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Lessons in tropical design and planning (Erich Meffert and beyond) - Chapter
six: tropical design
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Currently working on a book entitled Lessons in tropical design and planning: Erich
Meffert and beyond (Yusuf Hazara Ebrahim1) and this chapter preview shows about;
chapter six: tropical design; cited references – Lessons in tropical design: Erich Meffert and
beyond (Building Science Textbook Series; Book 3: Topical themes; Part 11/Section 4).
ABOUT: BUILDING SCIENCE TEXT BOOK SERIES

BOOK 3: TOPICAL THEMES
PART 11/SECTION 4 – LESSONS IN TROPICAL DESIGN AND
PLANNING: ERICH MEFFERT AND BEYOND
Lessons in tropical design and planning (Erich Meffert and beyond) follows the foot-
steps of Selby Mvusi (Visual perception relationship with controls in design development)
(Ebrahim, 2018c) and a follow-up of Meffert environment design code: lighting design
(Ebrahim Ed. 2007) and Meffert environmental design code: acoustic design (Ebrahim Ed.
2007a); the doctoral thesis The effect of urban built form on micro-temperature change:
case study of Komarock Infill B Estate Nairobi (Ebrahim, 2017); continuation on the
application and theme of Preparation for academic research and theses from
undergraduate to postgraduate levels (Ebrahim, 2018a); and also on the migration of the
Ebstats Software (Ebrahim, 2018) from first to second and third generations.
The textbook is divided into twenty seven chapters; commencing with a prologue
and culminating with an epilogue; in line with the theme and essence of the undergraduate
study; the opportunity of teaching and learning the basics and fundamentals of tropical
design of buildings, with appendices to enhance the learning experience; and
understanding and interpretation of the lessons presented by Erich Meffert in tropical
design, planning and sustainable built form in a temperature changing environment, and
more important the application of these lesson in tropical design of the future and areas
for further research. Each chapter is designed to reflect on the objectives of the study and
the study questions, the arguments and presentation of methods and tools, concepts,
principles, theory and its application with a general flow from the initial impression to
drawing of results, findings, summations and linkage to the next chapter. The subheadings
address those concepts, principles, flow of ideas and the essence of the chapter, in a logical
order. The chapters are divided into ‘lessons’ for the lecturer and candidates to deliberate
and execute in their endeavour to prepare the academic undertakings. Provided are
Ebenergy 2018 Software; Temperature Template 2018 Software; and Ebclima 2018
Software (Microsoft Excel Platform) for use in the work.
PROLOGUE
The prologue covers the following topics: introduction; background information;
and problem statement (Visit: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328249104).
1
Author: Yusuf Ebrahim, lecturer, Department of Architecture and Building Science (DA+BS), University of
Nairobi. Email: ebrahimyusuf18@gmail.com or ebrahim@uonbi.ac.ke
Page: 1 of 35
Yusuf Hazara Ebrahim: Lessons in tropical design and planning (Erich Meffert and beyond; Building Science
Textbook Series; Book 3 Topical themes; Part 11/Section 4): About; chapter six: tropical design and planning;
cited references.
CHAPTER ONE: CLIMATIC ELEMENTS
Chapter one (climatic elements) covers the following topics: climatic elements;
radiation (basic principles and distribution); temperature (basic principles and distribution);
atmospheric moisture (basic principles and distribution); evaporation (basic principles and
distribution); and wind speed and direction (basic principles and distribution) (Visit:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327687845).
CHAPTER TWO: INTERACTION BETWEEN CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENT

Chapter two (interaction between climate and environment) covers the following
topics: human health and comfort; heat exchange between body and environment;
physiological response to thermal stress; comfort or discomfort sensation; comfort indices
and diagrams; vapour pressure and climatic comfort; hygrothermal (HGT) factor; diagram
of hygrothermal isopleths; hygrothermal (N) (HGTN) value; psychrometric chart;
psychrometric analysis; bioclimatic chart; and climatic site analysis (Visit:
CHAPTER THREE: BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Chapter three (built environment) covers the following topics: built environment;
basic principles of heat flow under steady state conditions; conductivity or conductance;
surface conductance or U-value; cavity; heat gain due to solar radiation; absorptivity,
emissivity and wavelength; increase of external surface temperature due to solar radiation;
heat flow through fabric due to solar radiation; specific heat and densities of building
materials; transmission of solar radiation through glass; and effect of solar radiation on the
building cycle heat inputs; admittance value, thermal diffusivity and depth (Visit:
CHAPTER FOUR: VENTILATION AND AIR MOVEMENT

Chapter four (ventilation) covers the following topics: ventilation; smells; water-
vapour; oxygen deficiency and accumulation of carbon dioxide; air capacity; air-change
number; ventilation techniques; free ventilation; forced ventilation; cross ventilation; shaft
ventilation; rules of thumb for ventilation; natural ventilation of buildings; dynamic
ventilation/wind effect; IHVE guide for air penetration calculations; sheltering effect of
obstructions; pressure difference and wind velocity; effect of static air flow and thermal
gradient; use of ventilation for cooling; relationship between shape of building and solar
radiation heat gain; rate of heat loss, choice of materials and the form of design;
fenestration design; passive and mechanical ventilation strategy (Visit:
CHAPTER FIVE: CLIMATIC ZONES

Chapter five (climatic zones) covers the following topics: definition of climatic
zones; description of climatic zones; low-latitude wet-equatorial; monsoon and trade-wind
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cited references.
littoral; wet-dry tropical; dry tropical; and dry subtropical (Visit:
CHAPTER SIX: TROPICAL DESIGN AND PLANNING

Chapter six (tropical design and planning) covers the following topics: description
and explanation of terms and personalities; introduction (the Tropics; current agendas;
tropical design and planning); factors affecting design (desk study) (generally; climate and
microclimate; climate change; site selection; site characteristics; site investigations and
geotechnics; culture and religion; politics and economics; resources and technologies;
environmental design; flora, fauna and biohazards; other essential design data; desk
study); climate-responsive design: climate types (bioclimatic design: Littlefield Model;
design in hot dry and arid climates; design for hot wet and humid climates; design for
composite climates).
CHAPTER SEVEN: BUILDING IN THE TROPICS

Chapter seven (building in the tropics) covers the following topics: description and
explanation of terms and personalities; environmental design strategies: passive design
(generally; shading; porches, pergolas, balconies, verandahs and columnades; courtyards ,
patios and atria; wind towers, wind scoops and wind catches; solar flues; Trombe walls;
site; landscaping; urban centres and street layouts); environmental control strategies:
active measures (alternative energy; photovoltaics; wind turbines; ventilation and air
conditioning); structure, service and environmental design (structural design; design in
earthquake zones; power; solar heating; water supply; sanitary installations and waste
disposal; storm and surface water drainage; controlling mosquitoes and other flying
insects); and building science data (sun path diagrams, Albedo (also known as solar
reflectance or ground reflectance); Sol air temperature; solar radiation; illumination from
sun and sky in the tropics; glazing used in solar control; wind; ventilation; lag).
CHAPTER EIGHT: PSYCHROMETRICS, PSYCHROMETRIC CHART AND MOLLIER DIAGRAM

Chapter eight (psychrometrics, psychrometric chart and Mollier diagram) covers the
following topics: psychrometrics, psychrometry and hygrometry; common applications;
psychrometric properties (dry-bulb temperature (DBT), wet-bulb temperature (WBT), dew
point temperature, humidity, specific humidity, absolute humidity, relative humidity,
specific enthalpy, specific volume, psychrometric ratio, humid heat and pressure);
psychrometric charts; terminology (dry-bulb temperature (DBT), wet-bulb temperature
(WBT), dew point, relative humidity, humidity ratio, specific enthalpy, specific volume);
locating parameters on psychrometric chart (dry bulb temperature, dew point
temperature, wet bulb temperature, relative humidity, humidity ratio, specific enthalpy,
specific volume); how to read the psychrometric chart: fundamental examples; and Mollier
diagram.
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cited references.
CHAPTER NINE: CIBSE; BUILDING SERVICES ENGINEERING; BSRIA AND BUILDING
SERVICES
Chapter nine (CIBSE; Building Services Engineering; BSRIA and building services)
covers the following topics: Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE)
(history; overview; membership; societies; special interest groups; certification; training;
publications); building services engineering (scope; mechanical services; electrical services;
public health services; other; consultant engineer; contractor; facilities manager;
professional bodies; education) Building Services Research and Information Association
(BSRIA) (structure; history of BSRIA; timeline history); and building services.
CHAPTER TEN: ASHRAE; ASHRAE HANDBOOK AND ASHRAE 55 STANDARD

Chapter ten (ASHRAE; ASHRAE Handbook and ASHRAE 55 Standard) covers the
following topics: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers
(ASHRAE) (history; publications; legislation); ASHRAE Handbook (history; review and
revision); ASHRAE 55 (ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55: thermal environmental conditions for
human occupancy; organization of standard; purpose; scope; definitions; adaptive model;
thermal comfort; occupant-controlled naturally conditioned spaces; Predictive Mean Vote
(PMV); comfort zone; clothing insulation; metabolic rate (met); exceedance hours; graphic
comfort zone method; analytical comfort zone method; elevated air speed; local thermal
discomfort; temperature variations with time; acceptable thermal conditions in occupant-
controlled naturally conditioned spaces; demonstrating design compliance; evaluation of
comfort in existing buildings; measurement methods (occupant survey and physical
measurement) evaluation methods (occupant survey and physical measurements);
appendix D (use the metabolic rate data); appendix E (clothing insulation); and history of
the standard.
CHAPTER ELEVEN: USE OF THERMAL COMFORT INDICES (EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE)

Chapter eleven (use of thermal comfort indices: effective temperature) covers the
following topics: revisions of the Effective Temperature (ET) scale; mean radiant
temperature; finding the Corrected Effective Temperature (CET); the Kata thermometer;
the comfort zone; the use of CET – and example; climate analysis with CET; ET isopleths.
CHAPTER TWELVE: GEOGRAPHY OF KENYA

Chapter twelve (geography of Kenya) covers the following topics: location of Kenya;
area, land boundaries and maritime claims of Kenya; geology; geography and climate;
topography; elevation extremes; rivers; natural resources; land use; total renewable water
resources; freshwater withdrawal; natural hazards; environmental issues; etymology;
history; prehistory; Neolithic; Swahili culture and trade (1st century – 19th century); British
Kenya (1888 – 1962); Mau Mau uprising (1952 – 1959); independent Kenya (1963); Moi era
(1978 – 2002); 2000s; government and politics; 2013 elections and new government.
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cited references.
CHAPTER THIRTEEN: COUNTIES, SUB-COUNTIES AND PROVINCES OF KENYA
Chapter thirteen (counties, sub-counties and provinces of Kenya) covers the
following topics: counties of Kenya; establishment; list of counties; county governments;
county planning and development; provinces of Kenya; history; sub-counties of Kenya;
historical expansion of district numbers; and sub-counties (since March 2013).
CHAPTER FOURTEEN: DEMOGRAPHICS OF KENYA

Chapter fourteen (demographics of Kenya) covers the following topics: the
demographics of Kenya; ethnic groups; Arabs; Asians; Bantu peoples; Cushitic peoples;
Europeans; Nilotic peoples; languages; population; population by province in 2009 census;
population by census year; fertility and births (demographic and health surveys); vital
statistics; births and deaths; population statistics; health; religion; ethnic groups in Kenya;
Indians in Kenya; terminology; history; early history; East Africa Protectorate; Kenya
Colony; independence; present day; demography and religion;
CHAPTER FIFTEEN: COMFORT ZONES OF KENYA

Chapter fifteen (comfort zones of Kenya) covers the following topics: comfort zones
for Kenya; warm-humid (coastal tropical: trade-wind littoral climate); hot-dry (intermediate
tropical: dry tropical climate); savannah (plateau: dry tropical climate); Lakeland (lake
basin: monsoon climate); uplands (highland climate); and upper highlands (high uplands).
CHAPTER SIXTEEN: DESIGN CRITERIA FOR THE DIFFERENT COMFORT ZONES OF KENYA
Chapter sixteen (design criteria for the different comfort zones of Kenya) covers the
following topics: design criteria for the different comfort zones of Kenya; comfort; siting;
landscaping; building plan; roofs; structure and walls; windows and openings; and heating.
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN - ZONE 1: WARM-HUMID (COASTAL TROPICAL)

Chapter seventeen (design criteria for the different comfort zones of Kenya: zone 1
- warm-humid: coastal tropical) covers the following topics: comfort (prevailing conditions;
and requirements); siting (sun protection; ventilation; and rainfall); landscaping (sun
protection; glare; ventilation; and rainfall); building plan (sun protection; ventilation; and
rainfall); roofs (sun protection; ventilation; glare; and rainfall); structure and walls (sun
protection); windows and openings (sun protection; ventilation; day-lighting; rainfall;
noise; and heating.
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN - ZONE 2: HOT-DRY (INTERMEDIATE TROPICAL)

Chapter eighteen (design criteria for the different comfort zones of Kenya: zone 2 -
hot-dry: intermediate tropical) covers the following topics: comfort (prevailing conditions;
and requirements); siting (sun protection; ventilation; and rainfall); landscaping; building
plan; roofs; structure and walls; windows and openings.
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cited references.
CHAPTER NINETEEN - ZONE 3: SAVANNAH (PLATEAU)
Chapter nineteen (design criteria for the different comfort zones of Kenya: zone 3 –
savannah: plateau) covers the following topics: comfort (prevailing conditions; and
requirements); siting (sun protection; and ventilation); landscaping (sun protection; glare;
ventilation; and rainfall); building plan (sun protection; and ventilation); roofs (sun
protection; and ventilation); structure and walls (sun protection); windows and openings
(sun protection; ventilation; day-lighting; rainfall; and noise.
CHAPTER TWENTY - ZONE 4: LAKELAND (LAKE BASIN)

Chapter twenty (design criteria for the different comfort zones of Kenya: zone 4 –
Lakeland: lake basin) covers the following topics: comfort (prevailing conditions; and
requirements); siting (sun protection; ventilation; and rainfall); landscaping (sun
protection; glare; ventilation; and rainfall); building plan (sun protection; ventilation; and
rainfall); roofs (sun protection; ventilation; glare; and rainfall); structure and walls (sun
protection); windows and openings (sun protection; ventilation; day-lighting; rainfall;
noise; and heating.
CHAPTER TWENTY ONE - ZONE 5: UPLANDS

Chapter twenty one (design criteria for the different comfort zones of Kenya: zone 5
- uplands) covers the following topics: comfort (prevailing conditions; and requirements);
siting (ventilation; and rainfall); landscaping (glare; and rainfall); building plan (sun
protection; ventilation; and rainfall); roofs; structure and walls (sun protection); windows
and openings (control sun on East and West elevations; day-lighting; protection; and
heating).
CHAPTER TWENTY TWO - ZONE 6: UPPER HIGHLANDS (HIGH UPLANDS)

Chapter twenty two (design criteria for the different comfort zones of Kenya: zone 6
– upper highlands: high uplands) covers the following topics: comfort (prevailing
conditions; and requirements); siting (rainfall); landscaping (glare; and rainfall); building
plan (ventilation; and rainfall); roofs (rainfall); windows and openings (sun protection;
ventilation; day-lighting; protection; and heating).
CHAPTER TWENTY THREE: BIOCLIMATIC AND SUSTAINABLE DESIGN OF SIX PRIMARY

CLIMATIC REGIONS OF KENYA
Chapter twenty three (bioclimatic and sustainable design of six primary climatic
regions of Kenya) covers the following topics: background information; bioclimatic analysis;
mature architecture; technological issues; societal issues; environmental issues; building
heat balance equation; micro-temperature and relative humidity; use of Ebenergy
Software; observation sheet; raw data from meteorological stations; processing of raw
data using Temperature Template Software; bioclimatic analysis; simulation techniques;
diagrammatic summary table; concluding remarks.
Provided is a Microsoft Excel file named “Ebenergy Software 2018 May” in CD
format or can be downloaded (Visit:
Page: 6 of 35
cited references.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325464561); and “Temperature Template
Software 2018 May” in CD format or can be downloaded (Visit:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325464554 and also
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325464021); on a readable platform for use in
this section of the study.
CHAPTER TWENTY FOUR: PLANNING AND DESIGN OF OPEN SPACES IN TROPICAL UPLAND
CLIMATES
Chapter twenty four (planning and design of open spaces in tropical upland
climates) covers the following topics: background information; review of related literature
for open space variables; summary statistics for open space variables; Pearson correlation
matrix for open space variables; normality test using Shapiro-Wilk W Test for normal data
for open space variables; multicollinearity test using variance inflation factors (VIF) for
open space variables; heteroscedasticity using Breusch-Pagan/Cook-Weisburg test for
heteroskesdasticity test results for open space variables; multiple regression results for
open space variables; hypothesis testing for open space variables; reflection on the results
for open space variables; synthesis and interpretation of findings for open space variables;
summary of findings for open space variables; findings of hypothesis testing for open space
variables; limitations of findings for open space variables; concluding remarks.
CHAPTER TWENTY FIVE: CLIMATE CHANGE TREATIES AND THE PLANNING AND DESIGN
OF SUSTAINABLE BUILT FORM IN A TEMPERATURE CHANGING ENVIRONMENT
Chapter twenty five (climate change treaties and the planning and design of
sustainable built form in a temperature changing environment) covers the following topics:
background information; climate change and appropriate built forms; climate change
manifestations; urban built form and temperature change; significance of urban built form
variables and temperature change; sustainable urban built form and microclimate;
application of design and planning strategies in a temperature changing environment;
universal climate change agreements; climate change treaties and national implementation
strategies; synthesis and interpretation of findings for climate change treaties; summary of
findings for climate change treaties; limitation of findings for climate change treaties; and
concluding remarks.
CHAPTER TWENTY SIX: USE OF DIAGRAMMATIC SUMMARY TABLE FOR SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT IN A TEMPERATURE CHANGING ENVIRONMENT
Chapter twenty six (use of diagrammatic summary table for sustainable
development in a temperature changing environment) covers the following topics:
background information; micro-temperature change; upland climate; urban built form;
structured neighbourhoods; purpose of study; diagrammatic summary table; summary of
findings; reflection of findings; limitations of findings; concluding remarks.
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cited references.
CHAPTER TWENTY SEVEN: USE OF POLAR CURVES FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN A
TEMPERATURE CHANGING ENVIRONMENT
Chapter twenty seven (use of polar curves for sustainable development in a
temperature changing environment) covers the following topics: introduction; graphic
representation of data; bar graph; scattergram; frequency polygon; polar curves; results
related to orientation variables; synthesis and interpretation of findings related to
orientation variable and polar curves; limitations of findings related to orientation of
buildings and open spaces; concluding remarks.
CHAPTER TWENTY EIGHT: EBCLIMA SOFTWARE

Chapter twenty eight (Ebclima Software) covers the following topics: background
information; Ebclima Software; Query Workbook; summary sheet; concluding remarks.
Provided is a Microsoft Excel file named “Ebclima Software 2018 May” in CD format
or can be downloaded (Visit: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325464622) on a
readable platform for use in this section of the study.
EPILOGUE
The epilogue covers the topic of conclusion and recommendations to the study
(Visit: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328249104).
This chapter preview shows chapter six: tropical design and planning; and cited
references; while other chapters to God willing, follow in due course.
CHAPTER SIX: TROPICAL DESIGN AND PLANNING

Key points in tropical design and planning include the following: study existing
buildings that work, and learn from them; apply normal good design and environmental
practice, being sensitive to site, climate, culture and construction industry practices; review
and revalidate all design assumptions; use local information and expertise; carry out a
thorough desk study; anticipate extremes of climate change (Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35-1).
Chapter six (tropical design and planning) proceeds to tacking the following topics:
description and explanation of terms and personalities; introduction (the Tropics; current
agendas; tropical design and planning); factors affecting design (desk study) (generally;
climate and microclimate; climate change; site selection; site characteristics; site
investigations and geotechnics; culture and religion; politics and economics; resources and
technologies; environmental design; flora, fauna and biohazards; other essential design
data; desk study); climate-responsive design: climate types (bioclimatic design: Littlefield
Model; design in hot dry and arid climates; design for hot wet and humid climates; design
for composite climates).
DESCRIPTION AND EXPLANATION OF TERMS AND PERSONALITIES

Prior to commencing the deliberations of chapter six on tropical design and
planning, it is imperative to describe and explain the following key words and personalities
Page: 8 of 35
cited references.
arranged in alphabetical order: adobe; arcology; cob; colonial; custom and customary;
Fathy, Hassan; indigenous; pisé; Solari, Paolo; tabia; tradition and traditional; type;
typology; vernacular; and vernacular architecture.
Adobe: Sun-dried unburned clay or earth building-brick or block (clay-bat) made
with straw, found in England, Spain, Latin America, The Netherlands, the southern USA, the
Middle East (e.g. high-rise buildings in Yemen), bronze-age Mesopotamia, Africa, etc. (Curl,
2006, p.8).
Arcology: Combination of architecture and ecology supported by Paolo Solari as a
solution to urban living involving the building of megastructures able to contain up to three
million people. Arcosanti, a future self-sufficient community powered by solar energy in
the desert of Arizona, was commenced in the 1970s and has been under construction ever
since (Curl, 2006, p.41).
Cob: Composition containing clay, gravel, sand, straw, and water, thoroughly mixed
until it is consistent and plastic, and applied in layers (without formwork) to make walls,
then finished with a roof and several coats of lime-wash. Commonly found in south-west
England, it offered a cheap way of building, and, provided it was protected from the rain,
was stable (Curl, 2006, p.182).
Colonial is applied to styles of architecture derived from those of the motherland in
a colony. American Colonial is a modification of the English Georgian or Queen Anne styles,
of particular interest because very often pattern-book designs were reinterpreted for
timber-framed structures, or otherwise altered, often by very subtle means. Although
originally associated with the thirteen British colonies in North America, the essentials of
American Colonial architecture were often revived well into 20th Century all over the USA.
Colonial Revival is a term given to architecture of the late 19th Century and early 20th
Century, especially in the USA, South Africa, and Australia. Attention had been drawn to
the qualities of colonial architecture in various publications from the 1840s, and several
writers advocated its revival, the catalyst for which was the Centennial International
Exhibition, Philadelphia (PA, 1876), at which the New England Log House and the
Connecticut House attracted particular attention, as did two half-timbered buildings (the
British Executive Commissioner and the Delegate Residence) by the British Rogue, Thomas
Harris (1830 – 1900), which encouraged an interest in vernacular architecture (Curl, 2006,
p.187).
Custom is the usual way of behaving or acting; established usage as a power or as
having force of law; while customary is accordance with custom (Allen Ed., 1985, p.179).
Fathy, Hassan (1900 - 89): Egyptian architect. He used traditional materials, means
of construction, and vernacular styles in his search for an inexpensive architecture for the
poor. At New Gourna, Luxor (from 1945), he created a model village made of sun-dried
bricks, and exploited traditional methods to encourage the natural convection of cool air.
He founded the International Institute for Appropriate Technology, Cairo (1977), intended
to develop his ideas. His writings include ‘Architecture for the poor’ (1973) and ‘Natural
energy and vernacular architecture’ (1986), and his individual dwellings include the Said
(1945), Stopplaere (1952), Riad (1967), and Samy (1979) houses outside Cairo. He designed
Page: 9 of 35
cited references.
the Presidential Rest-House, Garf Hussein (1981), and the Greiss House, Abu Sier (1984)
(Curl, 2006, p.276).
Indigenous is native or belonging naturally to a place (Allen Ed., 1985, p.374).
Pisé: Type of wall-construction using stiff clay or earth (pisé de terre), kneaded,
sometimes mixed with gravel, rammed between two lines of wicker-work or boards that
are removed as the material hardens (Curl, 2006, p.583).
Solari, Paolo (1919 – 2013): Italian-born American architect. He worked for Frank
Lloyd Wright (1947 – 9) before going back to Italy to build the Ceramics Factory, Vietri-sul-
Mare, Salerno (1953). As a visionary designer, he returned to the USA where he established
the Cosanti Foundation, Scottsdale AZ: 1955), building the Earth House (1956 – 8) there to
demonstrate the possibilities of alternative technologies. He evolved the concept of
‘Arcology’ in which architecture and ecology are merged, and designed many
megastructures, one of which, called Arcosanti, near Scottsdale, intended to demonstrate
his ideas, was commenced in 1970. He published ‘Arcology: The city in the image of man’
(1969) (Curl, 2006, p.726).
Tabia, tapia, tappia: Wall-construction of earth rammed in formwork, often with
added lime and gravel, finished with several coats of limewash (Curl, 2006, p.758).
Tradition is an opinion or belief or custom handed down from one generation to
another especially orally; this process of handing down; artistic or literary principle based
on usage or experience (Allen Ed., 1985, p.799); and traditional of or based on or obtained
by traditional based on early style (Allen Ed., 1985, p.799).
Type, firstly is exemplar, pattern, prototype, or original work serving as a model
after which a building or buildings are copied; secondly is something exemplifying the ideal
characteristics of, say, a temple, so some would hold that the Parthenon is the very type of
Greek ‘Doric temple’; and thirdly form or character that distinguishes a class or group of
buildings (building-type), e.g. church, mausoleum, town-hall, temple (Curl, 2006, p.796).
Typology is the study of symbolic representation or of types (Curl, 2006, p.796).
Vernacular language or dialect of the country; language of a particular class or
group; homely speech; of one’s native country, not of foreign origin or of learned
formation (Allen Ed., 1985, p.839).
Vernacular architecture is unpretentious, simple, indigenous, traditional structures
made of local materials and following well-tried forms and types, normally considered in
three categories: agricultural (barns, farms, etc.), domestic, and industrial (foundries,
potteries, smithies, etc.). In England and Germany the great range of timber-framed
medieval and later buildings would largely be classes as vernacular, while humble rural
structures, such as cottages, would also fall into the category. It was taken seriously in the
late 18th Century when attempts were made to recreate it as part of the ‘Picturesque
movement’, and it provided exemplars for 19th Century architects, especially those of the
Gothic and Domestic Revivals and the Arts and Crafts Movement. In the USA Colonial and
simple clap-boarded buildings provided models for designers, especially for the Stick and
Shingle styles. It has been contrasted with Polite Architecture, and even classed as
“architecture without architects”, but this is not really true, as most vernacular
architecture drew on more sophisticated designs somewhere in its developments, while
Page: 10 of 35
cited references.
architects such as Devey (George (1820 – 86): Curl, 2006, p.231), Luhyens (Sir Edwin
Landseer (1869 – 1944): Curl, 2006, pp.457 – 9) and Webb (Sir Aston (1849 – 1930): Curl,
2006, p.838) (John (1611 – 72): Curl, 2006, pp.839 – 40) (Philip Speakman (1831 – 1915):
Curl, 2006, p.840) derived much of their styles from vernacular buildings, so it was never
really an isolated phenomenon; an architecture of the proletariat, rural or urban (Curl,
2006, p.817) (See also: Building in the tropics (Lippsmeier, Kluska & Edrich, 1965); Genius
loci: towards a phenomenology of architecture (Noberg-Schulz, 1980); Shelter in Africa
(Oliver, 1978); and Architecture with architects: a short introduction to non-pedigreed
architecture (Rudofsky, 1981).
INTRODUCTION
The five main latitude regions of the Earth’s surface comprise geographical zones,
divided by the major circles of latitude; the differences between them relate to climate;
and they are as follows:
The Earth’s climatic zones (Figure 6.1) are as follows: Ice cap Tundra Boreal Warm
temperate Subtropical Tropical.
On the basis of latitudinal extent, the globe is divided into three broad heat zones
as follows: Torrid Zones; Temperature Zones; and Frigid Zones (Wikipedia, 2018q).
Figure 6.1: Earth’s climatic zones.

Source: Extracted from Wikipedia (2018q).
TORRID ZONES
The Torrid is also known as the Tropics. The zone is bounded on the north by the
Tropic of Cancer and on the south by the Tropic of Capricorn; these latitudes mark the
northern and southern extremes in which the sun seasonally passes directly overhead. This
happens annually, but in the region between, the sun passes overhead twice a year. In the
Northern Hemisphere, in the sun’s apparent northward migration after the March equinox,
it passes overhead once, then after the June solstice, at which time it reaches the Tropic of
Cancer, it passes over again on its apparent southward journey. After the September
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equinox the sun passes into the Southern Hemisphere. It then passes similarly over the
southern tropical regions until it reaches the tropic of Capricorn at the December Solstice,
and back again as it returns northwards to the Equator (Wikipedia, 2018q).
TEMPERATE ZONES
In the two Temperate Zones also known as tropical zone not, consisting of the Tepid
Latitudes, the Sun is never directly overhead, and the climate is mild, generally ranging
from warm to cool. The four annual seasons, spring, summer, autumn and winter, occur in
these areas. The North Temperate Zone includes Europe, Northern Asia, and North and
Central America. The South Temperate Zone includes Southern Australasia, southern South
America, and Southern Africa (Wikipedia, 2018q).
FRIGID ZONES
The two Frigid Zones, or Polar Regions, experience the midnight sun and the polar
night for part of the year – at the edge of the zone there is one day at the winter solstice
when the Sun is invisible, and one day at the summer solstice when the sun remains above
the horizon for 24 hours. In the center of the zone (the pole) the day is one year long with
six months of daylight and six months of night. The Frigid Zones are the coldest regions of
Earth and are generally covered in ice and snow. It receives slanting rays of the sun as this
region lies farthest from the equator. Summer season in this region lasts for about 2 to 3
months and there is almost 24 hour sunlight during summer (Wikipedia, 2018q).
Figure 6.2: An updated Koppen-Geiger climate map

Source: Extracted from Wikipedia (2018q).
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HISTORY
The concept of a geographical zone was first hypothesized by the Greek scholar
Parmenides and lastingly modified by Aristotle. Both philosophers theorized the Earth
divided into three types of climatic zones based on their distance from the equator. Like
Parmenides, thinking that the area near the equator was too hot for habitation, Aristotle
dubbed the region around the equator (from 23.5oN to 23.5oS) the “Torrid Zone”. Both
philosophers reasoned the region from the Arctic Circle to the pole to be permanently
frozen. This region, thought uninhabitable, was called the “Frigid Zone”. The only area
believed to be habitable was the northern “Temperate Zone” (the southern one not having
been discovered), lying between the “Frigid Zones” and the “Torrid Zone”. However,
humans have inhabited almost all climates on Earth, including inside the Arctic Circle. As
knowledge of the Earth’s geography improved, a second “Temperate Zone” was discovered
south of the equator, and a second “Frigid Zone” was discovered around the Antarctic.
Although Aristotle’s map was oversimplified, the general idea was correct. Today, the most
commonly used climate map is the Köppen climate classification (Figure 6.2), developed by
Russian climatologist of German descent and amateur botanist Wladimir Köppen (1846 –
1940), which divides the world into five major climate regions, based on average annual
precipitation, average monthly precipitation, and average monthly temperature
(Wikipedia, 2018q).
Figure 6.3: World map with the intertropical zone highlighted in crimson.
Source: Extracted from Wikipedia (2018r).
The introduction section proceeds with tackling the following topics: the Tropics;
current agendas; tropical design and planning
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THE TROPICS
The ‘tropics’ are, technically, low latitudes contained in ‘Torrid zone’ between the
Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn (Figures 6.3 and 6.4), but the term is most typically applied
to the world’s hot, humid, equatorial coastal regions which have high rainfall, lush
vegetation and, almost invariably, a colonial past. For our purposes here, however, the
term can be applied to all climates in which the cooling load in buildings significantly
exceeds the heating load. This extends into the hot dry areas, the composite climates in the
centre of large continental land masses, and some areas tempered by warm seas or
prevailing winds that are as far away from the equator as latitudes 45o north and south.
This section provides an introductory design and planning guide for architects undertaking
work in unfamiliar environments and climates. All guidance must be substantiated by site-
specific data (Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35-1).
Figure 6.4: Areas of the world with tropical climates.

Source: Extracted from Wikipedia (2018r).
CURRENT AGENDAS
Within the last 20 years or so, there has been a major shift in design agendas
worldwide, with increasing awareness of global warming, climate change and the need for
responsible, sustainable design and planning. Environmental design has become an
essential component of building design. There has been widespread high-tech adaptation
of traditional third world technologies by architects working in temperate climates. There is
increasing awareness of the limitations of globalization when compared to the merits of
regionalism. Increasing sophistication in building design has become apparent in many
tropical countries, especially those around the Pacific Rim; and web-based documentation,
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communication and transfer of knowledge have revolutionized design methodologies in all
climates, whilst research has revalidated many traditional tropical design technologies.
Many governments are dependent on external funding to enable them to execute
major development programmes and government agendas may, therefore, be diverted or
constrained by the policies of the donor agencies which may be single governments
(United States Agency for International Development (USAID), Canadian International
Development Agency (CIDA)), regional organizations (European Community (EC), Asian
Development Bank (ADB), African Development Bank (AfDB)), international agencies (the
United Nations (UN), World Bank, World Health Organization (WHO)) or charities (Oxfam,
Red Cross, Red Crescent) (Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35-1).
TROPICAL DESIGN AND PLANNING

Tropical design and planning is no longer seen as a separate entity, but as good
design that is attuned to specific variation in climate, construction industry structure,
culture and socio-economic conditions. A high-tech, expensive building can disregard
context and be built anywhere if funding is available; the harder task is to design a
sensitive, sustainable, lower-tech, climate-responsible building that will serve its intended
community well and need little maintenance. Ideally, this building should embody cultural
model, using valid older principles in ways that suit a modern, urban and, in many cases,
industrial society. Whilst many third world clients understandably aspire to the twentieth
century, high-tech Western model for their new buildings, it is the responsibility of their
architect to ensure that they are aware of this twenty-first century shift in thinking towards
sustainable models, and to understand the options available to them and the potential
long-term consequences of their choice.
The purpose of this chapter is to provide prompts and check-lists to enable the
building designer working in an unfamiliar region to carry out a detailed desk study, having
first identified those issues that require detailed desk study, having first identified those
issues that require detailed research. Many of these prompts would be relevant in any
climate, but the details given here highlight tropical contexts (Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35-1).
FACTORS AFFECTING DESIGN (DESK STUDY)

Whenever a building is being designed for an unfamiliar environment, the architect
must check and revalidate even the most basic design assumption, as it might be invalid in
the new context. This section highlights some areas where research may be necessary
(Littlefield Ed., 2008, pp.35.1 – 35.3).
Factors affecting design (desk study) proceeds with tackling the following topics:
climate and microclimate; climate change; site selection; site characteristics; site
investigations and geotechnics; culture and religion; politics and economics; resources and
technologies; environmental design; flora, fauna and biohazards; other essential design
data; desk study.
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Table 6.1: Occurrence and characteristic of main climatic zones
Source: Modified from Littlefield (Ed. 2008, p.35-3).
Zone Approxi Natural Typical Climate Problems Requirements
mate vegetation cultivati
latitude on
range
Warm humid 7½N – Tropical rain Banana, Warm Humidity prevents Air movement from
equatorial 7½S forest palm oil with high sweat evaporation; hot fans or cross
humidity nights make sleep ventilation, low therm
and difficult; high rainfall capacity construction,
rainfall and glare from sloping roofs and large
overcast sky, sun on overhangs, windows
east and west facades facing north and south
Tropical 5-30oN Rain forest Sugar Warm, Similar to warm humid Similar to warm humid
island 5-30oS cane humid but equatorial, but clear but with additional car
less cloud skies and bright sun in the design of shadin
than more frequent the south facing
warm windows in northern
humid hemisphere (vice versa
zone in the southern)
Hot dry 15-32oN Desert, Palms. Hot and High diurnal range, High heat capacity
tropical 15-32oS steppe Grazing dry with very hot days in construction, shading
(nomadi annual summer, cool winter devices which allow
c) and daily days, low rainfall, very solar heating in winter
variation strong solar radiation small windows, flat
of and ground glare, roofs (often used for
temperatu sandy and dusty sleeping), small
re environment windows, flat roofs
(often used for
sleeping), small
courtyards to give
shade and protection.
Maritime 15-30oN Desert Palms, Hot, Similar to hot dry Similar to hot dry but
desert 15-30oS grazing humid climates but with high air movement is
with low humidity causing desirable at times
rainfall discomfort by
preventing sweat
evaporation
Intermediate 5-20oN Monsoon Paddy Warm Combines the Compromise between
composite or 5-20oS forest, dry rice, humid problems of warm the requirements of
monsoon tropical sugar and hot humid and hot dry warm humid and hot
forest or cane, dry climate dry climate or ideally
scrub, millet seasons (but more expensively
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savannah often with two buildings or parts
cool of buildings for use at
season different times of the
year
Equatorial 10oN- Broadleaf Millet Temperat Combine the problems Design to take
upland 10oS forest, e to cool of warm humid and advantage of solar
mountain depending hot dry climates with when cool or cold.
vegetation on those of a temperate Heating and additional
altitude or cold climate for all insulation may be
or part of the year required
Tropical 10-30oN Steppe, Wheat Hot Do Do
upland 10-30oS cedars summers.
Cold
winters
Mediterrane 32-45oN Mediterrane Vines, Hot dry Summers have some of Design with high
an 32-45oS an scrub olives, summers, the problems of a hot thermal capacity,
citrus cold wet dry climate while medium to small
fruits winters winters are cold and opening, and
humid with moderate courtyards to give
rainfall shade protection
CLIMATE AND MICROCLIMATE

Confirm the climate type, Table 6.1, and obtain as much site-specific data as
possible, Table 6.2 and Table 6.3. Make sure you understand the terms used and are
comparing like with like when evaluating data from different sources. Annual average
temperature is the average of the mean monthly maximum and minimum temperatures.
The average of the highest mean monthly maximum and lowest mean monthly minimum
gives a close approximation (Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35-3).
It is particularly important to ensure that data has not been distorted by periodic
aberrations, especially if based on short-term records. A comparison of annual rainfall
records will show if any cyclical pattern occurs. The great lakes of east Africa had a pattern
of rising and falling over a 7-year cycle in the first half of the twentieth century – believed
to be related not only to rainfall but also to activity in the Great Rift through which the
lakes seem to be interlinked. The continuation of this pattern will have been distorted by
deforestation, the change from subsistence to cash crop agricultural practices that have
allowed extensive run-off of topsoil and fertilizer into the lakes, and the construction of
dams, barrages and other features that alter natural hydrological cycles (Littlefield Ed.,
2008, p.35-3).
A lot of the current and historical weather data will be available on the web, as will
definitions of the terms used, but as weather bureau are often located at airports, which
tend to have distinctive microclimates, this data need confirmation on site. Where rainfall
is dependent on prevailing winds from one direction, a hillside site may be in the rain
shadow and very much drier than the records suggest. On large projects, it may be
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advisable to establish a weather station on site to verify data and study microclimate. If
climate change accelerates as expected, more extreme weather will occur, causing
catastrophes of increasing magnitude. In particular, extreme storms, wind, rainfall or
drought may get worse as well as occurring more frequently. Building design and site
selection need to take account of this (Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35-3).
Table 6.2: Climatic data

Data required Units Relevance
o
Monthly mean maximum temperature C Thermal comfort analysis
o
Monthly mean minimum temperature C
Monthly mean maximum humidity %
Monthly mean minimum humidity %
Monthly mean rainfall mm Vegetation
Peak rainfall intensity and duration (Daily or Mm/unit Storm drainage
hourly rainfall may be the only data available) of time Rainwater drainage
mm
Sunlight Hours Natural lighting
2
Cloud cover oktas or
%
o
Absolute maximum temperature C Thermal expansion and
o
Absolute minimum temperature C effect on building materials
Frequency distribution of wind for different % Siting and orientation
speeds and directions m/s
Frequency of special phenomena, i.e. Days per Provision of special
sandstorms, fog, hail, thunder year precautions
Table 6.3: Climatic data

Action points Remarks
Historical data Check local weather bureau, starting with the airport, making sure the
data is relevant for the specific site. Even small countries can manifest
several different climate types. Note changing patterns and periodic
cycles that have recurred since record keeping began.
Now As a priority, collect weather data on site, as soon as the site is
identified.
Rainfall  Establish the rainfall pattern – peaks, daily patterns (monsoon or
‘main’ rains often recur at the same time every day; some areas
have a week or two of ‘planting rains’ a month or so before the
main rains appear.
2
Note: 1 okta = 1 eighth of the sky.
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 In areas with distinct seasonal variations, are there two (or more)
‘rainy’ seasons (as in Kenya)
 Are the rains reliable or is there evidence of climate change?
 Is there a known periodic cycle, such as El Nino?
 Does the rain come from one direction and, if so, does this affect
microclimate on the site?
 How heavy is the rainfall – does it drizzle for months or all come
at once in a torrential cloudburst?
Other Is there a risk of hail or snow – not unknown in the tropics?
precipitation
Storms,  There are two aspects to these risks – how extreme are these
sandstorms, events, and how often do they occur?
gales,  How often are two or more events inter-related or dependent on
hurricanes, other, predictable or observable climatic events (tornadoes and
tsunami, changes in atmospheric pressure, earthquakes and tsunami,
tornadoes, hurricanes and landslides)?
earthquakes,
flash floods,
landslides, and
other extreme
weather events
Sunlight and  Are there clear skies all year, or does the sky stay overcast during
cloud cover the rains for weeks on end?
 How predictable is the cloud cover?
Relative  Records, seasonal variation
humidity  Is there a risk of mould growth in cupboards?
 Does high humidity affect normal tasks or construction
materials?
Temperature  Yearly graph
 Seasonal variations
 Diurnal maximum and minimum
THERMAL COMFORT
Thermal comfort is dependent on temperature, humidity, radiation and air
movement as well as type of activity, clothing and degree of acclimatization. No two
people will perceive and describe comfort equally. In a hot dry climate, perspiration
evaporates quickly, enabling rapid cooling of the body; humid conditions prevent this,
leading to heat gain and discomfort. Table 6.4 indicates the range of bulb temperatures
that are likely to be perceived as comfortable at particular levels of relative humidity
(Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35-4).
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Table 6.4: Thermal comfort limits (oC).
Monthly average relative Annual average temperature
humidity (RH)% Over 20oC 15 – 20oC Under 15oC
Day Night Day Night Day Night
0 - 30 26 - 34 17 - 25 23 - 32 15 - 23 21 - 30 14 - 21
30 - 50 25 - 31 17 - 24 22 - 30 15 - 22 21 - 27 14 -20
50 - 70 23 - 29 17 - 23 21 - 28 15 - 21 19 - 26 14 - 19
70 - 100 22 - 27 17 - 21 20 - 25 15 - 20 18 - 24 14 - 18
These thermal comfort limits assume that there has been no heat loss or gain due
to ventilation or isolation. Comparing monthly mean maximum and minimum
temperatures for known levels of relative humidity will indicate whether that particular
month will have days and nights that are comfortable or uncomfortable due to either heat,
cold or humidity (Table 6.5) (Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35-4).
Table 6.5: Indicators of requirements for comfort for each month

Source: Modified from Littlefield (Ed. 2008, p.35.4).
Thermal Description Remarks
indicators
Humid indicators
H1 Air movement Mean monthly maximum temperature above the day
essential comfort limits combined with humidity over 70% or
humidity between 30 – 70% and a diurnal range of
less than 10oC
H2 Air movement Mean monthly maximum temperatures within the
desirable comfort limits combined with humidities over 70%
Arid indicators
A1 Thermal storage Diurnal range of temperatures over 10oC and
required humidity less than 70%
A2 Space required for Mean monthly minimum temperatures above the
outdoor sleeping night comfort limits and humidity below 50%.
Outdoor sleeping may also be indicated where
maximum temperatures are above the day comfort
limits and diurnal range is above 10oC with
humidities less than 50%.
Cold indicators
C1 Solar radiation Mean monthly maximum temperatures below day
desirable comfort limits
C2 Additional heating Mean monthly maximum temperatures below 15oC
required
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Various formulae for relating these indicators to design solutions have been
developed. The most successful of these are the ‘Mahoney tables’ developed for the UN by
Carl Mahoney and reproduced in ‘Manual of Tropical Building and Housing: Part 1 –
Climatic Design’ Koenigsberger et al. (1974, pp.239 – 246; and pp.306 – 309). This remains
an important text (Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35-4).
METEOROLOGICAL DATA
Geographers and meteorologists distinguish a wide range of climate types in hot
and warm climates and disagree over what to call them, but:
 The wet climates can be broadly distinguished by intensity and pattern of rainfall,
humidity and cloud cover
 The dry climates by how dry they are; how cold they get in the cold season (for
simplicity, referred to hereafter as ‘winter’) and whether what little rain they do get
falls in summer or winter
 The composite climates by the degree of seasonal fluctuations in all climatic
indicators; and whether it gets really cold in winter.
All these variables are moderated by latitude, altitude, prevailing winds, and
whether they are at the centre of large landmasses. They can be covered by short lists of
three or four types, based on data critical to particular groups (farmers concerned about
rain, tourists concerned about humidity and clear skies, skiers wanting snow) or broken
down into a longer definitive list. The local bureau of meteorology produces a range of
maps showing different criteria (Littlefield Ed., 2008, pp.35.4 – 35.5).
CLIMATE CHANGE
Climate Change 2007, the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) of the United Nations
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), offers authoritative assessment of
climate change implications for the tropics:
 Low-lying island nations may be overcome by rising sea levels
 Future tropical cyclones (typhoons and hurricanes) are expected to become more
intense, with larger peak wind speeds and more heavy precipitation, but the
number cyclone events may decrease overall
 Increase in draught in the centre of large continental land masses
 Increases in temperature
 Increasing unpredictability of weather patterns.
The report also anticipates ‘substantial reduction in regional differences in per
capita income’ which will drive an expanding construction programme needing more
resources and technological input (Littlefield Ed., 2008, pp.35.5 – 35.6).
SITE SELECTION
Sites and the detailed siting of individual buildings should primarily be chosen to
maximize human comfort. Efficient performance of the building should follow from this.
Buildings should be sited:
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 Close to, and downwind of, large heat sinks such as forests, rivers or lakes, which
lower temperature and screen the site from airborne dust and noise
 Remote from major traffic routes and those industries which generate heat, noise,
pollution and smells
 Where they will be shaded by trees or other buildings during the hottest part of the
day and/or the hottest times of the year
 Where they will take advantage of the prevailing breezes (wet and humid climates)
 Where they will be screened from dust-laden winds and glare (hot arid climates)
 Where they will not be subjected to solar dazzle from other buildings
 Where they will not maximize heat gain and glare reflected from bright external
paving or adjacent buildings with pale reflective surfaces (high albedo) (Littlefield
Ed., 2008, pp.35.6 – 35.7).
SITE CHARACTERISTICS
Altitude, aspect, insolation, gradient, prevailing wind, shelter, soil, geology, water
table, vegetation, existing structures, archaeology and ecology may all be important.
Traditional uses of the site, for grazing, footpaths or cultivation may all need negotiation.
Crops on a site may need to be reimbursed to their full value if destroyed, or allowed time
to be harvested (Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35-7).
POLLUTION
Pollution and smells from tanneries and other industries, saltpans, open storm
drains and sewers, contaminated water supplies and aerobic sewage treatment works may
present serious problems in countries without environmental legislation (Littlefield Ed.,
2008, p.35-7).
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
Even small projects may affect water supply, soil stabilization, fragile flora and
fauna, and local inhabitants and their patterns of agriculture. An environmental impact
assessment may be required and should always be considered (Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35-
7).
SITE INVESTIGATIONS AND GEOTECHNICS

Under the subject of site investigations and geotechnics, only soil and geotechnics
would be discussed while the following topics can be seen from the source: water supply;
water table and flooding; earthquakes and hot springs; burial sites; and archaeological
finds (Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35.8).
SOIL AND GEOTECHNICS

The site may present unfamiliar soil and ground conditions and behaviours. In
Southern Africa, for example, there are no glacial soils, there is much more igneous rock
than elsewhere and the weathering of the ancient landmass has produced a much higher
percentage of residual soils. Most of these soils are non-saturated and many are either of
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expansive or collapsing types where smaller structures need to be lightweight or collapsing
types where smaller structures need to be lightweight and flexible rather than heavy and
rigid. Larger structures may need piled foundations. The absence of ground frost frees
foundation design from some of the constraints that operate in cold climates, but other
factors, such as soil type and seasonal cycles of saturation and desiccation may present
other problems. In many areas, tropical soils are thin and vulnerable to rapid erosion once
tree-cover is removed or the surface exposed or cultivated. Soil stabilization may be
necessary, using planting, geo-membranes or gabions. It is rare to be working in a country
that has not been extensively mapped geologically, however, and knowledge and expertise
should be available (Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35-7).
CULTURE AND RELIGION

Under the subject of culture and religion the following topics can be seen from the
source: cultural and religious criteria; historical factors; and social and ethical criteria
(Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35.8).
POLITICS AND ECONOMICS

Under the subject of politics and economics the following topics can be seen from
the source: business; political factors; and external aid and funding (Littlefield Ed., 2008,
p.35.8).
CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY, JOB MANAGEMENT AND PROFESSIONAL EXPERTISE

Under the subject of construction industry, job management and professional
expertise the following topics can be seen from the source: labour skills and costs;
transport, accessibility and infrastructure; access and travelling; project management
strategies; planning applications; and costs (Littlefield Ed., 2008, pp.35.8 – 35.9).
RESOURCES AND TECHNOLOGIES

Under the subject of resources and technologies, the following topics would be
discussed: sustainability; appropriate technology and transferable technologies; while the
following topics can be seen from the source: utilities and services; construction industry
resources; and alternative power sources (Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35.9).
SUSTAINABILITY
The terms may differ – sustainable, ecological, ‘green’ – but the principles remain.
Good building design:
1. Should ‘touch the earth lightly’ by minimizing use of non-renewable fossil fuels in
collecting, manufacturing, transporting or using building materials;
2. Should reduce the need for the power derived from these fossil fuels in heating,
lighting, ventilation and cooking by using passive design strategies in building;
3. Lifestyle and working practices should reduce the need to consume energy in
transport, workplace, leisure or entertainment; and
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4. In the longer view, this should affect urban planning, the nature of residential
development, reticulation of services and the policies of central governments
Sustainable strategies to consider include:
1. Use local materials – but don’t consume beyond the capacity to regenerate;
2. Make use of local waste products;
3. Use passive design;
4. Recycle energy; and
5. Restrict water consumption (Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35.9).
APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY
It is dangerous to make assumptions about suitable solutions: two neighbouring
countries may appear similar in terms of climate, environmental and socio-political culture,
but may have very different construction industries. One may have good labour, traditional
brick-making skills, popular decorative traditions, and use steel extensively, whilst its
neighbor has no masonry construction, but builds in cement block and reinforced concrete.
One may welcome low-tech solutions; another might be insulted by them. Clay ovens, sisal-
reinforced roofing sheets and modern pit-latrines may work wonderfully but are unlikely to
satisfy people wanting to come up to speed in the modern world. Indeed, these solutions
are most effective when offered to refugees from that modern world; who wish to
experience the ‘bush’ for a week or two. A technology is only appropriate if people want it
TRANSFERABLE TECHNOLOGIES
High-tech buildings in temperate climates now use design strategies that originated
in the tropics (cooling towers, vented ridges, brises soleil). These sometimes perform less
well than expected, as temperature variation is not sufficient extreme to generate air
movement, but when updated and reinterpreted in the tropics, they should work more
efficiently. Conversely, temperature climate details (such as thermal insulation) can benefit
tropical design, especially in composite climates at higher altitudes (Littlefield Ed., 2008,
p.35.9).
ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN
Both the subject of environmental design and environmental responsible
architecture requires definition, prior to tackling the following topics: environmental
comfort within the building; environmental design around the building; and performance
of the building envelope in the context of the local climate.
Environmental design is aspects of the design of buildings connected with the
control of the environment within them (e.g. heat, quality of air, humidity, etc.). Passive
environmental control might involve thick, well-insulated walls, but active control would
involve “air-conditioning by mechanical means, the regulation of temperature, humidity,
lighting, and so on (termed environmental control). Integrated Environmental Design (IED)
involved the control of solar heat-gain, artificial lighting-systems with supplementary
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backups capable of functioning by day and by night, and means of reducing energy
consumption by means of computers (giving rise to the term intelligent buildings) (Curl,
2006, pp.265 - 6).
ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSIBLE ARCHITECTURE

Environmental responsible architecture is also called Green or Sustainable
Architecture. It developed in response to mounting worries about ecological and
environmental matters from the 1960s, and involved experiments with buildings
constructed with natural materials (e.g. timber or earth), which are energy efficient (i.e. are
well insulated, and draw on solar and wind-powered sources of energy), and which respect
the site. It should be noted that International Modernist architecture was anything but
environmentally responsible, devoured energy, leaked it, and was subject to extremes of
temperature because of solar-heat gain. Houses built partly underground (in order to
reduce the impact on the landscape and improve insulation) have pointed the way
forward, but have not been much loved by the public. Solari (Paolo) projects at Arcosanti
(AZ) employing his idea of architecture compatible with ecology (Arcology), have been
created from the 1970s, and the Center for Maximum Potential Building Systems, Austin
(TX) has pioneered developments. Unlike the Modern Movement, Environmentally
Responsible Architecture attempts to involve itself in the retention of old buildings to make
them ‘sustainable’ (e.g. the Audubon Building (NYC) of 1981, by post, restored and adapted
by the National Audubon Society, a group concerned to protect and manage habitats,
ecosystems, and worthy buildings) (Curl, 2006, p.266).
ENVIRONMENTAL COMFORT WITHIN THE BUILDING

Comfort depends on responding to climate specifics – humidity, seasonal variations
that relate to altitude, prevailing winds and rainfall patterns, and the site and its environs.
Do not forget that higher altitudes inland can get very cold overnight in the cold season –
some areas have snow and frost; houses in the centres of large masses and at altitudes
over 1000 m often need room-heating fires in the sitting rooms and to take advantage of
solar gain in winter. Effective passive solar design is an essential component of good design
ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN AROUND THE BUILDING

Shading, restriction or enhancement of air movement, placement and type of
landscaping, the use of water, reflectivity of surfaces, glare, screening against noise or dust
and seasonal storm protection may all be important. Adjacent buildings may produce solar
dazzle, block air movement or cast shade when it is most wanted. Public and private
spaces, including car parking, may influence light levels, glare and general amenity
PERFORMANCE OF THE BUILDING ENVELOPE IN THE CONTEXT OF THE LOCAL CLIMATE

Buildings may have to withstand torrential driving rain, lightning, cyclones,
hurricanes, sandstorms, very high temperatures, extreme diurnal temperatures variations
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cited references.
with associated extremes of thermal movement, persistent high humidity, extended dry
periods or salt-laden atmosphere. Structures that are elevated to catch the breeze will
need additional structural measures to withstand high winds (Littlefield Ed., 2008, pp.35.9
– 35.10).
OTHER TROPICAL DESIGN ISSUES

Under the subject of other tropical design issues, the following topics can be seen
from the source: flora, fauna and biohazards (tropical diseases and infections; snakes,
spiders and flying insects; mosquitoes; larger mammals; wood-boring insects; and
termites); and other essential design data (design philosophy and practice;
anthropometrics and ergonomics; disabled access; special factors in the design of the
spaces around the building; security; landscape design; and rainwater dispersal (Littlefield
Ed., 2008, pp.35.10 – 35.12).
CLIMATE-RESPONSIVE DESIGN (CLIMATE TYPES)

Climate-responsive design (climate types) proceeds with tackling the following
topics: bioclimatic design: Littlefield Model; design in hot dry and arid climates; design for
hot wet and humid climates; and design for composite climates.
BIOCLIMATIC DESIGN: LITTLEFIELD MODEL

A careful evaluation of traditional and current aesthetic and technological local
solutions will help to define important design issues. In particular, if there is a highly
evolved, almost iconic traditional building form, a detailed analysis of this form may prove
particularly rewarding. Modern buildings and urban planning have usually derived from
Western models and have not always been successful in resolving environmental problems
or addressing social needs. The intention should be to reinterpret and add value to proven
successful solutions, or to come up with different solutions that respond more effectively
to changes in conditions or scale. A clear understanding of the issues and options is
essential (Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35.12).
The international style of architecture seen around the world today is based on
termite-climate models and, like vernacular dry and arid climate architectures, it is
enclosed, contained and defensive – based on solid geometry. Architecture is humid and
composite climates, however, is often a fluid, unconstrained space under a canopy where
people move in and out – through voids defined only by their upper surface. There is little
physiological differentiation between being ‘inside’ and being ‘outside’ under a shady tree.
In wall-less spaces, dramatic roof forms can make a much stronger statement (Littlefield
Ed., 2008, p.35.12).
In climates where much of daily life is conducted outside, it is common for buildings
to take the form of a series of pavilions set in parkland and linked by covered walkways. In
more congested sites, and where security is important, links between buildings may be
semi-enclosed breeze-ways, walled with brises-soleil or some other form of defensive
trelliswork (Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35.12).
Page: 26 of 35
cited references.
Generically, designers recognize three main climate types: hot dry, hot wet and
composite (with seasonal variation). In reality, most locations will have some seasonal
variation and overlap with other types. Tables 6.6 – 6.8 summarize the main indicators and
design responses (Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35.12).
DESIGN IN HOT DRY AND ARID CLIMATES

The hot dry climate building needs to be ventilated whist keeping out sand and
dust, have a slow thermal response – achieved by high mass outer walls and should have
small windows at high level, to cut down glare and solar gain3. Traditional solutions achieve
high mass by using thick walls of stone, air-dried mud bricks (adobe, cob and tabia) or
rammed earth (pisé de terre). The unfired clay usually has a protective render or coating
that will withstand occasional rain, provided it is repaired from time-to-time. Regional
variations using the same materials can be distinctive – adobe in New Mexico, barrel vaults
as used by Hassan Fathy in Egypt or tower houses in Iran. The same unfired materials recur
in composite climates, but are protected from heavier, more persistent rain by deep
overhands, being placed on raised floor platforms and being repaired every year. In the dry
tropics, there is a flat roof, often used for sleeping in the hottest weather. Any dense
material may be used for the thick outer wall. Choice of material and wall thickness will
depend on the desired time lag of the thermal response (Littlefield Ed., 2008, pp.35.12 –
35.14).
Table 6.6: Climate responsive design strategies – hot dry desert climates (Baghdad, Alice
Springs, Phoenix).
Source: Modified from Littlefield (Ed. 2008, pp.35.12 – 35.13).
Indicators Measurements Design response
o o
Latitudes Between 15 and 30 N and S Establish sunpath data; use
to determine position of
windows features
Location – within Altitude
continental land mass
High daytime temperatures Monthly mean maximum Deep shade and high
o
(up to 50 C), and cold nights and minimum temperatures thermal mass with time lag
(clear skies permit re- to release warmth during
radiation of daytime solar cold night
gain)
high diurnal range Stone and tiled floors will
stay cool if fully shaded
Use sound and sight of
3
The hot arid climate building is cool, shaded, and heat retaining. Its form prevents normal ventilation flows,
so these must be induced by the use of wind-catching towers and wind vents, water placed strategically to
provide evaporative cooling and the creation of temperature differentials within the central spaces to drive
air movement (Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35.14).
Page: 27 of 35
cited references.
water for psychological
cooling during the day
Low humidity, dry air Average monthly relative Use water for evaporative
humidity (RH) (from monthly cooling
mean maximum and
monthly mean minimum) 10
– 55%
Low rainfall (precipitation) Annual rainfall (range 50 – Flat roofs, no gutters
155 mm) Provide for cleaning dust off
the building envelope,
especially windows
Two seasons, one hot, one Monthly mean maximum Use reduced solar altitude in
cooler or cold and minimum temperatures winter to capture and store
solar energy in trombe walls
and on high mass paved
floors. Reduce shading to
permit solar gain in
structure. Stabilize
temperature with ground
storage of water or energy.
Deep blue sky; glare from Solar radiation, luminance Small windows placed at
2
horizon worsens at end of (1700 – 2500 cd/m , haze up high level with view of deep
dry season as dust in the to 10 000 cd/m2) blue sky (not facing into the
atmosphere creates a haze sun’s path)
Use screens to cut glare (jail,
mesh, masrabiya) with
smaller apertures at lower
levels to cut glare from
horizon.
Air movement will contain Wind speed Ventilation strategies
dust and sand; whirlwinds depend on cooling and
will occur filtering air
Arid landscape with Rainfall Landscaping will depend on
drought-tolerant species or drought-resistant species or
desert conditions irrigation – but water use
may be costly or restricted.
Low humidity will affect
growth.
Sandstorms Wind speed Defensive land-forming and
building envelope with tight-
fitting infill of openings
(windows, doors, shutters,
storm guards)
Page: 28 of 35
cited references.
Air vents and filters will
require regular cleaning.
Variation – hot dry maritime climate (Kuwait, Karachi
Temperature – not as hot
but with less seasonal
variation)
Relative humidity 50 – 90% A particularly uncomfortable
climate – encourage air
movement with overhead
fans. Air-conditioning may
be needed.
Cloud cover – there may be Sunshine hours per annum
a thin haze, causing glare
Local breezes, off the sea Wind speed Orient openings to take
during the day, from the advantage of daytime
land at night breezes.
Salty atmosphere – risk Distance from sea Specify appropriate
corrosion materials
Design solutions
Individual buildings Buildings are inward looking defensive with thick walls and
small high windows. Building mass should be efficient with
as little of the envelope exposed to the sun as possible,
especially on the west where the afternoon sun is the
hottest. Internal courtyards are widely used, with the use of
water for evaporative cooling and decorative screens to cut
down glare. Roofs, walls, windows, terraces and courtyards
can be shaded, with canopies or secondary structures.
Urban development Buildings are packed close together – in particular, east and
west facing party walls should be protected from the sun.
This reduces travel distances – to markets, shops and
services. Adopt strategies that reduce physical effort.
Narrow streets running north – south will receive least sun.
Wind towers catch the breezes and cool the air, drawing it
over water into shaded courtyards.
Landscaping Create an artificial oasis by contouring land planting
shelterbelts with drought-resistant species. If irrigation is
possible, other species may be grown. Soil may have to be
imported. If so, it will need stabilizing and protection or the
wind will take it away. Use water for functional, decorative
and psychological benefits. Shade paved areas to cut down
glare.
Page: 29 of 35
cited references.
DESIGN FOR HOT WET HUMID CLIMATES
The main requirements here are to maximize ventilation, shade and protection
from the rain, and to have a thin-skinned rapid thermal response building envelope4. The
maritime equatorial climate exhibits little variation over the year (Littlefield Ed., 2008,
p.35.14).
Table 6.7: Climate responsive design strategies – warm humid equatorial climates (Lagos,
Dar-es-Salaam, Colombo, Singapore, Djakarta, Quito).
o o
Latitudes Between 15 N and 15 S High solar altitude with
small seasonal variation
enables specific shading
solutions to be accurately
designed; principal
elevations should face north
and south
Typical mean maximum Monthly mean maximum Temperatures exacerbated
daytime temperature 27 – and minimum temperatures by humidity – use thin-
32oC and mean minimum at skinned structures to speed
o
night 21 – 27 C; low diurnal cooling and ventilation
range Design should include
covered and fly-screened
verandahs, etc.
High humidity all year, Average monthly relative High humidity may
around 75% but may range humidity (RH) necessitate the use of air-
from 50 to close to 100% conditioners at night
High rainfall which may get Annual rainfall (range 2000 – Pitched roofs with deep
heavier for a few months 5000 mm) overhangs; no gutters or
wide gutters. Verandahs,
colonnades and covered
walkways will provide
protection from the rain.
Rainfall will increase insect Verandahs should be fly-
nuisance (mosquitoes, etc.) screened
Eliminate stagnant standing
water and take other
precautionary measures.
Little seasonal variation, Precipitation, monthly mean Little need for seasonal
with perhaps some increase maximum and minimum variation in design use.
4
The hot humid climate building is airy, shaded and thin-skinned with a roof that can disperse torrential rain.
All habitable rooms should have cross-ventilation (Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35.14).
Page: 30 of 35
cited references.
in rainfall, wind or storm temperatures
conditions from time to time
Overcast sky persists; cloud Sky cover and sunlight Fly-screens, brises soleil and
cover varies between 60 and hours. other screening devices will
90%. Glare is intensified by Luminance range between cut down glare, as well deep
reflection off cloud and can heavy and bright overcast overhangs and verandahs.
be intense. Cloud traps skies 850 – 7000 cd/m2
warm air, preventing night
radiation to sky.
There is little wind Wind speed Elevate buildings to
movement, but gusts are maximize air movement; use
occasionally recorded. louvre windows for
maximum ventilation; rooms
must have through
ventilation.
Lush landscape with tropical Rainfall, albedo Landscaping will need to be
forests, buttressed trees and controlled or will become
vines. Impoverished laterite overgrown.
soils produce vegetables Waterlogged sites may need
with little mineral content. draining or planting with
appropriate species.
Variation – warm humid island climate (Caribbean, Philippines, Hawaii)
Daytime mean maximum 29 Monthly mean maximum
– 32oC and mean minimum and minimum temperatures
o
at right 18 – 24 C. Small
diurnal and annual
temperature ranges.
Relative humidity 55% - almost 100% Assist ventilation with
design
High rainfall; storms may be Annual rainfall 1250 – 1800 Roofs must be well
heavy; sea spray may be a mm constructed
nuisance
Skies are clear or with Clear sky luminance 1700 –
broken cloud except during 2500 cd/m2
storms.
Trade winds are regular; Wind speed Design for high winds
cyclones may be severe
Salty atmosphere – risk of Distance from sea Specify appropriate
corrosion materials
Design solutions
Individual buildings Roofs must be robust to withstand heavy rain, and usually
have deep overhangs to shed the rain; thin-walled
structures with rapid thermal response (cooling) and cross-
Page: 31 of 35
cited references.
ventilation (avoid back-to-back rooms and central corridors
– circulation can be via perimeter verandahs); habitable
verandahs, some fly-screened; main axis east-west;
windows face north and south; use clerestory windows,
vented ridges and wind towers to improve ventilation;
shade trees should have canopy but not block ventilation
below the eaves; position structures to catch the breeze;
anticipate damp and mould, insects and vermin.
Urban development Buildings should be positioned to obtain maximum
ventilation; line buildings with verandahs, colonnades and
covered walkways.
Landscaping Dramatic landscaping is possible, but beware of wind rock
in trees close to buildings.
DESIGN FOR COMPOSITE CLIMATES

A composite climate has distinct seasonal variation. A decision needs to be made as
to priorities in terms of climate-response5. The seasonal variation in sunpath can be used to
vary building response to the different climatic conditions, supplemented by movable
elements, insulation and mechanical heating or cooling systems (Littlefield Ed., 2008,
p.35.14).
Table 6.8: Climate responsive design strategies – composite or monsoon climates (New
Delhi, Kano).
In large continental Latitude, altitude Distance from equator
landmasses, close to the results in seasonal variation
o
Tropics (23.5 N and S) and compromises in design
High daytime temperatures Maximum and minimum Design for different lifestyle,
(up to 50oC), and cold nights temperatures adjusted to suit climate;
(clear skies permit re- ensure daytime shade,
radiation of daytime solar night-time heat retention
gain)
High diurnal range
Dry season humidity 20 – Average monthly relative If high humidity is short-
55%; wet season humidity humidity (RH) lived, prioritize longer-term
55 – 95% conditions, and use
mechanical fans, etc.
5
The composite climate: different regions have different solutions depending on climate variables – e.g. in
Malawi at altitude of 1000 m, these houses are provided with an open fire in the sitting room; cooler blocks
are fired clay U-profile blocks loose-laid over profiled aluminium metal sheeting; they keep the worst of the
solar radiation off the aluminium and create a ventilated space between the block and the roof-covering;
o
pitch is usually no more than 27.5 (Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35.15).
Page: 32 of 35
cited references.
Seasonal rainfall (monsoon) Annual rainfall (range 500 – Pitched roofs with
can be heavy and prolonged 1300 mm) overhangs
– up to 38 mm/h
Two seasons – hot dry and Monthly mean maximum Include adjustable building
warm-humid (21 – 43oC); and minimum elements; different spaces
further from equator, third to suit different conditions;
season – cool-dry (4 – 27oC). create micro-climate
Diurnal range up to 22oC
Sky overcast during rains, Solar radiation, luminance, Placement of windows;
clear deep blue during dry cloud cover, sunshine days screening of windows
season, becoming dust-
laden and hazy towards end
of dry season
Monsoon winds strong and Variable features; shutters
may come from different and screens
direction than winds at
other times of the year;
winds carry dust in dry
season
Landscape changes Rainfall Use drought-resistant
appearance seasonally – lust species or irrigation
in rains, becoming parched
in dry season
Termites are common Anthills, nests Use barriers, poison,
appropriate design
measures; expect high
wastage.
Variation – Tropical upland climate (Bogota, Nairobi)
Upland zones Altitude 900 – 1200 m
Distance from the equator Latitude Design will need to meet
increases seasonal variation winter conditions, as well as
summer.
Temperature reduces with Weather data Open fires, winter solar gain
altitude; diurnal range large,
ground frost may occur
Rainfall often heavy – up to Precipitation + 1000 mm Pitched roofs, deep
80 mm/h overhangs, storm drains
Heavy dew at night; Weather data Lightning protection,
radiation heat loss at night thermal insulation
may cause radiation fog;
hail; thunder and lightning
Design solutions
Individual buildings Design depends on winter temperatures, duration of high
Page: 33 of 35
cited references.
humidity and duration of rains.
Urban development Colonnades and arcades provide shelter from rain.
Landscaping Many species will tolerate these climates, but may need
irrigation unless resistant to seasonal drought. Risk of frost
needs to be determined. Termite damage can be
considerable.
CITED REFERENCES
Allen, R.E. (Ed.). (1985). The Oxford dictionary of current English. (7th ed.). Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Curl, J.S. (2006). Oxford dictionary of architecture and landscape architecture. (2nd ed.).
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ebrahim, Y.H. (2018). Use of the Ebstats Software for bioclimatic analysis in tropical
countries: micro-temperature change in relation to urban built form. Visit:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325216696.
Ebrahim, Y.H. (2018a). Preparation for academic research and theses from undergraduate
to postgraduate degree levels. Moldova: LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing in cooperation
with Morebooks! Marketing SRL (General partner bookstore:
https://www.morebooks.de/store/gb/book/preparation-for-academic-research-and-
theses/isbn/978-613-9-87894-9; Also: amazon.com and on many other bookstores:
https://www.amazon.com/Preparation-Academic-Research-Theses-
undergraduate/dp/6139878942/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1539424804&sr=8-
1&keywords=9786139878949) (Preface and about - Visit:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326080916) (Book preview – Visit:
Ebrahim, Y.H. (2018c). Selby Mvusi: visual perception relationship with controls in design
development. Abstract, preface, about and appendix 1: Selby Mvusi (1929 – 67: historical
perspective) – Visit: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327449057
Ebrahim, Y.H. (2017). The effects of urban built form on micro-temperature change: a case
study of Komarock Infill B Estate Nairobi. Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Nairobi
(Visit: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325214979).
Ebrahim, Y.H. (Ed.). (2007). Meffert environmental design code: Lighting design. Nairobi:
Ebenergy Enterprises (Visit: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325260991).
Ebrahim, Y.H. (Ed.). (2007a). Meffert environmental design code: Acoustic design. Nairobi:
Ebenergy Enterprises (Visit: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325261123).
Lippsmeier, G., Kluska, M.W. & Edrich, C.G. (1969). Building in the tropics. München
(Germany): Callwey Verlag.
Littlefield, D. (Ed.). (2008). Metric handbook: planning and design data. (3rd ed.). London:
Architectural Press and Elsevier.
Norberg-Schulz, C. (1980). Genius loci: towards a phenomenology of architecture. London:
Academy Editions.
Oliver, P. Ed. (1978). Shelter in Africa. London: Barrie & Jenkins.
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Rudofsky, B. (1981). Architecture without architects: a short introduction to non-pedigreed
architecture. (5th Impression). London: Academy Editions.
Wikipedia. (2018q). Geographical zone. Retrieved October 13, 2018 from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_zone
Wikipedia. (2018r). Tropics. Retrieved October 13, 2018 from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropics
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ABOUT: BUILDING SCIENCE TEXT BOOK SERIES

CHAPTER TWO: INTERACTION BETWEEN CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENT

CHAPTER THREE: BUILT ENVIRONMENT

CHAPTER FOUR: VENTILATION AND AIR MOVEMENT

CHAPTER FIVE: CLIMATIC ZONES

CHAPTER SIX: TROPICAL DESIGN AND PLANNING

CHAPTER SEVEN: BUILDING IN THE TROPICS

CHAPTER EIGHT: PSYCHROMETRICS, PSYCHROMETRIC CHART AND MOLLIER DIAGRAM

CHAPTER TEN: ASHRAE; ASHRAE HANDBOOK AND ASHRAE 55 STANDARD

CHAPTER ELEVEN: USE OF THERMAL COMFORT INDICES (EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE)

CHAPTER TWELVE: GEOGRAPHY OF KENYA

CHAPTER FOURTEEN: DEMOGRAPHICS OF KENYA

CHAPTER FIFTEEN: COMFORT ZONES OF KENYA

CHAPTER SEVENTEEN - ZONE 1: WARM-HUMID (COASTAL TROPICAL)

CHAPTER EIGHTEEN - ZONE 2: HOT-DRY (INTERMEDIATE TROPICAL)

CHAPTER TWENTY - ZONE 4: LAKELAND (LAKE BASIN)

CHAPTER TWENTY ONE - ZONE 5: UPLANDS

CHAPTER TWENTY TWO - ZONE 6: UPPER HIGHLANDS (HIGH UPLANDS)

CHAPTER TWENTY THREE: BIOCLIMATIC AND SUSTAINABLE DESIGN OF SIX PRIMARY

CHAPTER TWENTY SIX: USE OF DIAGRAMMATIC SUMMARY TABLE FOR SUSTAINABLE

CHAPTER TWENTY EIGHT: EBCLIMA SOFTWARE

CHAPTER SIX: TROPICAL DESIGN AND PLANNING

DESCRIPTION AND EXPLANATION OF TERMS AND PERSONALITIES

Figure 6.1: Earth’s climatic zones.

Figure 6.2: An updated Koppen-Geiger climate map

Figure 6.4: Areas of the world with tropical climates.

TROPICAL DESIGN AND PLANNING

FACTORS AFFECTING DESIGN (DESK STUDY)

CLIMATE AND MICROCLIMATE

Table 6.2: Climatic data

Table 6.3: Climatic data

Table 6.5: Indicators of requirements for comfort for each month

SITE INVESTIGATIONS AND GEOTECHNICS

SOIL AND GEOTECHNICS

CULTURE AND RELIGION

POLITICS AND ECONOMICS

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY, JOB MANAGEMENT AND PROFESSIONAL EXPERTISE

RESOURCES AND TECHNOLOGIES

ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSIBLE ARCHITECTURE

ENVIRONMENTAL COMFORT WITHIN THE BUILDING

ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN AROUND THE BUILDING

PERFORMANCE OF THE BUILDING ENVELOPE IN THE CONTEXT OF THE LOCAL CLIMATE

OTHER TROPICAL DESIGN ISSUES

CLIMATE-RESPONSIVE DESIGN (CLIMATE TYPES)

BIOCLIMATIC DESIGN: LITTLEFIELD MODEL

DESIGN IN HOT DRY AND ARID CLIMATES

DESIGN FOR COMPOSITE CLIMATES

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