining these components, the nodes can perform a
variety of tasks [7].
Typically, sensor nodes are usually grouped into clusters. In each cluster, one
of these nodes is considered as a cluster head. All other nodes collect the
10
information and deliver them to the cluster head which in turn forwards the
collected information to a special node call sink node or base station, through a
hop-by-hop wireless communication link. In large scale deployment of WNS,
many clusters depending on multiple base stations can be found. The
relationship between WSNs and the infrastructure-based networks is illustrated
in Figure 2.2 [8].
Sensors
A/D
Memory Processor
Converter
Radio Transceiver
Power Supply
Figure 2.1: The Architecture of a node in WSN [7].
Figure 2.2: WSNs and their relationship to infrastructure-based networks [7].
11
2.2.1. Applications of WSNs
Generally, the applications of WSNs can be categorized into two types:
monitoring and tracking. Monitoring is utilized to analyze, supervise and careful
control operation of a system in real-time, while tracking is generally utilized to
follow the change of an event, a person, an animal, and so on. Existing
monitoring applications include indoor/outdoor environmental monitoring [9],
industrial monitoring [10], precision agriculture (e.g., irrigation management
and crop disease prediction) [11], biomedical or health monitoring [12],
electrical network monitoring [13], military location monitoring [14], etc.
Tracking applications include habitat tracking [15], traffic tracking [16], military
target tracking [17], etc. This classification is summarized in Figure 2.3.
Enviornment
Agriculture
Industry
Health care
Monitoring
Ecology
Urban
Applications
Smart House
Military
Industry
Public Health
Tracking
Ecology
Military
Figure 2.3: Taxonomy of WSNs applications.
12
2.3. Introduction to Metaheuristic Algorithms
Optimization problems can be defined as problems that cannot be solved to
optimality or to any guaranteed bound by employing deterministic methods
within a reasonable time limit. As shown in Figure 2.4, these problems can be
classified into many classes from different perspectives including continuous or
discrete, constrained or unconstrained, mono or multi-objective, static or
dynamic. Metaheuristic Algorithms are usually employed to find reasonable
solutions for these problems. A metaheuristic is an algorithm designed to
address a wide range of hard optimization problems without having to deeply
adapt to each problem. The greek prefix “meta” means that these algorithm are
“higher level” heuristics, compared to problem-dependent heuristics.
Metaheuristic algorithms are usually used to solve a specific problem when
there is no heuristic that can be used to provide a reasonable solution for that
problem. Currently, many metaheuristic algorithms are playing a vital role in
solving many hard optimization problems in many fields from finance to
production management and engineering [18].
Optimization
Problems
Continuous/ Constrained/ Mono/ Static/

Discrete Unconstrained Mult-objectives Dynamic
Figure 2.4: The classification of optimization problems
13
Almost all metaheuristic algorithms have the following features [18]:
• They are nature-inspired (i.e., inspired by the principles physics,
biology or ethology);
• They use stochastic components (involving random variables);
• They do not use the gradient or Hessian matrix of the objective
function;
• They have many arguments that require to be fitted to the problem
under consideration.
Generally, a metaheuristic algorithm can provide a satisfactory solution for a
certain optimization problem if it can achieve a balance between the exploration
and the exploitation. Exploitation is required to determine parts of the search
space that contain high quality solutions. It is important to focus the search in
some promising areas of the accumulated search experience. On the other side,
the main objective of the exploration is to discover new areas in the search
space. The main difference between metaheuristic algorithms is the way they
take to achieve the balance between the exploration and the exploitation [28,
new1]. Metaheuristic algorithms can be classified based on many factors
including the search path they follow, the memory usage, the type of
neighborhood exploration used, or the number of current solutions moved from
current iteration to next iteration. However, the classification of metaheuristic
algorithms that differentiates between single-solution based metaheuristic
14
algorithms and population-based meta-heuristic algorithms is the most popular
classification method in the literature. In general, basic single-solution based
metaheuristic algorithms are more exploitation oriented whereas basic
population-based metaheuristic algorithms are more exploration oriented [19].
2.3.1 Single-Solution Based Metaheuristic Algorithms
Unlike population based metaheuristics, single-solution based metaheuristic
algorithms begins with a single initial solution and move away from it,
describing a trajectory in the search space. Some of them can be seen as
“intelligent” extensions of local search algorithms. As shown in Figure 2.5,
Trajectory methods mainly include the simulated annealing method, the tabu
search, the GRASP method, the variable neighborhood search, the guided local
search, the iterated local search, and their variants [18].
Simulated Annealing
Single-Solution Based Metahuristics
Tabu Search
GRASP Method
Variable
Neighborhood search
Guided Local Search
Iterated local search
etc.
Figure 2.5: Single-solution based metaheuristic algorithms
15
2.3.2 Population Based Metaheuristic Algorithms
Population-based metaheuristic algorithms deal with a set (i.e. a population)
of solutions rather than with a single solution. As shown in Figure 2.6, the most
studied population-based methods are related to Evolutionary Computation (EC)
and Swarm Intelligence (SI). EC algorithms are inspired by Darwin’s
evolutionary theory, where a population of individuals is modified through
recombination and mutation operators. They include genetic algorithms [20],
evolution strategies [21], evolutionary programming [22], and genetic
programming [23]. On other side, the idea behind SI, the idea is to produce
computational intelligence by exploiting simple analogues of social interaction,
rather than purely individual cognitive abilities. SI systems are always
consisting of a population of simple agents that interact locally with one another
and with their environment. These entities individually have very limited
capabilities. However, through the cooperative work they can perform many
complex tasks that are crucial for their survival. Although there is normally no
centralized control structure dictating how individual agents should behave,
local interactions between such agents often lead to the emergence of global and
self-organized behavior. Several optimization algorithms inspired by the
metaphors of swarming behavior in nature are proposed. Ant colony
optimization, Particle Swarm Optimization, Bacterial foraging optimization, Bee
16
Colony Optimization, Artificial Immune Systems and Biogeography-Based
Optimization are examples to this effect.
Genetic Algorithms
Evolution Strategies
Evolutionary Evolutionary
Computation (EC) Programming
Population Based Metahuristics
Genetic
Programming
etc.
Ant Colony
Optimization
Particle Swarm
Optimization
Grey Wolf
Swarm Intelligence
Optimization
Bee Colony
Optimization
etc.
Figure 2.6: Population based metaheuristic Algorithms
2.4. Related Work
In the last years, many optimization algorithms have been employed for
addressing the problem of node localization in WSNs. In this section, some of
the recent relevant works are covered and briefly described.
17
Zhou et al. have proposed a Free Search based node localization
algorithm in Wireless Sensor Networks. The proposed localization algorithm
transforms the parameter estimation task into an optimization problem that can
be formulated as a nonlinear function and calculates the positions of sensor
nodes by utilizing the Free Search optimization. The simulation results have
verified that the proposed localization algorithm has significantly improved the
localization accuracy compared to the least-squares estimation algorithms [24].
Low et al. have introduced a low-cost localization system that depends on
the measurements obtained from a pedometer and communication ranging
among adjacent nodes. The proposed system does not require good network
connectivity and presents good performance in sparse networks. A probability-
based algorithm that needs a nonlinear optimization problem solving is
employed to provide the localization information. Moreover, the particle swarm
optimization (PSO) has been employed to determine the optimum location of the
sensor nodes. Experimental results have proved that the proposed system has a
good performance [25].
Kulkarni et al. have formulated the ranging-based localization task as a
multidimensional optimization problem that can be solved based on distributed
iterative localization using bio-inspired algorithms. The nodes that have been
localized during an iteration are used as references for the unknown nodes in the
next iterations. In their proposed work, particle swarm optimization (PSO) and
18
bacterial foraging algorithm (BFA) have been used for addressing the
localization problem. The conducted experiments have shown that BFA
outperforms PSO in terms of localization accuracy [1].
Manjarres et al. have presented a hybrid node localization algorithm based
on Harmony Search (HS) algorithm with a local search procedure. The main
objective of the proposed algorithm is to address the localization problem and to
distribute its burdens over an iterative process. Additionally, the proposed
algorithm employs certain connectivity-based geometrical constraints to
decrease the area in which each node can be located. The simulation results have
verified that the proposed algorithm is better than another Simulated Annealing
(SA) based localization algorithm in terms of both localization error and
computational cost [26].
Li et al. have suggested a self-adaptive artificial bee colony (SAABC)
node localization algorithm that considers the whole effects resulting from
employing dynamic topology. The proposed algorithm provides good
performance in WSNs with both random distributing nodes and dynamic
topology. Additionally, the obtained simulation results have shown that the
proposed localization algorithm provides better node localization precision and
precision stability compared to the DV-Hop algorithm without the need for extra
devices or overhead in communication [27].
19
Tamizharasi et al. have proposed a novel hybrid node localization
algorithm based on Bacterial Foraging Algorithm (BFA) and Particle Swarm
Optimization (PSO). The main design objectives of the proposed algorithm are
to enhance the efficiency and accuracy of BFA and to avoid getting stuck in a
local extreme. In the proposed algorithm, PSO is merged into the chemotaxis of
BFA to speed up the convergence rate. Moreover, the global search ability is
improved by proposing the elimination probability in elimination-dispersion
based on the energy of bacteria. The obtained simulation results have verified
that the proposed hybrid algorithm outperforms the BFA [28].
Tang et al. have proposed a sensor nodes localization algorithm, which
depends on a new intelligent optimization algorithm called Plant growth
simulation algorithm (PGSA) that simulates the growth of plants. In their work,
they proposed inserting the plant root of adaptive backlight function into the
original PGSA for improving convergence time and localization precision. The
obtained simulation results have verified that the proposed algorithm is better
than the simulated annealing algorithm (SAA) in terms of localization accuracy
and computing time [29].
O.D. Jegede and K. Ferens have employed the genetic algorithm (GA) for
learning the environmental issues within a WSN for effectively localizing its
sensor nodes. For every coordinate in the grid network area, given random
perturbations of received signal strength (RSS), GA would be able to learn the
20
environment and to decrease the possible errors associated with the RSSI
measurement taken for each coordinate. The conducted simulation shows that
GA can reasonably localize sensor nodes using the coordinates of three anchors
[30].
S. Goyal and M.S. Patterh have proposed a Cuckoo Search (CS) based
node localization algorithm for estimating the coordinates of sensor nodes in
WSNs. In the proposed algorithm, no weight coefficient is employed for
controlling the global search ability. The conducted simulation has shown that
the proposed localization algorithm is better than the particle swarm
optimization (PSO) and various variants of biogeography-based optimization
(BBO) in terms of localization accuracy [31].
L. Dan and W. Xian-bin have presented a distributed two-phase PSO
algorithm for efficiently and precisely localizing the sensor nodes in addition to
solving the flip ambiguity problem. In the first phase, the initial search space is
defined using the bounding box method. In the second phase, a refinement
process is performed for correcting the error resulting from the flip ambiguity.
Additionally, the proposed algorithm attempted localizing sensor nodes that
have only two references or three near-collinear references. The conducted
simulation has proved the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm [32].
R. Krishnaprabha and A. Gopakumar have proposed a node localization
algorithm based on Gravitational Search Algorithm (GSA). In the proposed
21
work, node localization in WSNs is formulated as a non-linear optimization
problem. Also, the proposed algorithm tried to handle the flip ambiguity
problem and to localize the sensor nodes that collinear anchor nodes through the
refinement phase. The obtained simulation results have shown that the proposed
localization algorithm has good performance [33].
B. Peng and L. Li have focused on range-free localization as a cost-
effective alternative compared to range-based approaches. However, they
noticed that range-free localization suffers from higher localization error
compared to the range-based algorithms. In order to deal with this problem, they
presented an improved version for DV-Hop, which is a popular rang-free
approach that depends on hop-distance estimation. The improvement in the DV-
Hop algorithm is performed based on a genetic algorithm. Simulation results
have shown that the proposed localization algorithm has better localization
accuracy compared to other localization algorithms [44].
Sai et al. have presented a hybrid node localization algorithm in WSNs,
which depends on the measurements of the received signal strength (RSS) and
Parallel Firefly Algorithm (PFA). Taking into consideration the distance factor,
the proposed algorithm transforms the node localization problem in WSN into a
nonlinear unconstrained optimization problem that is defined by an enhanced
objective function. In the proposed algorithm, PFA estimates the coordinates of
sensor nodes using the distances between a sensor and a few numbers of its 1-
22
hop neighbors. Simulation results have shown that the proposed approach is
better than PSO, GA, PFA, and RSS in terms of localization accuracy [35].
S. Sivakumar and R. Venkatesan have provided two phases node
localization algorithm in WSNs. In the first phase, the positions of sensor nodes
are roughly estimated using a range-free localization method called Mobile
Anchor Positioning (MAP). In the second phase, the proposed algorithm
attempts to reduce the localization error by employing a certain meta-heuristic
approach. In their work, to perform the second phase, they employed Bat
Optimization Algorithm (BOA), Modified Cuckoo Search (MCS), and Firefly
Optimization Algorithm (FOA) resulting in three localization algorithms
namely, BOA-MAP, MCS-MAP, and FOA-MAP. The experimental results have
shown that FOA-MAP is better than both BOA-MAP and MCS-MAP in terms
of Root mean square error (RMSE) [36].
Sun et al. have proposed a multiobjective node localization algorithm
based on multiobjective particle swarm optimization, called multiobjective
particle swarm optimization localization algorithm (MOPSOLA). The
multiobjective functions include the space distance and the geometric topology
constraints. In the proposed algorithm, the size of the archive remains limited
using a dynamic method. Simulation results have shown that the proposed
algorithm has achieved significant enhancements in terms of localization
accuracy and convergence rate [37].
23
Arsic et al. have proposed a node localization algorithm based on
Fireworks Algorithm (FWA). The proposed algorithm provides optimal results
in case of no ranging errors and provides good results in case of ranging errors.
Moreover, they proposed an Enhanced Fireworks Algorithm (EFWA), which
achieved better results compared to FWA. Also, the two proposed localization
algorithm outperforms other PSO based localization algorithm [38].
Shieh et al. have compared several well-known heuristics such as Genetic
Algorithm (GA) and Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) to more recent
methods such as Grey Wolf Optimizer (GWO), Firefly Algorithm (FA), and
Brain Storm Optimization (BSO) algorithms in terms of sensor nodes
localization accuracy. Also, they proposed an enhancement in the localization
algorithms to increase the number of localized nodes. The improved algorithms
have been compared to the original ones in terms of the number of localized
nodes and execution time in different network deployments [39].
J. Cheng and L. Xia have proposed a Cuckoo Search (CS) algorithm-
based node localization algorithm. In the proposed method, the step size has
been modified to obtain a global optimal solution in a short time. Also, the
candidate solutions’ fitness is used for constructing mutation probability to
avoid local convergence. The performance of the proposed algorithm has been
evaluated using different anchor density, node density, and communication
range in terms of average localization error and localization success ratio. The
24
simulation results have proved that the proposed algorithm is better than the
standard CS and PSO in terms of average localization error and convergence
time [40].
P.T. Daely and S.Y. Shin have proposed a node localization algorithm
based on Dragonfly Algorithm (DA) optimization algorithm. The proposed
localization algorithm was designed to determine the positions of the nodes
which are randomly distributed in a specific area. The simulation results proved
that the proposed DA based algorithm is better than PSO in terms of localization
accuracy [41].
Nguyen et al. have employed the multi-objective firefly algorithm to
estimate the coordinates of sensor nodes in WSNs. The used objective functions
depend on two criteria namely, the nodes’ distance constraint and geometric
topology constraint. The simulation results have shown the superiority of the
proposed algorithm compared to well-known localization methods in terms of
localization accuracy and convergence rate [42].
S. Arora and S. Singh have used the butterfly optimization algorithm to
localize the sensor nodes in WSNs. The proposed localization algorithm has
been validated using different numbers of nodes with distance measurements are
corrupted through the Gaussian noise. The simulation results have shown that
the proposed localization algorithm is better than several well-known
25
localization algorithms including particle swarm optimization (PSO) and firefly
algorithm (FA) in terms of localization accuracy [43].
Rajakumar et al. have presented a node localization algorithm based on
grey wolf optimization (GWO) whose main objective is to localize sensor nodes
in WSNs accurately. The proposed algorithm has been validated under different
scenarios using several performance metrics including computing time, number
of localized nodes, and localization accuracy. Also, the performance of the
proposed algorithm has been compared to other meta-heuristics localization
algorithms such as particle swarm optimization (PSO) and modified bat
algorithm (MBA). The simulation results have shown the superiority of the
proposed algorithm in terms of convergence rate and success rate [44].
S. Sujatha and M. Siddappa have proposed a hybrid localization algorithm
based on Dynamic Weight Particle Swarm (DWPSO) and Differential Evolution
(DE) algorithms. The authors observed that decreasing the square error of
estimated and measured distance can improve the localization accuracy. The
obtained simulation results proved that the proposed localization algorithm is
better than the Linearization Method (LM) in terms of localization accuracy and
performance stability [45].
R. Kaur and S. Arora have compared the performance of several bio-
inspired algorithms including Flower pollination algorithm (FPA), Firefly
algorithm (FA), Grey Wolf Optimization (GWO) and Particle Swarm
26
Optimization (PSO) in localizing the sensor nodes of WSNs. The performance
of the different algorithms has been evaluated in terms of several performance
metrics including localization accuracy, computing time and a number of
localized nodes. The simulation results have shown the superiority of FPA
compared to the other algorithms in terms of localization accuracy [46].
Srideviponmalar et al. have proposed a hybrid node localization algorithm
called genetic algorithm–differential evolution localization algorithm
(GADELA) in order to estimate the positions of the unknown nodes in WSNs.
Based on the conducted experiments, the obtained results have shown that the
localization accuracy and time complexity get better when the size of the
population vector increases [47].
Lui et al. have introduced a node localization scheme based on lightening
search algorithm (LSA) combined with the trilateration method. The
performance of LSA based localization algorithm is compared to genetic
algorithms and the obtained results have shown the superiority of the proposed
algorithm in terms of localization accuracy and convergence [48].
Rauniyar et al. have presented a localization algorithm for the Internet of
Things (IOT) using social learning based particle swarm optimization (SL-PSO).
The design objectives of the proposed algorithm are reducing the localization
error and time complexity. The obtain results have shown that SL-PSO is better
27
than other PSO based localization algorithms in terms of localization accuracy
and convergence rate [49].
Mihoubi et al. have presented a node localization algorithm in WSNs using
effective Bat algorithm. The effectiveness of their proposed localization
algorithm is based on the adaptation of velocity of bats by hybridization, with
Doppler effect for improving the performance. The obtained results have shown
that the proposed algorithm is better than traditional bat algorithm and PSO
based localization algorithms in terms of convergence rate and localization
precision [50].
Tuba et al. have proposed a two-stage node localization algorithm with semi-
mobile anchors using firefly algorithm. The conducted experiments have shown
that the proposed localization algorithm is better that another PSO based
algorithm in terms of localization accuracy [51].
To the best of our knowledge, Salp Swarm Algorithm (SSA) algorithm
was never used for the localization problem in WSNs so far. Therefore, the main
objective of this thesis is to employ the SSA algorithm for handling the
localization problem in WSNs and is to evaluate its performance against a
number of well-known swarm intelligence algorithms.
28
2.5. Summary
In this chapter, the basic concepts that are relevant to the thesis have been
introduced and clarified. The chapter has presented an overview on the
definition of wireless sensor networks and its applications. Then, taxonomy has
been provided for the different metaheuristic algorithms. Finally, a number of
researches that are relevant to the topic of thesis have been covered and
summarized. In the next chapter, the basic concepts of node localization in
wireless networks are presented and clarified. Additionally, a number of
metaheuristic algorithms that have been used in the proposed work are
introduced and described in detail.
29
Chapter 3: Metaheuristic Algorithms for Localization in

Wireless Sensor Networks
3.1. Introduction
This chapter provides taxonomy for the node localization scheme with a
summary for each category. In addition, it reviews some of the applications in
which accurate node localization is critical to perform the specified tasks of
these applications. Finally, it concluded by describing in detail the different
metaheuristic algorithms used in the proposed work.
3.2. Taxonomy of Node Localization Algorithms
Accurate node localization in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) is a major
concern for many applications such as cyber-physical systems, military, eHealth,
environment monitoring, home and office automation, weather forecasting, etc
[52-56]. Equipping each sensor node with a GPS can be a direct solution for this
problem. However, this is impractical solution because of high cost and high
energy consumption. In addition, GPS receivers cannot works properly in indoor
environments and dense forests. These problems associated with The GPS-
based solution motivated the researches to develop many localization algorithms
[57]. Node localization is defined as the estimation of the location of unknown
31
nodes with the help of some nodes with known positions or using the
connectivity information between the unknown nodes.
In this thesis, as shown in Figure 3.1, localization schemes in WSNs are
classified into “Sparse vs. Dense”, “Anchor based vs. Anchor free”, “Indoor vs.
Outdoor” and “Static vs. Mobile”. “Anchor Based" and “Anchor Free"
localization schemes are further divided into “Range Based" and “Range Free"
schemes [58].
Localiztion
Algorithms
Sparse vs. Anchor Based Static vs.

Indoor
Dense vs. Anchor Free Mobile
Anchor Based Anchor Free
Range Based Range Based
Range Free Range Free
Figure 3.1: A Taxonomy for the node localization schemes [58]
The aforementioned classification considers the network size (sparse vs.
dense) and the type of applications that employ WSNs (indoor vs. outdoor). In
addition, it considers the mobility of sensor nodes (static vs. mobile) and the
32
using of anchor nodes (beacons). Below, a separate section is dedicated to
describe each branch of the above classification.
3.3. Localization in Sparse and Dense Networks
Based on the sparseness of the network, the localization scheme can be
categorized into global and sequential. Semi-definite programming (SDP) [59]
and multi-dimensional scaling (MDS) [60] are widely-adopted for global
localization. These schemes can simultaneously calculate the locations of the
nodes in dense networks and they are subject to erroneous measurements in
sparse networks.
On the other side, sequential schemes compute the locations of sensor nodes
sequentially [61]. In order to address the node localization issue in sparse
networks, two types of algorithms are proposed namely, node based localization
and component based localization.
The node based localization based algorithm called ‘Sweeps’ [62] is related to
the iterative method ‘trilateration’. In the trilateration method, a primary set of
three nodes with fixed location information is utilized to define a coordinate
system. Node based localization algorithms include ‘TERRAIN’ [63], which is
based on trilateration and local maps.
In component based localization, a component, a rigid structure of a
collection of nodes, is employed as a basic unit for localization. ‘Component
33
bAsed Localization aLgorithm’ (CALL) [64] was presented as a new
mechanism for component based localization.
3.4. Anchor Based Vs. Anchor Free Localization Scheme
3.4.1. Anchor Based Localization
In anchor based localization, a number of nodes are equipped with GPS
receivers. They are called known nodes, anchors, or beacons. The unknown
nodes estimate their positions (self-localization) using the information gathered
from the anchors. If the unknown nodes cooperate with each other and share
their location information, the localization process is called remote or
cooperative localization. Further, if the information flow is handled through
individual nodes the localization is called distributed localization; while, if the
information flow is handled using a central processor, the localization process is
called centralized localization. The shared information contains distance
measurements or connectivity information, which further divides the anchor
based localization approaches into: “Range based” and “Range free” localization
schemes.
1) Range Based Approaches:
Range-based approaches compute the positions of unknown nodes location
using point-to-point distance measurements. Many approaches can be employed
to measure the distances including angle of arrival (AoA), time of arrival (ToA),
34
time difference of arrival (TDoA), acoustic energy, and received signal strength
indicator (RSSI). The first three methods provide more accurate distance
measurements compared to RSSI; however, complex hardware setup is required.
After collecting the information of anchors and sometimes of other unknown
nodes, distances are combined using techniques like lateration or particle filter
etc [58].
2) Range Free Approaches:
Range free localization schemes employ the connectivity information among
the sensor nodes to compute the positions of the unknown nodes. It can be an
alternative for range based localization schemes that need complex and
expensive hardware to be configured [58].
3.4.2. Anchor Free Localization
Unlike anchor based localization schemes, anchor free localization schemes
do not localizes the unknown nodes using the known locations of some nodes
(anchors). These algorithms have freedom on translation and orientation. Based
on the usage of the range measurement technique, these localization algorithms
are classified into: range based anchor free and range free anchor free. Anchor
free localization algorithms do not need the anchor selection process, which is
very complex task [59].
35
3.5. Indoor Localization
Recently, the indoor positioning system became very popular because of its
relevance to many real world applications in the construction industry, logistics
industry, healthcare, and other official environments. Indoor localization is more
difficult compared to outdoor positioning because the GPS receivers do not
work properly under roofs. Additionally, measuring the distance is a challenging
task because the indoor environments are usually crowded and cluttered.
Moreover, the mobility of objects in indoor environments makes them more
complex. So far, the two widely-employed strategies to estimate the positions of
objects in an indoor environment depend on Received Signal Strength (RSS).
These are known as range based and range free, or profiling or fingerprinting.
Also, other hybrid localization schemes that depend on new concepts have been
introduced. Most of these localization schemes address the mobility issue along
with consideration of different environmental discontinuity. Among these
localization schemes [65] which uses maximum likelihood estimation, [66]
which use triangulation, [67] which uses spectrum analysis, [68] which uses
curve fitting, [69] which uses multi-lateration, and [70] which uses a
fingerprinting localization method. Moreover, [71] which combine
fingerprinting and kernel density estimation for the localization of unknown
nodes.
36
3.6. Localization in Static and Mobile Sensor Networks
Node localization schemes can also be categorized into “Static” and “Mobile”
localization schemes. Generally, few research works that addressed the mobility
issue of sensor nodes in WSNs. Most of them use the nodes’ mobility
information to improve the accuracy of localization. However, build an accurate
localization scheme for mobile sensors is a challenging task because they
usually need centralized processing which requires long time to run. In addition,
centralized schemes usually make assumptions about network topology, which
is not suitable for mobile wireless sensor networks (MWSN) [75].
Mobility can influence the localization process in many aspects. One of the
major concerns related to MWSNs is latency. Longer time taken by localization
may lead to latency, where the sensor will have changed its position since the
measurement took place. Another issue is Doppler shift which can occur when
the transmitter of a signal is moving relative to the receiver [58].
3.7. Applications of Localization
Although WSNs were first presented for military purposes, it now deployed
in many applications to perform a variety of tasks. The fields that employ WSNs
include healthcare, weather forecasting, environmental observation,
transportation systems, and home and office applications. Accurate node
localization is critical to allow these applications to perform its specified tasks
37
[58]. A review on these application in which node localization is necessary is
given below.
1. Military Applications
Sensors are used in military for many purposes including battlefield
application, infrastructural application, application beyond the battlefield, and
force protection. In the battlefield, sensors with different measurement
techniques are employed for different arms technology. Distributed self-
contained acoustic position systems and accelerometer sensors provide antitank
landmines [73] with sensing information regarding threats from their neighbor
states and help to respond.
2. Emergency Service Applications
WSNs are employed effectively in emergency services, such as police, fire,
and medical via 911 calling. One such implementation involves the localization
of a mobile station placed within a city for citizens to place immediate 911 calls
[74].
3. Internet of things (IoT) and Cyber Physical Systems
The Internet of Things (IoT) and Cyber Physical Systems are newly
developed applications in which localization of sensors has a critical role when a
wide variety of electronic devices communicate with each other and control the
systems [58].
38
4. Traffic Monitoring Applications
One of the most popular applications of WSNs is the transport control and
monitoring system, where localization has become a complementary part of
modern vehicular technology. Intelligent transport system (ITS) adopts sensor
technology for traffic management and safety in addition to building an ideal
city with smart traffic control mechanisms [75].
5. Environmental Observation and Weather Forecasting Applications
One of the most important applications of WSNs is environment monitoring
and weather forecasting. The applications of a sensor network in the field of
weather monitoring and weather forecasting include habitat monitoring,
agricultural issues, forest and water quality monitoring etc. Being necessary for
these applications, different localization algorithms ensure suitable position
estimation [60].
6. Home and Office Applications
Wireless sensor networks have improved the home and office environment by
exploiting the sensor technology to reduce the energy consumption in indoor
environments [60].
3.8. Metaheuristic Algorithms for Localization in WSN
Recently, researchers have used to look into natural processes and creatures to
get inspired for solving the difficult real-world problems. Many natural
39
processes highly depend on optimization process including Darwinian evolution,
social group behavior and foraging strategies. During the last decades, the field
of nature-inspired search and optimization algorithms has become an active
research area and getting an increasing attention. Currently, these algorithms are
widely adopted to solve a wide range of problems that belong to different fields
including scientific research, industry, and commerce. The proposed algorithms
in this field constitute two main families: the evolutionary computing methods
and the swarm intelligence algorithms. Although both families of algorithms are
generally dedicated towards solving search and optimization problems, they are
certainly not equivalent, and each has its own distinguishing features [76].
Swarm Intelligence (SI) is a relatively new interdisciplinary field of research,
which has gained huge popularity in these days. Algorithms belonging to this
domain, draw inspiration from the collective intelligence emerging from the
behavior of a group of social insects (like bees, termites and wasps). When
acting as a community, these insects even with very limited individual capability
can jointly (cooperatively) perform many complex tasks necessary for their
survival. Problems like finding and storing foods, selecting and picking up
materials for future usage require a detailed planning, and are solved by insect
colonies without any kind of supervisor or controller. Swarm intelligence is a
family of bio-inspired algorithms that has recently emerged to meet these
40
requirements, and it has successfully been applied to a number of real world
optimization problems [77].
In this thesis, we employ a recently proposed swarm intelligence algorithm
called salp optimization algorithm (SSA) to perform the node localization in
WSNs. Moreover, the performance of the proposed algorithm is compared to
other four optimization algorithms namely, particle swarm optimization (PSO),
optimizer (GWO). The ideas behind the different the swarm optimization
algorithms are presented in the next subsections.
3.8.1. Particle Swarm Optimization
Particle swarm optimization (PSO) is a swarm optimization algorithm
proposed by Eberhart and Kennedy in 1995. It inspired by the collective
behavior of bird flocking and fish schooling. It employs a number of particles
that simulate a swarm population moving around in the search space to find the
best solution. Each particle provides a candidate solution for the problem and is
usually represented as a point in D-dimensional space. The position of each
particle is represented as a vector xi = (xi1 , xi2 , … , xiD ). Particles moves in the
search space to find optimal solutions and each particle has a velocity
represented as a vector vi = (vi1 , vi2 , … , viD ). During movement, the position of
each particle is updated based on the best position that has been achieved by the
particle himself (pbest) and the best position that has been achieved by all the
41
particles so far (gbest). The velocity and the position of each particle are updated
as shown below [78].

𝑡+1 𝑡 𝑡+1
𝑥𝑖𝑑 = 𝑥𝑖𝑑 + 𝑣𝑖𝑑 (3.1)
𝑡+1 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
𝑣𝑖𝑑 = 𝑤 ∗ 𝑣𝑖𝑑 + 𝑐1 ∗ 𝑟1 ∗ (𝑝𝑖𝑑 − 𝑥𝑖𝑑 ) + 𝑐2 ∗ 𝑟2 ∗ (𝑝𝑔𝑑 − 𝑥𝑖𝑑 ) (3.2)
where 𝑡 refers to the iteration number, 𝑤 is inertia weight that aims at
determining the effect of previous velocities on current velocity, 𝑐1 and 𝑐2 are
acceleration constants, 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 are random variables whose values are
normally distributed in [0,1], and 𝑝𝑖𝑑 and 𝑝𝑔𝑑 indicate the elements of pbest and
gbest in the 𝑑 𝑡ℎ dimension, respectively. The velocity is limited by a predefined
maximum velocity 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 . The pseudocode and the flowchart of PSO are shown
in Figures 3.2 and 3.3, respectively.
Initialize the population of particles
While (stopping condition is not met)
Evaluate the fitness of each particle
Update individual and global best
Update the individual and global bests
Update the velocity and position of each particle
Until the stopping condition is met
The new velocity and positions will be updated using Eq. 3.1 and 3.2 respectively.
Figure 3.2: The pseudocode of the PSO algorithm [79]
42
Start
Initialize the particle population
Evaluate the fitness of each particle
Yes
Fitness <pid Renew pid and
position
No
Yes
pid <pgd Renew pgd
No
vid = w*vid + c1*r1*(pid - xid) + c1*r1*(pgd - xid)
xid = xid + vid
No Yes
Stop
End
condition?
Figure 3.3: The flow chart of the PSO algorithm [79]
3.8.2. Butterfly Optimization Algorithm
Butterfly Optimization Algorithm (BOA) is a swarm intelligence algorithm
that is recently proposed by Arora [80]. It is inspired from the food-foraging
behaviour of butterflies. Biologically, butterflies find the source of food using
sense receptors. The role of these sense receptors, also called chemoreceptors, is
to sense fragrance/smell [81]. In BOA, butterflies are the search agents that
perform optimization. Each butterfly emits fragrance with some intensity. This
43
fragrance is propagated and sensed by other butterflies in the region. The
fragrance emitted by butterfly is correlated with the butterfly’s fitness. This
means that the fragrance of a butterfly changes according to its current location
[80]. When a butterfly is able to sense fragrance from any other butterfly that is
larger than its fragrance, it will move toward the latter and this phase is called
global search. On the other side, when a butterfly cannot sense fragrance from
other butterflies that is larger than its local fragrance, it will move randomly and
this phase is called local search [82]. In BOA, the fragrance is defined as a
function of the physical intensity of stimulus as shown below [82]:
𝑓𝑖 = 𝑐𝐼 𝑎 (3.3)
where 𝑓𝑖 is the perceived magnitude of fragrance, 𝑐 is the sensory modality, 𝐼 is
the stimulus intensity and 𝑎 is the power exponent dependent on modality,
which accounts varying degree of absorption. As mentioned before, there are
two phases in BOA algorithm namely, local search phase and global search
phase. In global search phase, the butterfly moves one step toward the best
butterfly/solution 𝑔∗ which can be formulated as:
𝑥𝑖𝑡+1 = 𝑥𝑖𝑡 + (𝑟 2 × 𝑔∗ − 𝑥𝑖𝑡 ) × 𝑓𝑖 (3.4)
where 𝑥𝑖𝑡 is the solution vector 𝑥𝑖 of 𝑖 𝑡ℎ butterfly in iteration number t, 𝑔∗ is the
best solution found in the current stage, 𝑓𝑖 is the fragrance of 𝑖 𝑡ℎ butterfly, and 𝑟
is a random number in [0, 1]. Local search phase is formulated as:
𝑥𝑖𝑡+1 = 𝑥𝑖𝑡 + (𝑟 2 × 𝑥𝑘𝑡 − 𝑥𝑗𝑡 ) × 𝑓𝑖 (3.5)
44
where 𝑥𝑗𝑡 and 𝑥𝑘𝑡 are 𝑗𝑡ℎ and 𝑘 𝑡ℎ butterflies chosen randomly from the solution
space. Eq. (3.5) is considered a local random walk if and only if 𝑥𝑗𝑡 and 𝑥𝑘𝑡
belongs to the same sub-swarm and 𝑟 is a random number in[0, 1]. Search for
food and mating partner by butterflies can occur at both local and global scale;
therefore, a switch probability p is employed in BOA to switch between
common global search and intensive local search. The pseudocode and the flow
chart of the BOA algorithm are shown in Figures 3.4 and 3.5, respectively.
Objective function f(x), x=(x1……xdim)

Generate population of n Butterflies xi= (i=1,2,…n)
Define c, a and p
while stopping criteria not met do
for each butterfly bf in population do
Calculate fragrance for bf using Eq. (3.3)
end for
Find the best bf
for each butterfly bf in population do
Generate a random number r from [0, 1]
if r < p then
Move towards best butterfly using Eq. (3.4)
else
Move randomly using Eq. (3.5)
end if
end for
end while
Output the best solution found.
Figure 3.4: The pseudocode of the BOA algorithm
45
Start
Initialize the butterfly population randomly
Initialize the value of switch probability p, sensory

modality c and power exponent alpha
Evaluate the fitness and find the best solution g*
Yes No
rand1 <p
Perform global search Perform local search
Yes
Perform intensive exploitation rand2 <p
No
Update the position of all
butterflies Fitness Evaluation
Update the best values of butterflies in the population
No
Stop
condition?
Yes
Output the best solution
End
Figure 3.5: The flow chart of the BOA algorithm
46
3.8.3. Firefly Algorithm

Firefly Algorithm (FA) is a nature-inspired algorithm proposed by Yang [83]. It
mimics the social behaviors and flashing patterns of fireflies. FA depends on the
next three idealized rules [83, 84]:
1) Fireflies are unisex which means that a firefly can get attracted to any
other firefly regardless their sex.
2) The attractiveness of fireflies is directly proportional to their brightness.
Thus, for any two flashing fireflies, the firefly with less brightness moves
toward the one with higher brightness. If there is no a brighter firefly than
a particular firefly, the latter moves randomly.
3) The brightness of a firefly is calculated using an objective function.
A firefly’s attractiveness is proportional to the light intensity visualized
by other fireflies in the region; therefore, the relationship between the
attractiveness β and the distance r can be formulated as:

2
𝛽 = 𝛽0 𝑒 −𝛾𝑟 (3.6)
where 𝛽0 is the brightness at distance 𝑟 = 0 and 𝛾 is the light absorption
coefficient. The movement of a firefly 𝑖 toward a more attractive (brighter)
firefly 𝑗 is represented as:

2
𝑥𝑖𝑡+1 = 𝑥𝑖𝑡 + 𝛽0 𝑒 −𝛾𝑟𝑖𝑗 (𝑥𝑗𝑡 − 𝑥𝑖𝑡 ) + 𝛼𝑡 𝜖𝑖𝑡 (3.7)
47
where 𝑟𝑖𝑗 is the distance between the fireflies 𝑖 and 𝑗 that is calculated using the
Euclidean norm, the second term is due to the attraction, the third term is a
randomization with 𝛼𝑡 being the randomization parameter, and 𝜖𝑖𝑡 is a vector
that includes random numbers. The pseudocode and the flow chart of the FA
algorithm are shown in Figures 3.6 and 3.7, respectively.
Objective Function f(X), X= (x1, x2, …xd)
Generate population of n fireflies, Xi, i = 1, 2,…, n
Light intensity Ii at Xi is determined by f(Xi)
Define the light absorption coefficient γ
while (t < MaxGeneration)
for i = 1: n, all n fireflies
for j = 1: n, all n fireflies (inner loop)
if (Ii < Ij),
Move firefly i towards j using Eq. (3.7)
end if
Vary attractiveness with distance i via exp[- γr2]
end for j
end for i
Rank the fireflies and find the global best solution
end while
Post-process the results
Figure 3.6: The pseudocode of the FA algorithm
48
Start
Initialize the firefly population
Compute the fitness of each firefly
Yes
f(j) > f(i) Move firefly I toward firefly j
No
Compute attractiveness and update light intensity
No
Stop
condition?
Yes
Start
Figure 3.7: The flow chart of the FA algorithm
3.8.4. Grey Wolf Optimizer
Grey Wolf Optimizer (GWO) is a recent swarm intelligence algorithm
inspired by the grey wolf community. It is developed by Seyedali Mirjalili et al.
in 2014. Grey wolf is a very dangerous creature which belongs to the Canidae
family. Grey wolves usually live in packs that consist of 5 to 12 wolves. Each
group has social dominance hierarchy: alpha, beta, and omega, in order. The
alphas are a male and female which represent the leaders of the group. The betas
are the second level of management hierarchy. The omegas are the final level in
the hierarchy [85].
49
In order to mathematically model the social hierarchy of wolves in GWO, The
fittest solution is referred to as the alpha (α). Consequently, the second and third
best solutions are Beta (β) and Delta (δ), respectively. The rest of candidate
solutions are Omega (ω) [28]. The mathematical model of the encircling
behavior is represented as follows [85]:
⃗ = |𝐶 . 𝑋𝑝 (𝑡) − 𝑋(𝑡)|
𝐷 (3.8)
𝑋(𝑡 + 1) = |𝑋𝑝 (𝑡) − ⃗⃗⃗

𝐴. 𝐷⃗| (3.9)
⃗ = 2. r2 , A
where t indicates the current iteration, C ⃗ = 2a⃗. r1 − a⃗, X
⃗ m is the
position vector of the wolf, 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 are random vectors in [0, 1] and a linearly
varies from 2 to 1, C and A are coefficient vectors, 𝑋𝑝 is the position vector of
the prey. During the optimization, the 𝜔 wolves update their positions around
𝛼, 𝛽, and 𝛿. Therefore, the 𝜔 wolves are able to reposition with respect to 𝛼, 𝛽,
and 𝛿 as shown below [85]:
⃗ 𝛼 = |𝐶 1. 𝑋𝛼 − 𝑋|,
𝐷
⃗ 𝛽 = |𝐶 2. 𝑋𝛽 − 𝑋|,
𝐷
⃗ 𝛿 = |𝐶 3. 𝑋𝛿 − 𝑋|
𝐷 (3.10)
⃗ 𝛼),
𝑋1 = 𝑋𝛼 − 𝐴1. (𝐷
⃗ 𝛽),
𝑋2 = 𝑋𝛽 − 𝐴2. (𝐷
⃗ 𝛿)
𝑋3 = 𝑋𝛿 − 𝐴3. (𝐷 (3.11)
50
⃗ 1+𝑋
𝑋 ⃗ 2+ 𝑋
⃗3
𝑋(𝑡 + 1) = (3.12)
3
With these equations, a search agent updates its position according to α, β,
and δ in an n-dimensional search space. In addition, the final position would be
in a random place within a circle which is defined by the positions of α, β, and δ
in the search space [85]. The pseudocode and the flowchart of the GWO
algorithm are shown in Figures 3.8 and 3.9, respectively.
Initialize the grey wolf population Xi = (i = 1,2, …, n)

Initialize a, A, and C
For all Xi do
Calculate fitness F(Xi)
End for
Get the first three best wolves Xα, Xβ, and Xδ
While (t < Max number of iterations)
For each search agent
Update the position of the current search agent using equation 3.12.
End for
Update a, A, and C
For all Xi do
Calculate fitness F(Xi)
End for
Update Xα, Xβ, and Xδ
t=t+1
End while
Return Xδ
Figure 3.9: The pseudocode of the GWO algorithm
51
Start
Initialize the grey wolves’ population
Initialize a, A, and C
Compute the fitness
Find Xα, Xβ, and Xδ
Update the positions of

search agents
Update a, A, and C
No
Stop
condition?
Yes
Display Xα and fitness

value
End
Figure 3.9: The flow chart of the GWO algorithm
3.8.5. Salp Swarm Algorithm

Salps are part of Salpidae family with the limpid cylinder design body. They
look like jellyfishes in texture and movement. The shape of a salp is shown in
Figure 3.10 (a). The water is pushed Salps bodies to move forward [86].
Generally, the biological researches about salps in its early stages because their
living environments are hardly accessible, and it is very difficult to keep them in
52
laboratory environment. Salps swarming attitude is the main inspiration to build
Salp Swarm Algorithm [87]. Salps compose a swarm in profound oceans which
is called Salp chain. This chain is illustrated in Figure 3.10 (b). This chain can
help to achieve better locomotion during the foraging process [88].
(a) (b)
Figure 3.10: (a) Individual salp. (b) Salps chain [29]
Originally, the salps population is divided into two groups to formulate the
mathematical model for salp chains: head and followers. The head position is at
the beginning of the chain while the rest of the chain is referred to as the
followers [89].
The salps location is determined likewise swarm-based methods, by an n-
dimensional search area via considering the number of variables inside the
presented problem represented by n. Accordingly, a two-dimensional matrix
described as x will contains the position of all Salps. It is supposed too, in search
53
space, there is 'F' which is a food source as the target of the swarm. The
following equation is suggested to upgrade the leader location [87]:
𝐹𝑗 + 𝑐1 ((𝑢𝑏𝑗 − 𝑙𝑏𝑗 )𝑐2 + 𝑙𝑏𝑗 ) 𝑐3 ≥ 0

𝑥𝑗1 = { (3.13)
𝐹𝑗 − 𝑐1 ((𝑢𝑏𝑗 − 𝑙𝑏𝑗 )𝑐2 + 𝑙𝑏𝑗 ) 𝑐3 < 0
where 𝑥𝑗1 shows the position of the first Salp (leader) in the 𝑗th dimension, 𝐹𝑗 is
the position of the food source in the 𝑗th dimension, 𝑢𝑏𝑗 indicates the upper
bound of 𝑗th dimension, 𝑙𝑏𝑗 indicates the lower bound of jth dimension, 𝑐1 , 𝑐 2 ,
and 𝑐3 are random numbers.
Eq. (3.13) shows that the leader only updates its position with respect to the
food source. The coefficient 𝑐1 is the most important parameter in SSA because
it balances exploration and exploitation defined as follows [87]:
4𝑙 2
𝑐1 = 2𝑒 − ( 𝐿 ) (3.14)
where l is the current iteration and L is the maximum number of iterations. The
parameter 𝑐2 and 𝑐3 are random numbers uniformly generated in the interval of
[0, 1]. In fact, they dictate if the next position in jth dimension should be towards
positive infinity or negative infinity as well as the step size. To update the
position of the followers, the following equations is utilized (Newton’s law of
motion) [87]:
54
1
𝑥𝑗𝑖 = 𝑎 𝑡 2 + 𝑣0 𝑡 (3.15)
2
where 𝑖 ≥ 2, 𝑥𝑗𝑖 shows the position of 𝑖 th follower Salp in 𝑗th dimension, 𝑡 is
𝑣𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑥 − 𝑥0
time, 𝑣0 is the initial speed, and 𝑎 = where 𝑣 = . Because the time
𝑣0 𝑡
in optimization is an iteration, the discrepancy between iterations is equal to 1
and considering 𝑣0 = 0, this equation can be expressed as follows [87]:

1
𝑥𝑗𝑖 = (𝑥𝑗𝑖 + 𝑥𝑗𝑖−1 ) (3.16)
2
where 𝑖 ≥ 2 and 𝑥𝑗𝑖 shows the position of 𝑖 th follower Salp in 𝑗th dimension.
Using equations (1) and (4), the Salp chains can be simulated. Figure 3.11 and
3.12 show the pseudocode and the flow chart of the SSA algorithm,
respectively.
Initialize the Salp population 𝑥𝑖 (𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑛)considering 𝑢𝑏 and 𝑙𝑏
While (end condition is not satisfied)
Calculate the fitness of each search agent (salp)
F = the best search agent
Update 𝑐1 by Eq. 2
For each salp (𝑥𝑖 )
If (𝑖 == 1)
Update the position of the leading salp by Eq. 3.13
Else
Update the position of the follower salp by Eq. 3.16
End
Figure 2.13: The pseudocode of the SSA algorithm
End
Amend the salps based on the upper and lower bounds of variables
End
Return F
Figure 3.11: The pseudocode of the SSA algorithm
55
Start
Initialize the salp population
Compute the fitness of each agent
Yes No
The current salp
is the leader
Update the position of the Update the position of the

following salp using Eq. 3.13 leading salp using Eq. 3.16
Amend the salps based on the upper and lower bounds of variables
No
Stop condition is
satisfied
Yes
End
Figure 3.12: The flow chart of the SSA algorithm
3.9. Summary
In this chapter, the different types of localization schemes are briefly
described in addition to the applications of node localization in wireless sensor
networks. Finally, a detailed description has been provided for five
metaheuristic algorithms that are used in the proposed work. In the next chapter,
56
a node localization scheme based on the salp swam algorithm is presented and
evaluated in terms of the suitable performance metrics.
57
Chapter 4: Node Localization Using Salp Swarm

Algorithm
4.1. Introduction
This chapter includes the implementation details of the proposed localization
scheme. Also, intensive experimentations are conducted to evaluate the
performance of the proposed localization scheme against a number of other
swarm optimization algorithms in terms of accepted performance metrics.
4.2. Formulation of WSN Localization Problem
WSN node localization problem is formulated using the single hop range-
based distribution technique to estimate the position of the unknown node
coordinates (X, Y) with the aid of anchor nodes (position of known nodes)
coordinates (x, y). Anchor nodes are provided with a GPS device, so it has the
capability of automatically determining its position. Most of the nodes in the
WSN are not equipped with GPS due to high cost. To measure the coordinates
of N unknown nodes, the procedure followed is given below.
Step 1: Randomly Initialize the N unknown nodes and M anchor nodes
within the communication range (R). Anchor nodes measure their position
and communicate their coordinates to their neighbors. For all iterations, the
59
node which settles at the end is termed as reference node and this node will
act as anchor node.
Step 2: Three or more anchor nodes within the communication range of a
node are considered as a localized node.
Step 3: Let (x, y) be the coordinates of the target node to be determined and
di be the distance between the target node and the ith anchor node.
𝑑𝑖 = √(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑖 )2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦𝑖 )2 (4.1)
Step 4: The optimization problem is formulated to minimize the error of the
localization problem. The objective function for the localization problem is
formulated as:
2
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = min( ∑𝑀 2 2
𝑖=1(√(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑖 ) + (𝑦 − 𝑦𝑖 ) ) ) (4.2)
where M is the anchor nodes within the transmission range (R) of the target
node.
Step 5: All target localized nodes (NL) is determined, the whole localization
error is calculated as the mean of the square of distances of the estimated
coordinates node (xi, yi) and the actual node coordinates (Xi, Yi), for i = 1, 2,
. . ., NL.
1
𝐸𝐿 = ∑𝐿𝑖=1(√(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑋𝑖 )2 + (𝑦𝑖 − 𝑌𝑖 )2 ) (4.3)
𝑁𝐿
The performance of SSA algorithm evaluated using EL and the number of
non-localized nodes NNL, where NNL = [N − NL].
60
Step 6: Repeat the steps 2–5 until all unknown/target nodes get localized or
no more nodes can be localized.
4.3. Experimental Analysis
In this section, the proposed WSN localization approach that is employs the
salp swarm algorithm is evaluated under different scenarios, and its performance
is compared to four other swarm based algorithms (PSO, BOA, FA, and GWO)
in terms of localization accuracy and computing time. The computations of the
different algorithms are performed using MATLAB R2012b on a machine of
Intel Core i7 CPU, 4GB RAM, and Windows7 operating system. The
parameters’ values of the deployment area are shown in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Parameters setting of simulation environment
Parameters Values
Sensor Nodes Varies on ∑6𝑖=1 𝑖 ∗ 2 5
Anchor nodes Varies on increment 𝑖 = 𝑖 + 5
Node transmission range (R) 30 m
Deployment area 100 m*100 m
Maximum number of iterations 100
For BOA, the sensory modality c is set 0.01, whereas the initial value of
power exponent a is set to 0.1 [43]. For PSO, initial values of ω = 0.7 and c1 =
c2 = 1.494 were recommended for faster convergence after experimental tests
[43]. For FA, the randomization parameter α is set to 0.25, the absorption
coefficient γ is set to 1.0, and the initial attractiveness parameter β is set to 1.
For GWO, the parameter a linearly decreases in the interval of [2 to 0] and the C
61
parameter linearly increases from 0 to 2 [44]. Finally, for SSA, c1 is calculated
using Eq. 3.14, whereas c2 = 0.7 and c3 = 0.3 and c2 , c3 are random numbers
uniformly generated from the interval [0, 1].
4.3.1. Sensor Nodes Localization Using SSA
In all conducted experiments, the coordinates of central nodes (N) and
destination nodes (M) are randomly configured during the construction of the
deployment area. The deployment area includes three types of nodes: anchor
nodes whose known position, target nodes whose unknown position, and
localized nodes whose positions are already estimated. In this section, the
performance of the SSA based localization algorithm is evaluated under
different scenarios using different numbers of target nodes and different
numbers of anchors as shown in Figure 4.1.
(a) Target nodes = 25 Anchor nodes = 10
62
(b) Target nodes = 50 Anchor nodes = 15
(c) Target nodes = 75 Anchor nodes = 20
(d) Target nodes = 100 Anchor nodes = 25
63
(e) Target nodes = 125 Anchor nodes = 30
(f) Target nodes = 150 Anchor nodes = 35
Figure 4.1: Node localization using different numbers of target nodes and anchor nodes
4.3.2. Comparison among Different Localization Algorithms

In this section, SSA and the other swarm algorithms have been evaluated
under different scenarios in terms of localization error, computing time, and
number of localized nodes. The obtained results of the different algorithms are
shown in Table 4.2.
64
Table 4.2: Performance metrics of different localization algorithms

Target Anchor No. PSO BOA FA GWO SSA
Nodes Nodes Iterations EL(m) T(s) NL EL(m) T(s) NL EL(m) T(s) NL EL(m) T(s) NL EL(m) T(s) NL
25 0.818 0.40 16 0.232 0.37 22 0.265 0.6 19 0.744 0.22 20 0.465 0.35 22
50 0.812 0.40 15 0.225 0.38 23 0.262 1.2 20 0.741 0.41 21 0.462 0.35 23
25 10
75 0.803 0.41 18 0.223 0.39 25 0.258 1.5 21 0.741 0.54 21 0.458 0.36 23
100 0.792 0.41 18 0.221 0.40 25 0.251 1.8 19 0.740 0.79 23 0.451 0.37 24
25 0.419 0.71 41 0.338 0.84 47 0.477 1.6 46 0.690 0.42 44 0.477 0.67 43
50 0.426 0.73 47 0.332 0.85 48 0.473 1.9 49 0.688 0.63 45 0.472 0.69 47
50 15
75 0.429 0.76 46 0.326 0.86 49 0.465 2.5 49 0.686 0.81 46 0.468 0.69 48
100 0.434 0.76 48 0.323 0.86 49 0.465 3.5 48 0.682 0.98 48 0.464 0.70 50
25 0.735 1.31 73 0.257 1.49 66 0.519 2.9 71 0.641 0.72 72 0.519 0.90 69
50 0.728 1.32 74 0.257 1.49 66 0.513 3.8 72 0.641 0.95 72 0.513 0.92 72
75 20
75 0.728 1.33 74 0.255 1.50 70 0.504 4.7 73 0.638 1.3 73 0.504 0.95 73
100 0.724 1.35 75 0.253 1.52 72 0.503 5.2 73 0.635 1.4 74 0.503 0.96 75
25 0.661 2.10 97 0.355 2.40 97 0.711 3.8 98 0.611 1.1 95 0.511 1.31 98
50 0.658 2.16 97 0.355 2.44 99 0.709 4.2 98 0.606 1.5 97 0.509 1.33 98
100 25
75 0.642 2.17 99 0.333 2.47 100 0.702 5.6 99 0.602 1.8 98 0.502 1.36 99
100 0.641 2.20 100 0.331 2.50 100 0.704 6.3 98 0.602 2.1 98 0.504 1.37 100
25 0.754 4.87 120 0.549 3.84 122 0.829 2.7 122 0.589 1.5 122 0.529 1.67 123
50 0.748 4.86 121 0.548 3.85 123 0.824 4.5 123 0.580 2.2 123 0.524 1.68 124
125 30
75 0.750 4.89 122 0.534 3.86 124 0.822 5.9 125 0.580 2.8 123 0.522 1.70 125
100 0.752 4.95 125 0.534 3.89 124 0.822 6.5 124 0.572 3.3 125 0.522 1.72 125
25 0.625 5.41 145 0.766 5.88 147 0.911 2.5 149 0.559 2.8 148 0.511 2.12 149
50 0.622 5.42 146 0.765 5.61 148 0.909 4.2 150 0.547 3.6 149 0.509 2.14 149
150 35
75 0.619 5.44 148 0.763 5.64 149 0.904 6.4 150 0.523 4.3 150 0.504 2.16 150
100 0.616 5.45 150 0.763 5.69 149 0.904 7.2 149 0.523 4.8 150 0.504 2.18 150
Under the different scenarios (number of nodes/ number of anchors), it is
noticed that, for all the localization algorithms, increasing the number of
iterations increases both of the number of localized nodes and the computing
time while reduces the localization error. This notice is rational because
increasing the number of iteration means higher amounts of computations,
which requires longer computation time. On the other side, increasing the
number of iterations means that the chance to find a better solution get bigger;
hence, the number of localized nodes get larger and the value of localization
65
error get smaller. For better results analysis, the experimental results are
summarized in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3: Summary of experimental results of the different localization algorithms
Target Anchor PSO BOA FA GWO SSA

Nodes Nodes EL(m) T(s) NL EL(m) T(s) NL EL(m) T(s) NL EL(m) T(s) NL EL(m) T(s) NL
25 10 0.79 0.40 18 0.22 0.38 25 0.25 1.8 19 0.74 0.54 21 0.45 0.35 24
50 15 0.43 0.76 46 0.32 0.86 49 0.42 2.5 49 0.69 0.81 46 0.46 0.69 48
75 20 0.72 1.35 75 0.25 1.52 68 0.51 4.7 73 0.64 0.95 72 0.50 0.96 73
100 25 0.65 2.16 100 0.35 2.45 100 0.70 5.3 98 0.60 2.1 98 0.51 1.35 100
125 30 0.74 4.90 123 0.54 3.87 124 0.82 6.5 124 0.58 2.8 123 0.52 1.70 125
150 35 0.62 5.43 149 0.76 5.65 149 0.90 7.2 149 0.52 4.3 150 0.50 2.15 150
Based on Table 4.3, regarding the Mean Localization Error (EL), there is no
clear pattern that can be detected to represent the relationship between this
performance metric and the number of target nodes and anchor nodes. However,
it is noticed that SSA has the best results regarding this performance metric
compared to PSO, BOA, FA, and GWO, particularly, when the numbers of
target nodes and anchor nodes are increased. Regarding the computing time, it is
noticed that increasing the number of target nodes and anchor nodes increase the
computing time for all localization algorithms. However, once again, SSA has
the best computing time compared to PSO, BOA, FA, and GWO. Finally,
regarding the number of localized nodes (NL), it is noticed that SSA has the best
results compared to other localization algorithms. In addition, it is noticed that
SSA has inferior EL when the percentage of (number of anchor nodes/ number
of target nodes) becomes larger such as (10/25) in the first case in Table 4.3.
66
That is because the localization accuracy increases when the anchor density
increases with respect to the number of the target nodes [83].
The graphical representations of the experimental results for the different
performance metrics are shown in Figures 4.2-4.4.
0.9
Mean Localization Error (m)
0.8
0.7
0.6
PSO
0.5 BOA
FA
0.4 GWO
SSA
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
25 -10 50 -15 75 - 20 100 -25 125 - 30 150 - 35
(Number of Target Nodes - Number of Anchors)
Figure 4.2: The localization error of the different localization algorithms in different WSN deployments
67
PSO BOA FA GWO SSA
10
9
8
COMPUTING TIME (S)
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
25 -10 50 -15 75 - 20 100 -25 125 - 30 150 - 35
(NUMBER OF TARGET NODES - NUMBER OF ANCHORS)
Figure 4.3: The computing time of the different localization algorithms in different WSN deployments
SSA GWO FA BOA PSO
150 - 35
(NUMBER OF TARGET NODES - NUMBER OF ANCHORS)
125 - 30
100 -25
75 - 20
50 -15
25 -10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
NUMBER OF LOCALIZED NODES
Figure 4.4: The number of localized nodes of the different localization algorithms in different WSN deployments
68
4.4. Summary
This chapter has introduced the details of system implementation in addition
to the conducted experiments. The proposed work has employed the salp swarm
algorithm to localize the unknown nodes in wireless sensor networks for the first
time. The proposed work is implemented and its performance is compared to
other well-known metaheuristic algorithms including PSO, BOA, FA, and GWO
through intensive experimentation under different scenarios. The next chapter
contains the conclusion of the thesis and presents a set of recommendations for
extending the current work in the future.
69
Chapter 5: Conclusion and Future Work
5.1. Conclusion
Many applications that deploy WNS cannot perform its functions properly
unless the locations of the sensor node used to collect the data are known. These
applications include environment monitoring, object tracking, rescue, and
military applications. Therefore, accurate node localization is a major concern
WSNs. In this thesis, a node localization scheme has been proposed based on a
novel bio-inspired algorithm call Salp Swarm Algorithm (SSA) which handled
the node localization problem as an optimization problem. The proposed
algorithm has been implemented and validated in different WSN deployments
using different numbers of target nodes and anchor nodes. Moreover, the
proposed algorithm has been evaluated and compared to four well-known
optimization algorithms, namely particle swarm optimization algorithm (PSO),
optimizer (GWO) in terms of localization accuracy, computing time, and a
number of localized nodes. The obtained simulation results have proved the
superiority of the proposed algorithm compared to the other localization
algorithms regarding the different performance metrics.
71
5.2. Future Work
The proposed work can be extended in the future through following one or
more from the points listed below:
• Addressing the problem of flip ambiguity in WNS which occurs when
the network is sparse and the set of reference nodes are almost
collinear. In this case, there is a possibility that the target node can be
reflected by a mirror formed from the reference nodes.
• The proposed approach can be hybridized with other algorithm to
reduce the localization error.
• Addressing the localization problem in mobile WSNs.
• Addressing the localization problem in dense WSNs in which large
numbers of sensor nodes are deployed.
• Proposing a localization algorithm that can employ the minimum
number of anchors in order to localize the unknown nodes.
• Addressing the problem of secure localization where WSNs may be
deployed in hostile environments and the localization procedures may
be vulnerable to different kinds of attacks.
• Addressing the anchors movement problem in WSN.
• Addressing the energy consumption problem during the process of
node localization.
72
• Addressing the node localization problem in 3D WSNs.
• Addressing the error propagation problem during the node localization
process in WSNs.
73
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82
‫تحديد مواقع شبكات االستشعار الالسلكية باستخدام خوارزميات التحسين االرشادية‬
‫هيكلية الرسالة‬
‫تتكون‌الرسالة‌من‌خمسة‌فصول‌‪‌ ‌:‬‬
‫الفصل األول‌‪ :‬مقدمة‌عامة‌‪‌,‬وأما‌الفصول‌المتبقية‌فهي‌كما‌يلي‌‪‌ :‬‬
‫الفصل الثانى ‪ :‬في ‌هذا ‌الفصل ‌نعرض ‌خلفية ‌المفاهيم ‌لهذه ‌الرسالة ‌‪‌ ,‬والتي ‌تشمل ‌مبادئ‌‬
‫شبكات ‌اإلستشعار ‌الالسلكية ‌وتطبيقاتها‪‌ ,‬ويعرض ‌أيضا ‌شرح ‌ألنواع ‌الخوارزميات‌‬
‫)‪‌ (Metaheuristic Algorithms‬التى ‌يمكن‌استخدامها‌لحل‌مشكالت‌التحسين‪‌,‬وينتهى‌‬
‫بعرض‌مجموعة‌من‌الجهود‌البحثية‌التى‌بذلت‌فى‌هذا‌المجال‪‌ ‌.‬‬
‫الفصل الثالث ‪ :‬فى ‌هذا ‌الفصل ‌يتم ‌عرض ‌المفاهيم ‌الخاصة ‌بتوطين ‌العقد ‌فى ‌شبكات‌‬
‫اإلستشعار ‌الالسلكية ‌بما ‌فيها ‌األنواع ‌المختلفة ‌للتوطين‪‌ .‬أيضا ‌يتم ‌شرح ‌خمس ‌من‌‬
‫الخوارزميات‌المستخدمة‌فى‌التجارب‌لتوطين‌العقد‌فى‌شبكات‌اإلستشعار‌الالسلكية‪‌ .‬‬
‫الفصل الرابع ‪ ‌ :‬ويعرض‌هذا‌الفصل ‌توصيف‌لمشكلة‌توطين‌العقد‌فى‌شبكات‌اإلستشعار‌‬

‫الالسلكية‌باإلضافة‌الى‌العديد‌من‌التجارب‌التى‌أجريت‌لمقارنة‌أداء‌الخوارزميات‌المختلفة‌‬
‫التى‌استخدامها‌فى‌هذه‌األطروحة‪.‬‬
‫الفصل الخامس ‪ ‌ :‬وفيه ‌قمت ‌بعرض ‌ما ‌تم ‌إنجازه ‌في ‌البحث ‌‪‌ ,‬كما ‌قدمت ‌توصيات ‌لعمل‌‬
‫أبحاث‌مستقبلية‌في‌مجاالت‌متعلقة‌بموضوع‌الرسالة‪‌ .‬‬
‫‌أ‬
‫ملخص الرسالة‬
‫دورا حيويًا في العديد من تطبيقات‬
‫في الوقت الحاضر ‪ ،‬تلعب شبكات االستشعار الالسلكية (‪ً )WSNs‬‬
‫الحياة الواقعية مثل الرعاية الصحية والتطبيقات العسكرية ومراقبة حركة المرور والمراقبة البيئية‪ .‬في‬
‫العديد من الحاالت ‪ ،‬يتم نشر نقاط اإلستشعار بشكل عشوائي فى شبكات االستشعار الالسلكية‪.‬‬
‫ومع ذلك ‪ ،‬ال يمكن للعديد من هذه التطبيقات أداء وظيفتها بشكل صحيح دون معرفة الموقع الدقيق لعقد‬
‫االستشعار المستخدمة في جمع البيانات‪ .‬لذلك ‪ ،‬توطين العقدة )‪ (Node localization‬الدقيق مهم للغاية‬
‫في شبكات اإلستشعار الالسلكية‪ .‬توطين العقدة يعني تقدير مواقع العقد غير المعروفة بمساعدة بعض‬
‫العقد ذات األماكن المعروفة التي تسمى المراس أو المنارات‪.‬‬
‫في هذه األطروحة ‪ ،‬يُقترح مخطط تعريب العقدة استنادًا إلى خوارزمية حديثة تسمى ‪(Salp Swarm‬‬
‫)‪Algorithm‬والتي تتم فيها معالجة مشكلة توطين كمشكلة تحسين‪ .‬تم تنفيذ الخوارزمية المقترحة‬
‫والتحقق من صحتها فى حاالت مختلفة لنشر عقد شبكات االستشعار الالسلكية باستخدام أعداد مختلفة‬
‫من العقد المستهدفة وعقد المراس‪ .‬عالوة على ذلك ‪ ،‬تم تقييم الخوارزمية المقترحة ومقارنتها بأربع‬
‫خوارزميات تحسين معروفة ‪ ،‬وهي خوارزمية تحسين سرب الجسيمات (‪ ، )PSO‬خوارزمية تحسين‬
‫الفراشة (‪ ، )BOA‬خوارزمية اليراع (‪ ، )FA‬وخوارزمية الذئب الرمادي (‪ )GWO‬من حيث دقة تحديد‬
‫أماكن العقد ووقت الحوسبة وعدد العقد التى تم تحديد أماكنهم‪ .‬أثبتت نتائج المحاكاة التي تم الحصول‬
‫عليها تفوق الخوارزمية المقترحة مقارنة بخوارزميات التوطين األخرى فيما يتعلق بمقاييس األداء‬
‫المختلفة‪.‬‬
‫‌‬
‫‌ب‬
‫السيرة الذاتية لمقدم الرسالة‬
‫االسم ‪ :‬حذيفة محمد كنوش الجبوري‬
‫تاريخ الميالد ‪1980/10/22 :‬‬
‫العنوان‪ :‬العراق – صالح الدين‬
‫الدرجة العلمية ‪ :‬بكالوريوس علوم في قسم علوم الحاسوب‬
‫جهة منح الدرجة العلمية ‪ :‬قسم علوم الحاسوب ‪ -‬كلية الرافدين الجامعة‬
‫تاريخ التخرج‪2002 :‬‬
‫الدرجة العلمية ‪ :‬دبلوم عالي علوم في قسم علوم الحاسوب‬
‫جهة منح الدرجة العلمية ‪ :‬قسم علوم الحاسوب ‪ -‬كلية علوم الحاسوب والرياضيات‬
‫جامعة الموصل‬
‫تاريخ التخرج‪2012 :‬‬
‫تاريخ التسجيل لدرجة الماجستير ‪2017 / 7 / 1 :‬‬
‫‌ج‬
‫كلية الحاسبات والذكاء األصطناعي‬ ‫جامعة بنها‬
‫قسم علوم الحاسب‬
‫تحديد مواقع شبكات االستشعار الالسلكية باستخدام‬

‫خوارزميات التحسين االسترشادية‬
‫رسالة مقدمة إلى كلية الحاسبات والذكاء األصطناعي ‪ -‬جامعة بنها الستكمال متطلبات‬
‫الحصول على درجة الماجستير فى الحاسبات والمعلومات في "علوم الحاسب "‬
‫مقدمة من الباحث‬
‫حذيفة محمد كنوش الجبوري‬
‫قسم علوم الحاسب‬
‫كلية الحاسبات والذكاء األصطناعي‬
‫جامعة بنها‬
‫مصر‬
‫إشراف‬
‫الدكتور‪ /‬عصام حليم حسين‬ ‫األستاذ الدكتور‪ /‬مازن محمد سليم‬

‫استاذ مساعد علوم الحاسب‬ ‫استاذ علوم الحاسب‬
‫وكيل الكلية لشئون الدراسات العليا والبحوث‬ ‫وكيل الكلية لشئون التعليم والطالب‬
‫كلية الحاسبات والمعلومات‬ ‫كلية الحاسبات والذكاء األصطناعي‬
‫جامعة المنيا‬ ‫جامعة بنها‬
‫جمهورية مصر العربية‬ ‫جمهورية مصر العربية‬
‫‪ 2019‬م‬

Thesis

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Faculty of Computers and Artificial Intelligence Benha University

Department of Computer Science

Wireless Sensor Networks Localization

Prof. Mazen Mohamed Selim Dr. Essam Halim Houssein

Certification of the Examination Committee

Chairman and members of the examination committee, certify that we have

Name: Dr. Essam Halim Houssein

‫اَّلل ه ِاَّل َين آ َمنُوا ِمنْ ُ ُْك َو ه ِاَّل َين ُآوتُوا‬

Biography of The Author

Name: Huthaifa Mohammed Kanoosh AL Jubori

Date of Birth: 22/10/1980

1- Educational Degrees: B.Sc. in Computer Science

I am grateful to my supervisors (Prof. Dr. Mazen Mohamed Selim and Dr.

My sincere thanks go to members of staff of Computer Science Department,

My sincere thanks go to my friends for their support to me in my pilgrimage and

To my country dear Iraq

To the symbol of tender and light

To my rose and my love

To love and to meet

To Tenderness and beauty

To my friends and all those who helped me

applications such as healthcare, military applications, traffic surveillance, and

accurate node localization is extremely important in WSNs. Node localization means

positions called anchors or beacons.

In this thesis, a node localization scheme is proposed based on a recent bio-inspired

localization problem is addressed as an optimization problem. The proposed algorithm

evaluated and compared to four well-known optimization algorithms, namely particle

swarm optimization algorithm (PSO), butterfly optimization algorithm (BOA), firefly

localization algorithms regarding the different performance metrics.

Keywords: Wireless Sensor Networks, Node Localization, Optimization problems, Salp

Subject…………....………………………...……………….……….....….…. Page No.

3.8. Metaheuristic Algorithms for Localization in WSN ………………….………….......39

BFA : Bacterial Foraging Algorithm ……………………………..………

BSO : Brain Storm Optimization ……………………………..…………...

CS : Cuckoo Search ……………………………..………………………

DWPSO : Dynamic Weight Particle Swarm ……………………………..……

FPA : Flower Pollination Algorithm ……………………………..……….

GPS : Global Positioning System ……………………………..…………..

GWO : Grey Wolf Optimizer ……………………………..………………..

LSA : Lightening Search Algorithm ……………………………..……….

MAP : Mobile Anchor Positioning ……………………………..…………

MWSN : Mobile Wireless Sensor Networks ……………………………..…..

PFA : Parallel Firefly Algorithm ……………………………..…………...

RSS : Received Signal Strength ……………………………..……………

SAABC : Self-Adaptive Artificial Bee Colony ……………………………….

SI : Swarm Intelligence ……………………………..………………….

SL-PSO : Social Learning based Particle Swarm Optimization ……………..

ToA : Time of Arrival ……………………………..……………………...

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are networks that consist of a number of

many real-life applications such as healthcare, home automation, traffic

surveillance, and environmental monitoring [1].

Accurate node localization is a critical issue in WSNs. Localization problem

in WSNs means calculating the positions of unknown sensor nodes. In many

usually randomly scattered in random locations; therefore, the sensor nodes

information collected by the sensor nodes of a WSN may be useless if the

emphasizes the need for an accurate node localization scheme [2].

nodes is undesirable and impractical solution because of many reasons such as

cost, inaccessibility, sensor nodes may be deployed indoors, or climatic

nodes, localization algorithms can be employed to estimate the positions of the

algorithms namely, rang-free and range-based algorithms [3]. Angle-based or

based localization algorithms. In these algorithms, the positions of sensor nodes

are calculated by the assist of anchor’s trilateration [3]. Unlike range-based

localization algorithms, range-free localization algorithms do not need range

information to estimate the positions of the unknown nodes. It only depends on