++++culbreth y Brown (2010) State of The Art in Clinical Supervision

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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
State of the art in clinical supervision / [edited by] John R. Culbreth and Lori L.
Brown.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-415-99130-8 (hardcover : alk. paper)
1. Counselors--Supervision of. I. Culbreth, John R. II. Brown, Lori L.
[DNLM: 1. Counseling--organization & administration. 2. Clinical
Competence. 3. Personnel Management--methods. WM 55 S797 2009]
BF636.65.S73 2009
158’.307155--dc22 2009012536
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

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It seems weird to write a dedication in a book. Something that other people
do, but not me. But here goes. I continue to be greatly appreciative of the
support I receive from my wife, Barbara, and her patience with her husband
and his “projects.” My son is one of my constant, in the moment, teachers
of how to keep perspective on the important things in life. Sometimes I
don’t pay attention enough, and he reminds in his wonderful, 12-year-old
way. Thank you Alex. Let’s go play some video games. And finally, I would
like to dedicate my work in this book to my father, Jack Culbreth. I can’t
think of a better way to learn how to be than from watching you in all
your snortin’, spittin’, carryin’ on, wrestling with CHANGE, working on
our relationship, and continuing to softly support me in my own personal
AFGEs, especially over the past year or so with Allen, a new and wonderful
relationship that has blossomed more than I ever imagined possible. I am
not sure that you will ever truly know how much I appreciate you, and who
you have helped me to become. Thanks Dad!
John R. Culbreth
This book would not have been possible without the diligence and hard
work of the authors, especially that of my co-editor, Jack Culbreth. You
made it happen, Jack! Also, I want to dedicate this book to my husband
James Zisa, for his strength and support, and to his parents William and
Viola Zisa, for doing such a wonderful job with their son.
Lori L. Brown
Contents
Preface ix
About the Editors xv
About the Contributors xvii
1 Multicultural Supervision Competence 1

Catherine Y. Chang and Lea R. Flowers
2 No Surprises: Practices for Conducting

Supervisee Evaluations 19
Cynthia J. Osborn and Brandy L. Kelly
3 Triadic Supervision 45
S. Lenoir Gillam and Michael L. Baltimore
4 Innovative Uses of Technology in Clinical Supervision 63

Marty Jencius, Michael L. Baltimore, and Hildy G. Getz
5 Using Expressive Arts in Counseling Supervision 87

Sondra Smith-Adcock, Mark B. Scholl,
Elaine Wittmann, Catherine Tucker,
Clarrice Rapisarda, and Mary Amanda Graham
6 Principles of Best Practices for Clinical Supervisor

Training Programs 127
L. DiAnne Borders
7 Religion, Spirituality, and Clinical Supervision 151

J. Scott Young and Craig S. Cashwell
vii
viii • Contents
8 The Transtheoretical Model of Change in

Clinical Supervision 173
John R. Culbreth and Charles F. Gressard
9 Applications of Narrative Therapy in Supervision 191

Debbie Crawford Sturm
10 On Becoming an Emotionally Intelligent

Counseling Supervisor 207
Joseph B. Cooper and Kok-Mun Ng
Index 229
Preface
We are excited about having the opportunity to help create, develop, and
promote the ideas that are included in this book. There are many fascinat-
ing and creative ideas about counseling supervision that often have very
small audiences. It is our intent to hopefully expand the audience for at
least a few of those ideas through the pages of this book. As we have spent
time conducting our own research and writing on the topic of counseling
supervision through the years, it has seemed as though there was a ten-
dency to repeat a lot of the questions or concepts, with merely a change of
dressing to make them different. One could certainly argue that this is the
case for many topics. And while that may be so, both of us believe there is
a greater depth to the topic of counseling supervision.
This book began as an effort to help answer a simple question: “What
are the topics in the field of counseling supervision that do not seem to get
much exposure in the traditional professional venues?” In other words,
how can we talk about the issues, ideas, methods, and theories that might
be considered fringe, or, at the very least, less mainstream? By doing so,
we hope to advance the professional discussion about clinical supervision
issues and ideas.
As this book idea developed, we began talking about some of these top-
ics, our conversations snowballing into discussions with others, each time
picking up speed and excitement over the possibilities. The result is this
book; a collection of writings expounding on a variety of topics in the grow-
ing field of clinical supervision. Some of these chapters may not interest
everyone. Some of the techniques or theories may not work for everyone,
either. But we anticipate that many of these ideas will give both practic-
ing and future supervisors pause to consider learning new approaches to
ix
x • Preface
dealing with a current challenging supervisory situation in a different and

more effective way.
We begin this book with an important topic in the counseling field,
multiculturalism, and how it is applied to the supervision setting. Cultural
encapsulation can be as much of a problem in the supervisory relationship
as it is in the counseling relationship, potentially negatively impacting both.
The chapter authors present key findings from the multicultural counsel-
ing literature and discuss findings and recommendations for the practic-
ing supervisor and the multicultural supervision context. Specifically, the
authors provide guidance for supervisors in how to work in a cross-racial
and cross-cultural supervisory relationship. They also provide suggestions
for supervisors to consider when working within the cross-racial and/or
cross-cultural counseling triad of supervisor, supervisee, and client. It is
crucial to remember that we all have a cultural and racial heritage, and that
this can be as important in supervision as it is in counseling.
Chapter 2, “No Surprises: Practices in Supervisee Evaluation,” is a
straightforward examination of one of the most challenging aspects of
conducting supervision: that of critically evaluating another practicing
professional. Counseling supervisors have long struggled with this aspect
of the supervisor role. In speaking with supervisors, we have heard com-
ments about how the act of evaluation is contradictory to a stance of accep-
tance and unconditional regard toward colleagues. Yet, the reality of the
clinical environment is that not all counselors are created equal, and not
all counselors function at the same level of skill. Just as we should all be life
long learners, good evaluation allows for greater professional development
of supervisee and supervisor alike. Is it challenging to deliver difficult
feedback? Of course. But is it necessary to maintain the quality of services
provided to our clients? Absolutely. The authors of this chapter give you an
overview of an evaluation plan that can make this challenging task much
more manageable and productive.
The third chapter, “Triadic Supervision,” is a discussion of a unique for-
mat of supervision that provides supervisors with a way to make better use
of their time and energy. Most supervision is conducted either individu-
ally or in a group. Each of these settings has its own unique characteris-
tics. The depth that can be attained in individual supervision is significant
and powerful. Yet, working with only one person at a time can be both
draining and labor intensive. Conducting group supervision is more time
efficient for all involved; however, it can often turn into a brief review of
cases, lacking sufficient depth to adequately promote counselor profes-
sional development. Triadic supervision, or working with two supervisees
in a small group, allows the supervisor to increase supervision productiv-
ity while sacrificing little of the depth of more individualized supervision.
Preface • xi
It can also have the added benefits of supervisees assisting and learning
from each other.
The next two chapters provide an overview of several different ways to
deliver and conduct clinical supervision. The authors of Chapter 4 examine
how developments in technology provide supervisors with new and differ-
ent ways to deliver counseling supervision to supervisees. Also included
in this chapter are ways in which technology can assist in the training of
post-masters’ level and doctoral supervisors. As with all advances in the
tools of our trade, there are both positives and negatives to be considered.
This chapter allows you to consider a number of these new approaches
as to how they might work for you in your unique supervision or train-
ing environment. As the profession of counseling continues to develop, so
too does the recognition of counseling supervision as an important role in
quality service delivery to clients. Supervisees are in need of quality super-
vision in all parts of our country. Unfortunately, many of these supervi-
sees do not have an easily accessible, real-time supervisor or supervision
environment available to them due to distance or remoteness of location.
Technological advances in communication, applied to counseling supervi-
sion and supervision training, can provide options for these supervisees,
supervisors, students, and trainers that have not been available in the past.
We feel that this chapter will be a significant help to many of these profes-
sionals, as well as the clients they ultimately serve.
The following chapter authors take a different approach to conducting
supervision. Professional counseling has long been seen as flexible and
accepting of alternative ways to assist clients through their emotional work.
Thus, it follows that we consider how alternative approaches to supervision
might help further promote the professional development of practitioners.
Chapter 5 presents four very different ways for supervisors and supervisees
to interact: using puppetry, psychodrama, bibliosupervision, and sandtray.
Each section of the chapter provides an overview of the approach and how
it is used in supervision, a list of needed materials, a discussion of issues
that may arise when using that modality, and examples from actual super-
vision interactions. We look forward to this chapter providing a number of
opportunities for supervisors to expand beyond their existing molds and
explore new worlds of supervision delivery in order to help supervisees
improve their knowledge and awareness.
Chapter 6 examines the training of supervisors. The author discusses
key principles that should be considered during the course of supervisor
training, typically with doctoral-level students. She provides, using an
extensive literature review and many years of experience in training super-
visors, a series of “Best Practices” that should be considered when training
supervisors. For those active in this area, these principles will provide clear
guidance on the key issues and approaches to consider in order to produce
xii • Preface
well trained supervisors capable of delivering oversight to either counselor

trainees or already practicing counselors.
Chapter 7, titled “Religion, Spirituality, and Counseling Supervision,” is
a look at the reality of all our lives, both personal and professional, and how
the personal worldview of spirituality enters into the supervisory relation-
ship for both supervisees and supervisors. Because the process of supervi-
sion involves some form of a relationship between at least two individuals,
we can assume that aspects of our personal lives will become intertwined
in the counseling and supervision process. We can hold very deep beliefs
on this topic, which can guide our thoughts, feelings, and actions, some-
times without our direct knowledge or awareness. It is important for the
supervisor to understand this reality of the counseling process and to also
understand how this topic can be brought up in counseling supervision in
an accepting and open manner. Discussing spirituality in a work or school
setting, as part of counseling supervision, may seem like a risky and unwise
direction to take as a supervisor. However, if we as counselors believe that
we, as humans, are the “tool” by which our clients get better, then it is
critical that we remain open to addressing how we work, and what might
impact that work for good or bad. We hope that this chapter provides guid-
ance for supervisors as they negotiate this most challenging of topics.
Clients typically come to counseling to change in some way. In order to
effect the desired change, clients need to understand and accept that they
will likely be different on the other side of the counseling process. This is
often true for supervisees as well, even though it is much less recognized
and discussed in the supervision process. Supervisees, as well as supervi-
sors, are at risk of changing parts of themselves, both personally and pro-
fessionally, as a direct result of the supervision process. Chapter 8 focuses
on how to view and facilitate this change in supervisees through a theo-
retical perspective developed specifically for the change process. The tran-
stheoretical model, also known as stages of change, was developed to better
understand how people go about the change process, regardless of what
the change entails. Originally developed to help practitioners reconceptu-
alize the change process for addicted clients, and how they could help cli-
ents with change, this model has been adapted to a more generalized view
of change regardless of the issue or problem. The authors take the position
that change is an inherent part of the supervision process, primarily, but
not exclusively, for supervisees. With that in mind, they provide a different
way to consider working with supervisees using the template of the change
process as it fits in the supervisory relationship. Included in this chapter is
a description of the processes of change, the stages of change that a person
will go through, and the levels or types of change that a person can make.
Examples of this view of supervision are provided for a clearer understand-
ing of how supervisees change.
Preface • xiii
The past two decades have seen the introduction of a new theory of
counseling called narrative therapy. The foundation of this theory is that
individuals, through their lived experiences, create an ongoing “story”
that is their life. It is through these stories that people make sense of their
world and what happens to them. Overall, this is a universal construct that
applies to the supervisor and supervisee as well. Chapter 9, “Applications
of Narrative Therapy in Supervision,” views the supervisory experience
through this lens of narrative theory. It is important to understand that
supervisees are developing as people and as professionals during the
course of their counseling/supervision work. As supervisees develop, the
supervisor has to help supervisees integrate these experiences into a cohe-
sive “story” that moves the supervisee forward professionally. The author
provides a four step model that blends narrative theory with the supervi-
sion technique of Interpersonal Process Recall to help this developmen-
tal process. The intended result is a more intentional supervision process
for both the supervisor and supervisee that promotes counselor identity
development as well as counselor effectiveness with clients.
The final chapter of the book is an examination of how emotions play a
part in the supervision process for both supervisors and supervisees. Working
with emotions has long been the province of counseling with clients. However,
there are emotional elements at work in the supervisory process as well. If one
believes in the developmental concept of counseling supervision, it is hard to
imagine working with supervisees without there being an emotional con-
text. The authors of Chapter 10 provide an overview of the role of emotions
in counseling and supervision, describe emotional intelligence and how it
plays an important role in both environments, and outline characteristics of
a supervisor who works from an emotionally intelligent perspective.
We hope that you enjoy the innovative and challenging ideas, strate-
gies, and approaches to counseling supervision that are presented in this
book. We believe that this book represents an opportunity to expand the
conversation about counseling supervision. Supervision as a topic is very
challenging due to the profession’s lack of knowledge concerning a sig-
nificant, direct impact that it has on the counseling process. Yet, as the
vast majority of supervisors know and understand, without good supervi-
sion, quality service delivery would be greatly reduced. Good supervision
provided by well-trained and qualified supervisors has a positive impact
on the health and well-being of untold numbers of clients. And in some
instances, through the intervention of the supervisor, potential harm to
clients, albeit unintentional, has been avoided or greatly lessened. Also,
supervision has promoted the development of the next generation of coun-
selors, both professionally and personally. And along the way, there have
been supervisors who have done a little developing themselves, no matter
how reluctantly some of us may admit it. While we may not have a clear
xiv • Preface
answer to exactly how supervision contributes to the process for clients

yet, we do know that it does.
In addition to adding to the general conversation about supervision,
we hope that the ideas presented in this book also provide grist for the
research mill. A significant amount of research has developed over the
past 30 years about supervision, including topics such as the supervisory
relationship, supervisors and supervisees as participants, methods and
theories of supervision, and internal and external factors that impact
supervision. The topics presented in this book should provide many
future a-ha moments that result not only in good research questions, but
motivation for current and future supervision researchers to take up the
call to continue exploring. We must not lose our energy in the search for
greater understanding of this wonderful process we call supervision. It is
important for all of us involved in the helping professions to understand
as much as we can about how people move through the therapeutic pro-
cess, even if only to understand that something is happening that we don’t
yet understand.
About the Editors
John R. Culbreth, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor in the Counseling

Department at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. He is a
Licensed Professional Counselor, Licensed Chemical Addiction Specialist,
and holds his NCC, MAC, and ACS credentials. He has been a profes-
sional counselor for 23 years, and teaching and supervising counselors for
the past 13 years. Clinical supervision has been a mainstay in his research
and writing. All of this work is done to support his two primary jobs of
husband and father. This involves spending time with Barbara, doing stuff
around the house, developing new projects that justify purchasing new
tools, riding his motorcycle, and spending a lot of time with a certain Boy
Scout named Alex.
Lori L. Brown, Ph.D., is currently a Professional School Counselor and

Licensed Professional Counselor in private practice in eastern North
Carolina. She has worked as a counselor educator and clinical supervi-
sor at several universities, and supervised practicing counselors in pri-
vate supervision practice. Dr. Brown has written extensively on the topic
of clinical supervision, most recently co-authoring The New Handbook
of Supervision with Dr. L. DiAnne Borders. She is a past president of the
Southern Association of Counselor Education and Supervision and the
Georgia Association of Counselor Education and Supervision. Dr. Brown
currently lives near Wilmington, NC with her husband attorney James
Zisa, three dogs and a cat.
xv
About the Contributors
Michael L. Baltimore, Ph.D., earned his doctorate in Counselor Education

and Supervision from Auburn University and is program coordinator of
community counseling at Columbus State University. He maintains a pri-
vate practice for clinical supervision. He is a founding Co-Editor of the
Journal of Technology in Counseling, is a Licensed Professional Counselor,
Licensed Marriage and Family Therapist, and a Clinical Member and
Approved Supervisor with the American Association for Marriage and
Family Therapy.
L. DiAnne Borders, Ph.D., is Burlington Industries Excellence Professor

in the Department of Counseling and Educational Development at The
University of North Carolina at Greensboro. She is co-author of The New
Handbook of Counseling Supervision and over 100 other publications,
including research on developmental models of supervision and supervisor
training issues. She was instrumental in the development of standards for
counseling supervisors, a curriculum guide for training counseling super-
visors, and ethical guidelines for the practice of counseling supervision,
all endorsed by the Association for Counselor Education and Supervision,
and which were the foundation for the Approved Clinical Supervisor cre-
dential offered through the National Board for Certified Counselors.
Craig S. Cashwell, Ph.D., LPC, NCC, ACS, is a professor in the Depart

ment of Counseling and Educational Development at The University of
North Carolina at Greensboro. He has authored or co-authored over 75
publications. He has served as President of the Association for Spiritual,
Ethical, and Religious Values in Counseling (ASERVIC) and as Chair of
xvii
xviii • About the Contributors
the Board of Directors for the Council for Accreditation of Counseling

and Related Educational Programs (CACREP).
Catherine Y. Chang, Ph.D., is an associate professor at Georgia State

University and program coordinator for the Counselor Education and
Practice doctoral program. She is a LPC and a NCC. Her research interests
include multicultural counseling and supervision, social justice issues, and
Asian American and Korean American concerns.
Joseph B. Cooper, Ph.D., is an assistant professor of psychology in the

department of counseling at Marymount University in Arlington, VA.
His research interests have focused on the use of emotions in counseling
supervision and in the counseling relationship. He maintains a private
practice in Washington, DC specializing in emotion-focused psychody-
namic psychotherapy.
Lea R. Flowers, Ph.D., LPC, NCC, is an assistant professor in the

Department of Counseling and Psychological Services at Georgia State
University. Her research interests include culturally competent counselor
training and supervision, group work, gender, and post-traumatic growth.
Hildy G. Getz, Ph.D., is Associate Professor Emeritus of counselor edu-

cation at Virginia Tech. As an Approved Supervisor with both NBCC
and the American Association of Marriage and Family Therapy, she has
taught clinical supervision and provided it for graduate students, licensure
applicants, and agency professionals. She has presented many programs
on clinical supervision throughout the United States and has had articles
published in six of the premier counseling journals.
S. Lenoir Gillam, Ph.D., is a professor in the Department of Counseling,

Foundations, and Leadership at Columbus State University in Columbus,
GA. She received her Ph.D. in Counseling Psychology from The University
of Georgia and has worked in school, community, and university settings.
She is also an LPC and licensed psychologist in Georgia and a nation-
ally certified counselor. Her research agenda and special interests include
group work, supervision and training, multicultural issues, and school
counseling.
Mary Amanda Graham, Ph.D., is an assistant professor in the Counseling

and School Psychology Department at Seattle University. Her past and pres-
ent research interests focus on the use of creativity in counselor education
and supervision. She has developed, researched, and utilizes a model of
bibliosupervision in her work with students.
About the Contributors • xix
Charles F. Gressard, Ph.D., is an associate professor in the Counselor

Education Program at the College of William & Mary. He has taught coun-
selors for thirty years and has served on both the NBCC and the CACREP
Board of Directors.
Marty Jencius, Ph.D., is an associate professor in the Counseling and

Human Development Services program at Kent State University. His schol-
arship includes the application of technology to counseling as listowner of
CESNET-L (a listerv for counselor educators and supervisors), co-founder
of the Journal of Technology in Counseling, column editor for The Digital
Psyway, and producer for CounselorAudioSource.Net podcasts. Dr. Jencius
is currently exploring the use of virtual worlds for counseling pedagogy.
Brandy L. Kelly, Ph.D., is a full-time practitioner in Ohio. She provides,

and has provided, individual and group supervision to counseling students
and practitioners. Dr. Kelly’s focus has been feminist supervision practices
including the dynamics of the supervisor-supervisee relationship, as well
as strategies for managing conflict and ruptures in the alliance.
Kok-Mun Ng, Ph.D., LPC, NCC, is an associate professor in the Depart

ment of Counseling at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte,
North Carolina. His research and clinical interests include marriage
and family, attachment, psychological assessment, well-being, emotional
intelligence, counselor education and supervision, and multicultural and
cross-cultural counseling issues. Dr. Ng has held state and national level
leadership roles in professional counseling organizations.
Cynthia J. Osborn, Ph.D., is an associate professor in the Counseling

and Human Development Services program at Kent State University in
Kent, OH where she has provided individual and group supervision to
counseling students who undertake their practicum experience in the
on-site Counseling and Human Development Center. Dr. Osborn’s focus
in counseling supervision includes solution-focused and other strengths-
based approaches to supervision, and the use of written supervision
contracts.
Clarrice Rapisarda, Ph.D., is an assistant professor in the Department of

Counseling at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. Dr. Rapisarda
is a Licensed Professional Counselor and has been practicing for over ten
years. She incorporates the use of puppets and other creative elements into
her counseling, supervision, and teaching to enhance the process of learn-
ing and increase insight and awareness.
xx • About the Contributors
Mark B. Scholl, Ph.D., is an assistant professor in the Department of

Counselor and Adult Education at East Carolina University in Greenville,
NC. He is the editor of The Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education
and Development and the Chair of the ACA Council of Journal Editors.
His research interests include college student development and career
counseling.
Sondra Smith-Adcock, Ph.D., is an associate professor in Counselor

Education at the University of Florida in Gainesville. She teaches and
advises in the school counseling and mental health counseling areas. Her
research interests include using creative approaches in counselor prepara-
tion and child and adolescent mental health.
Debbie Crawford Sturm, Ph.D., is a Clinical Assistant Professor at the

University of South Carolina and a Licensed Professional Counselor. Her
clinical experiences have primarily focused on trauma, abuse, neglect,
and people/children who have been victims or witnesses of violence. Her
research interests include pre-practicum clinical experiences for counsel-
ors in training, poverty as an important component to multicultural train-
ing, and understanding and treating trauma in children.
Catherine Tucker, Ph.D., is an assistant professor of counseling at Indiana

State University. She was an elementary school counselor for nine years,
and has also worked in mental health settings. Catherine has been a play
therapist for over twelve years.
J. Scott Young, Ph.D., is a professor and chair of the Department of

Counseling and Educational Development at the University of North
Carolina at Greensboro. Most of his professional writing has related to
the interface of spirituality and the practice of counseling. He is a past
president of the Association for Spiritual Ethical and Religious Values
in Counseling.
Elaine Wittmann is a Licensed Professional Counselor, an Approved

Clinical Supervisor, and Registered Play Therapist-Supervisor with
more than 35 years of experience working with children and families
as teacher, counselor, and clinical supervisor. She has a private prac-
tice in Beech Mountain, NC and contracts, consults, and supervises
with other practices and agencies. She presents locally and nationally
on play therapy, sandtray therapy, supervision, and on issues around
children and families.
Chapter 1
Multicultural Supervision Competence
Catherine Y. Chang and Lea R. Flowers
In light of the growing diversity within the United States and the emer-
gence of the Association for Counselor Education and Supervision (ACES,
1990) supervisory competencies, it is essential for supervisors to enhance
their awareness and knowledge of multicultural issues in supervision.
Cross-racial and cross-cultural issues have not been addressed widely
within the supervisory process. The purpose of this chapter is to identify
and discuss the importance of addressing cross-racial and cross-cultural
issues within the supervisory triad (i.e., supervisor, supervisee, and client).
Additionally, the authors will present various models and frameworks for
understanding multicultural supervision, and highlight challenges as well
as recommendations related to multicultural supervision competence.
As you read this chapter, reflect on your past supervisory experiences.
Which supervisors did you find to be the most helpful? Which ones did
you find to be the least helpful? What aspects of the supervisory relation-
ships were helpful and which aspects were either neutral or not helpful?
How openly were cultural issues discussed in supervision? Who initiated
the cultural dialogue? Did you feel that there was too much or too little
attention to cultural issues in your supervision experiences?
Importance of Multicultural Supervision

Multicultural supervision is a complex relationship involving a minimum
of three individuals: a supervisor, supervisee/counselor, and client, who
1
2 • State of the Art in Clinical Supervision
are engaged in a triadic relationship that involves the intermingling of

diverse cultural backgrounds. Multicultural supervision involves open
dialogue regarding relevant cultural issues with the goal of promoting
cultural competence in both the counseling and supervisory relationships
(Chang, Hays, & Shoffner, 2003; D’Andrea & Daniels, 1997). Ancis and
Ladany (2001) argue that addressing multicultural issues in supervision
is essential to ethical and effective practices involving clients from diverse
backgrounds. There has been debate in the literature on how to define
culture in the context of the supervisory and counseling relationships.
Some have argued for a narrow definition of culture (e.g., Locke, 1990;
Sue, Arredondo, & McDavis, 1992), that is, race and ethnicity, while oth-
ers offer a more broad definition (e.g., D’Andrea & Daniels, 1997; Garrett,
Borders, Crutchfield, Torres-Rivera, Brotherton, & Curtis, 2001; Stone,
1997). For the purpose of this chapter, we suggest a broader definition of
culture, and argue for the term multicultural supervision to be inclusive
of race, ethnicity, language, class or socioeconomic status, sexual identity,
gender, religious or spiritual identity, ability status, and age.
By taking a more inclusive approach to multicultural supervision, we
acknowledge that all individuals have multiple cultural identities that
interact with each other, and these various cultural identities may become
more or less salient across time and situations. In recognizing multicul-
tural supervision, we acknowledge within-group differences, thus avoid-
ing stereotyping and allowing supervisors and supervisees to examine how
various aspects of their cultural identities may influence the supervisory
and counseling relationships. The supervisor–supervisee/counselor–client
triad will become more complex as our society becomes more diverse, thus
increasing the need for multicultural supervision (McLeod, 2008).
Because cultural self-awareness is an important aspect of multicultural
supervision, we suggest the following activity before engaging in multi-
cultural supervision. Draw three columns on a piece of paper. In the first
column, list all the cultural groups of which you are a member (e.g., Asian,
female, heterosexual, able-bodied, married with children). In the second
column, list all the advantages of being in that group (i.e., privileges). In
the third column, list all the disadvantages of being in that group (i.e.,
oppressions). Now review the list and, based on your cultural group mem-
berships, determine if are there any individuals from any cultural groups
that you would have a difficult time either supervising or receiving super-
vision from?
The importance of addressing multicultural issues in counseling and
supervision is highlighted by several documents. Standards for Counseling
Supervisors (ACES, 1990) supports the need to recognize individual dif-
ferences and their impact on the supervisory relationship. The concept of
multicultural counseling competencies (MCC; Sue et al., 1992) stresses the
Multicultural Supervision Competence • 3
need for professional counselors to seek awareness of their own assump-

tions and biases, to understand the worldviews of culturally different
clients, and to develop appropriate intervention strategies for working
with culturally diverse clients. The American Psychological Association’s
(APA’s) Guidelines on Multicultural Education, Training, Research, Practice,
and Organizational Change for Psychologists (2002) promotes addressing
multiculturalism and diversity in psychological education and training.
According to the American Counseling Association (ACA) Code of Ethics,
counselor educators are responsible for infusing multicultural and diver-
sity issues into all counseling courses and workshops, as well as address-
ing multicultural issues in the supervisory relationship (ACA, 2005).
The Council for Accreditation for Counseling and Related Educational
Programs (CACREP, 2009) standards require that counselor training pro-
grams provide counselor trainees with educational experiences that result
in an understanding of the cultural context of relationships, multicultural
trends and concerns, the role of the counselor in social justice and advocacy
work, and an increased level of knowledge, skills, and awareness of atti-
tudes and beliefs related to working with a culturally diverse population.
Clearly, professional organizations advocate for and recognize the
importance of addressing multicultural issues in supervision. The
importance of addressing cultural issues in supervision is also high-
lighted in the literature. When cultural variables were discussed in the
supervisory relationship, supervisees reported increased multicultural
awareness, knowledge, skill and confidence level for addressing cul-
tural issues in supervision and counseling (Toporek, Ortega-Villalobos,
& Pope-Davis, 2004), increased satisfaction with supervision and
enhanced supervisory working alliance (Burkard et al., 2006; Inman,
2006; Silvestri, 2003; Tsong, 2005), increased supervisee self-efficacy for
working with culturally diverse client populations (Fukuyama, 1994),
and perceived their supervisors to be more credible (McLeod, 2008;
Yang, 2005). Additionally, when cultural issues were discussed in super-
vision, supervisees reported that it positively impacted client outcomes
(Ancis & Marshall, in press).
Models for Multicultural Supervision

Many authors have developed models for multicultural supervision. The
Systems Approach to Supervision (SAS; Martinez & Holloway, 1997)
model examines the relationship between contextual factors (e.g., cultural
characteristics, organizational structure of the institution), supervision
functions (e.g., assessment, teaching, consulting), supervision tasks (e.g.,
counseling skills, case conceptualization), and the supervisory relation-
ship. Additionally, the SAS model promotes engaging the supervisee,
establishing a professional relationship, and focusing on both content and

process in supervision and counseling.
González (1997) presented a postmodern approach to supervision by
integrating Interpersonal Process Recall with the Discrimination Model
and live supervision techniques. In this model, the supervisor establishes
a collaborative environment in which the expertise of the supervisee and
client is highly valued. In order to gain insight into the cultural belief sys-
tem and worldviews of the supervisee and client, supervisors attend to
language usage, emotional expressions of the supervisee, and the client’s
verbal and nonverbal statements.
The VISION model of cultural responsiveness (Garrett et al., 2001) pro-
vides a framework for exploring multicultural issues in supervision through
increasing supervisor cultural awareness and cultural responsiveness. This
model outlines the importance of focusing on the values and beliefs (V) of
the supervisor and the supervisee, reminds the supervisor to address the
supervisee’s interpretation (I) of their experiences both in the supervisory
and the counseling process, and encourages the supervisor to consider the
needs and cultural characteristics of the supervisee in structuring (S) the
supervision sessions. Additionally, the supervisor must attend to the inter-
actional styles (I) or the preferred modes of both verbal and nonverbal com-
munication, for both the supervisor and the supervisee, in order to reduce
the chance of unintentional miscommunication. The supervisor should
also give thought to the operational strategies (O), or level of intentional-
ity in using culturally based strategies, to achieve goals for supervision.
Finally, the supervisor considers both the supervisors’ and the supervisees’
perceived needs (mental, physical, spiritual, emotional, or environmental)
related to desired outcomes (N). Unlike the SAS (Martinez & Holloway,
1997) or the González (1997) model for supervision, the VISION model
presents an interactional framework for multicultural supervision by exam-
ining the impact of communication styles, behavior, perception, expecta-
tion, and belief systems within the supervisory relationship (see Chen, 2001
for an additional interactional model for supervision).
Several authors have proposed racial identity development (RID) mod-
els for multicultural supervision that consider not only the interaction
between cultural characteristics but the supervisor’s and the supervisee’s
RID (Chang, et al., 2003; Cook, 1994; D’Andrea & Daniels, 1997). These
RID models for supervision are based on Helms and Carter’s (1990) White
RID model and Atkinson, Morten, and Sue’s (1998) RID model for people
of color. According to the Helms and Carter model, White racial identity
development progresses through six ego statuses: contact, disintegration,
reintegration, pseudoindependence, immersion-emersion, and autonomy.
Similarly, Atkinson et al. posited that minorities progress through five sta-
tuses: conformity, dissonance, resistance and immersion, introspection,
and integrative awareness. Applying these RID models to the supervisor

and the supervisee, the supervisory relationship can be described as par-
allel (supervisor and supervisee are at similar levels of RID), progressive
(supervisor is at a more advanced level of RID), or regressive (supervisee is
at a more advanced level of RID). It has been suggested that if RID issues
are not addressed in supervision, several consequences may occur, includ-
ing perpetuation of stereotypes, misdiagnosis, inappropriate treatment
planning, and countertransferences based on racial issues. Additionally,
failure to discuss racial identity issues in supervision may have a negative
impact on the supervisory relationship and the working alliance (Chang,
et al., 2003; Constantine, Warren, & Miville, 2005; Ladany, Brittan-Powell,
& Pannu, 1997). According to these models, parallel and progressive
relationships will lead to more beneficial supervisory relationships while
regressive relationships may lead to avoidance of, or inappropriate atten-
tion to, cultural issues in supervision.
Several research studies provide evidence for the efficacy of applying
RID to supervision. According to the Bhat and Davis (2007) study that
explored the relationship between RID and working alliance in supervi-
sion, the strongest working alliances were found in supervisory dyads in
which both the supervisor and the supervisee were at advanced statuses of
RID, while the lowest levels of working alliance were found in supervisory
dyads with both the supervisor and supervisee at lower RID statuses.
Ladany et al. (1997) investigated the influence of supervisory racial
identity interactions and racial matching on the supervisory working alli-
ance and supervisee’s multicultural counseling competence. Supervisees
in parallel-high and progressive dyads reported the highest levels of super-
visory working alliance, while regressive interactions predicted the weak-
est supervisory working alliance. Similarly, Constantine et al. (2005) found
that the supervisees in more advanced White RID schemas (i.e., progres-
sive and parallel high dyadic relationships) reported higher self-perceived
multicultural counseling competence and obtained higher multicultural
case conceptualization ratings than those supervisees in supervisory
dyads with lower RID schemas (i.e., parallel-low dyadic relationships).
These studies point to the importance of addressing RID in supervision.
Interestingly, although RID of the supervisor and the supervisee are related
to supervisory working alliance and multicultural counseling competence,
cultural match does not significantly predict level of supervision satisfac-
tion or working alliance (Gatmon et al., 2001).
The Heuristic Model of Nonoppressive Interpersonal Development
(HMNID; Ancis & Ladany, 2001) provides one of the most comprehen-
sive multicultural models for supervision, by not only considering RID but
also cultural identity development (i.e., race, ethnicity, sexual orientation,
gender, disability, and socioeconomic status). According to this model, the
central task for the supervisor is to facilitate the awareness and growth
of the supervisee, thus leading to a more advanced level of cultural iden-
tity development. This model acknowledges that individuals can belong
to multiple cultural groups simultaneously and that these groups can be
either privileged or oppressed. For example, an Asian American, able-
bodied, heterosexual female maintains membership in both privileged
(i.e., able-bodied, heterosexual) and oppressed (Asian American, female)
groups. For each cultural identity, the individual will progress through four
developmental phases based on one’s thoughts and feelings about oneself,
while the individual’s behaviors are based on the individual’s identifica-
tion with a particular cultural identity. The developmental phases include:
(a) adaptation (complacency, stereotypical attitudes, minimal awareness of
privilege and oppression); (b) incongruence (beginning to question beliefs
about cultural variables); (c) exploration (active exploration of cultural
issues); and (d) integration (multicultural integrity). Based on the devel-
opmental stage of the supervisor and the supervisee, Ancis and Ladany
propose four supervisor–supervisee interpersonal interactions: (a) progres-
sive, where the supervisor is at a more advanced stage (i.e., exploration and
integration); (b) parallel-advanced, where the supervisor and the supervi-
see are both at advanced developmental stages; (c) parallel-delayed, where
the supervisor and the supervisee are at comparable delayed stages (i.e.,
adaptation and incongruence); and (d) regressive, where the supervisee is
at a more advanced stage than the supervisor. Ancis and Ladany predict
that the interpersonal interaction will have an impact on the supervisory
working alliance and outcomes of the supervisory relationship.
These models for multicultural supervision point to the importance of
the supervisor, supervisee, and client interaction and provide a general
framework for addressing cultural issues in supervision. In addition to
these models, multiculturally competent supervisors need to be aware of the
various challenges associated with multicultural supervision competence.
Challenges to Multicultural Supervision Competence

The challenges related to multicultural supervision competence include
supervisor training, professional counseling culture, and supervisor
multicultural competence. In a study examining the multicultural train-
ing of supervisors, Constantine (1997) reported that 70% of supervisors
had never had coursework in multicultural counseling, while 70% of the
supervisees reported having completed a course in multicultural counsel-
ing. Additionally, Constantine found that only 15% of supervision time
was spent discussing multicultural issues. Gatmon et al. (2001) also found
that although cultural issues are critical in supervision, discussions related
to cultural issues occur at a low frequency. However, McLeod (2008)
found that participants in her study reported a range of frequencies. Some

supervisors and supervisees reported addressing cultural issues in every
supervision session, while others reported very rarely or never address-
ing cultural issues in supervision. Duan and Roehlke (2001) found that
supervisees may be more sensitive to cultural issues than their supervisors,
while supervisors reported that they attempted to address cultural issues
in supervision more often than was perceived by supervisees. McLeod
(2008) also reported that supervisors in her study reported attending to
cultural issues in supervision at a greater frequency than was perceived by
their supervisees.
The lack of multicultural training of supervisors may be linked to
another challenge to multicultural competent supervision. The counsel-
ing profession is largely based on White male values; thus, supervisees of
color may have a difficult time integrating into this professional identity.
Additionally, racial and ethnic minority supervisees may refrain from dis-
cussing their minority clients for fear of reinforcing cultural stereotypes
(McNeill, Hom, & Perez, 1995).
A related challenge is the lack of multicultural competence of supervi-
sors due either to lack of training and coursework or perpetuation of the
White male value system. White supervisors were less likely to address
multicultural issues in supervision compared to racial and ethnic minority
supervisors, and White supervisors were more likely to discuss multicul-
tural issues with racial and ethnic minority supervisees than with White
supervisees (Hird, Tao, & Gloria, 2005). Additionally, White supervisors
lacking multicultural competence may place their minority supervisees in
the “expert” role, assuming that just because they are from a specific cul-
tural background (e.g., Asian student) the supervisee is an expert in work-
ing with clients from that background (e.g., Asian; McNeill et al., 1995).
Estrada, Frame, and Williams (2004) also cautioned against supervisors
who may avoid racial issues completely or address racial issues at a sim-
plistic level.
Multicultural Supervision Competence

Clearly, there are challenges to multicultural supervision competence. To
assist in facilitating multicultural supervision competence and to combat
these challenges, Ancis and Ladany (2001) developed the Multicultural
Supervision Competencies and McLeod (2008) developed the Continuum
of Supervisor Multicultural Competence. The Multicultural Supervision
Competencies focuses on five domains: personal development (supervisor-
focused and trainee-focused), conceptualization, interventions/skills, pro-
cess, and evaluations.
Personal Development
Personal development includes self-awareness on the part of both the supervi-
sor and the supervisee. It involves self-exploration of one’s values, biases, and
limitations and how these impact the supervisory and counseling relation-
ships. Examples of competencies in this dimension include the following:
• Supervisors actively explore and challenge their attitudes and
biases toward diverse supervisees.
• Supervisors are knowledgeable about their own cultural back-
ground and its influence on their attitudes, values, and behaviors.
• Supervisors facilitate the exploration of supervisees’ identity
development.
• Supervisors help supervisees understand the impact of social
structures on supervisee and client behavior, including how class,
gender, and racial privilege may have benefited the counselor
(Ancis & Ladany, 2001, pp. 80, 81).
Conceptualization
The conceptualization domain involves an understanding of both individ-
ual and contextual factors on the lives of clients. It involves acknowledging
the impact stereotyping and oppression have on the presenting concern.
Conceptualization competencies include the following:
• Supervisors facilitate supervisees’ understanding of culture-spe-
cific norms, as well as heterogeneity within groups.
• Supervisors facilitate supervisees’ understanding of the intersec-
tions of multiple dimensions of diversity, or socio-identities, in
clients’ lives.
• Supervisors help supervisees explore alternative explanations to
traditional theoretical perspectives (Ancis & Ladany, 2001, p. 82).
Interventions/Skills
Multiculturally competent supervisors encourage the use of culturally rel-
evant and appropriate counseling interventions. Interventions/skills com-
petencies include the following:
• Supervisors model and train supervisees in a variety of verbal and
nonverbal helping responses.
• Supervisors encourage supervisee flexibility with regard to tradi-
tional interventions and the use of alternative therapeutic inter-
ventions, such as those emphasizing group participation and
collective action.
• Supervisors encourage supervisees to gain knowledge of community
resources that may benefit clients (Ancis & Ladany, 2001, p. 82).
Process
The process dimension relates to the relationship between the supervisor and
the supervisee. A multiculturally competent supervisor encourages open and
respectful communication, with the use of power being openly addressed,
and works toward a safe supervisory climate in which cultural issues can be
discussed openly and safely. Process competencies include the following:
• Supervisors are honest about their biases and struggles to achieve
cultural competence.
• Supervisors foster a climate that will facilitate discussion of diver-
sity issues.
• Supervisors attend to and process issues related to power dynam-
ics between supervisor and supervisee and supervisee and client
(Ancis and Ladany, 2001, p. 83).
Evaluation
Evaluation relates to the primary goal of supervision, which is to assist the
supervisee in providing ethical and appropriate counseling for clients. As
such, the supervisor engages in ongoing assessment and evaluation of the
supervisee in order to become aware of any personal or professional limi-
tations of the supervisee that would hamper the supervisee’s professional
performance. Evaluation competencies include the following:
• Supervisors are able to identify supervisees’ personal and profes-
sional strengths, as well as weaknesses, in the area of multicul-
tural counseling.
• Supervisors provide ongoing evaluation of supervisees to ensure
multicultural competence.
• Supervisors recognize their responsibility to recommend reme-
dial assistance and screen from the training program, applied
counseling setting, or state licensure those supervisees who do
not demonstrate multicultural competence (Ancis & Ladany,
2001, p. 83).
Using the Ancis and Ladany (2001) model, Ancis and Marshall (in press)
investigated how multicultural competencies were demonstrated in super-
vision. In agreement with the model, it was found that supervisees described
culturally competent supervision across the five domains, while supervisees
described their supervisors as proactive in addressing cultural issues and
open and genuine in discussing the supervisor’s cultural background, expe-
riences, and biases. The open dialogue about cultural issues appeared to have
a positive impact on the supervisory and the counseling relationships.
McLeod (2008) developed the Continuum of Supervisor Multicultural
Competence based on her interviews with both supervisors and supervisees
who were engaged in a multicultural supervisory relationship. The themes

associated with supervisors who were considered to be more multicul-
turally competent included high frequency of attention to multicultural
issues; supervisor responsible for initiating multicultural discussion; inten-
tionality in addressing cultural issues; supervisor actively encourages mul-
ticultural discussions; and culture discussed in relation to relationships
and process. The themes associated with less competence included low
frequency of attention to multicultural issues; supervisee responsible for
initiating multicultural discussions; cultural issues were discussed sponta-
neously; supervisor does not encourage, or silences, multicultural discus-
sions; and culture discussed separately from the relationship and process.
Activity
Reflect on past supervision experiences, if you were the supervisee, where
would you place your supervisor on the continuum? If you were the super-
visor, where do you place yourself on the continuum?
Taking into consideration both the Multicultural Supervision
Competencies (Ancis and Ladany, 2001) and the Continuum of Supervisor
Multicultural Competence (McLeod, 2008), it appears that a multicultur-
ally competent supervisor is one who takes on the responsibility of, and
initiates, cultural dialogue in supervision and does so frequently and with
intentionality. Additionally, the multiculturally competent supervisor
integrates cultural discussion as it relates to personal development, case
conceptualization, interventions/skills, and process.
Recommendations
Based on the various models for multicultural supervision, the Multicultural
Supervision Competencies (Ancis & Ladany, 2001), and the Continuum
of Supervisor Multicultural Competence (McLeod, 2008), we recommend
the following:
1. Supervisors are multiculturally competent: that is, they are aware
of their own values and biases, have knowledge of various cultural
groups, and have skills to work with culturally diverse individu-
als (see the MCC; Sue et al., 1992). Questions to facilitate one’s
self-awareness include the following: Describe your cultural
background. What biases do you have related to various cultural
groups? How will your cultural values and biases influence your
supervisory relationship? With which cultural groups do you feel
most comfortable working, and with which cultural groups do
you feel least comfortable?
2. Supervisors are encouraged to assist their supervisees in self-

exploration related to their supervisees’ cultural heritage. See ear-
lier questions.
3. Supervisors are encouraged to consider the many possible cul-
tural interactions between their supervisees and themselves.
Additionally, if supervisors are conducting group supervision,
they should consider the cultural interactions between their
supervisees. One activity to assist supervisor and the supervisees
consider the intricacies of multiple cultural interactions is to cre-
ate a group supervision cultural genogram. We recommend that
you conduct this activity early during the group supervision pro-
cess. Using a whiteboard or a large flip chart, draw a genogram
with the supervisor on one generation and the supervisees on the
second generation. The supervisor and the supervisees list all their
cultural group memberships. The supervisees are asked to create
a “third” generation listing all the cultural groups of their client
population. Once the genogram has been created, the supervisor
facilitates a discussion related to the cultural genogram. Some
processing questions can include the following: What patterns do
you see in the cultural genogram? Now that you have seen what
others have written, are there any cultural groups that you omit-
ted in your own descriptions? Are there any areas for potential
conflicts/misunderstanding or overidentification between group
members or between you and your client population based on
your cultural group memberships?
4. Supervisors are encouraged to address RID issues with their
supervisees. We suggest that supervisors assess their own status
of RID, assess the RID status of their supervisee, and then con-
sider the interaction between the supervisor RID status and the
supervisee RID status. We recommend the White Racial Identity
Attitude Scale (WRIAS; Helms & Carter, 1990) or the People of
Color Racial Identity Attitude Scale (POCRIAS; Helms & Parham,
1990) for assessing racial identity.
5. White supervisors are encouraged to acknowledge and have an
open discussion related to White privilege, and supervisors work-
ing with White supervisees are encouraged to facilitate dialogue
about White privilege. Hays and Chang (2003) provided some
sample questions to facilitate this awareness. “What does being
White mean to you? What values and traditions do you associate
with your White heritage? How might your racial heritage influ-
ence your relationship with minority clients?” (p. 141).
6. Supervisors are encouraged to address the power differential in
the supervisory relationship and to openly acknowledge when
they are putting on their “power hat” in supervision. For example,

if there is something that you feel that your supervisee needs to
do, it is helpful to recognize that you are putting on your “power
hat” and giving a directive as opposed to facilitating dialogue.
7. Supervisors are responsible for addressing cultural issues in
supervision, and this dialogue should occur early in the supervi-
sory relationship.
Activities
The following multicultural activities are effective in both individual and
group supervision. The purpose is to provide the reader with quick adapt-
able activities that can be utilized in multicultural supervision.
The Name Story (Edchange Multicultural Pavilion)

This activity brings the supervisee’s multicultural experiences and stories
to the forefront in a relaxed and fun way. It can be a written assignment
whereby the supervisee writes a 1 or 2 page short story about their name, or
it can be done verbally, with the supervisor asking questions and the super-
visee providing a thoughtful answer. The directions and structure for this
assignment should be left as broad and open to the supervisee’s interpreta-
tion as possible. Supervisees are asked to discuss the following prompts:
(a) Who gave you your name? Why? (b) What is the ethnic origin of your
name? (c) What are your nicknames, if any? (d) Do you like your name? (e)
If you could change it to a different name, what would it be and why?
Supervisees are encouraged to be thoughtful in their responses. This
activity is most appropriate during the initial rapport-building stage of
supervision. Initially, supervisees may display resistance in sharing per-
sonal information regarding their names and the history of how they
received their names. Supervisors may want to share their name story first
as a way to provide an example of how to approach the prompts as well as
increase the safety and trust level with the supervisee. After the mutual
sharing of name stories, the supervisor facilitates discussion regarding the
importance of this activity and learning points gleaned from this activity.
This is a relatively simple activity captures many multicultural themes.
Within the supervisee’s name history, the supervisor gains informa-
tion about his or her culture, ethnicity, family traditions, and religion. For
instance, “My name is Joseph. My family is Catholic, and it is tradition
within my Catholic family for all of the children to be named after a saint”
or “My name is Imani. My dad has been a social activist for many years,
our family made frequent trips to Africa when I was a child. I like my
name because it means purpose in Swahili.” Another example would be a
supervisee from China who may highlight the fact that Chinese names are
different from Western names such as John Smith, where the family name
is last and the given name is first. Chinese names differ from Western
names, in that the family name is first followed by the given name, for
instance Hu Jintao (Zang, 2005). The name story activity highlights cul-
tural differences. The Chinese greatly value and respect their origins and
ancestors; hence, the family names come before their given names. This
level of sharing and understanding offers a mutual opportunity to increase
sensitivity to cultural differences within the supervisory relationship.
Reflection Papers
Reflection Papers are tools that help promote an understanding of the
supervisee’s cultural identity and explore how this conceptualization of
their identity affects their counseling clients of other cultural, racial, and
socioeconomic identities. The reflection paper is a noninvasive method of
stimulating the supervisee’s thinking about multicultural issues in coun-
seling and counselor–client complexity.
Journal
Similar to the reflection papers, journaling is another activity that helps the
supervisee move forward in the process of becoming culturally competent
counselors. By journaling their reactions, feelings, thoughts, and “turning
points” within their work with clients, the supervisor, and the overall process
of the supervised experience, they increase their awareness and acknowl-
edge their perceived assumptions in written form. By the end of the super-
vised experience, the journal provides a tool of reflection for the supervisee
to go back and read past entries; many are amazed at how far they’ve grown
or shocked by the issues they grappled with in the past that are no longer a
source of angst. Periodically, the supervisor can instruct the supervisee to
journal about a specific area that seems to present a challenge. For exam-
ple, an African American female supervisor could ask her Caucasian, male
supervisee to journal about his experience of what he described as “frustra-
tion” in his attempts to establish rapport with his first African American
female client. This journaling experience provides a backdrop for a rich
discussion regarding assumptions and biases, feedback and continued dia-
logue to increase self-awareness in a nonintrusive manner.
Self and Other Exercise (Baird, 2005)

The foundation to understanding others is to maintain an awareness of
self; the goal of this exercise is to provide a tool to help supervisees increase
their awareness of their personal cultural background (Baird, 2005). This
exercise can be completed as a written assignment, orally, or in pairs
within group supervision. Discuss the following prompts thoughtfully
and completely:
1. My gender is , and this is how it might influence

my experiences and how I understand and relate to others.
2. My age is , and this is how it influences my experiences
and how I understand and relate to others.
3. My physical appearance includes the following qualities (Describe
these accurately, without oversimplification or the use of racial
terms):
Skin:
Hair:
Facial features:
Body Type/Build:
Other features:
This is how those features might influence my experiences and how I
understand and relate to others:
4. The nationality and cultural background of my parents and
grandparents:
My father’s mother:
My father’s father:
My mother’s mother:
My mothers’ father:
My father:
My mother:
This is how the culture of my family influences my experiences and how I
understand and relate to others.
5. With regard to economic resources, the family I was raised in
was .
This is how my social and economic background influences my experi-
ences and how I understand and relate to others.
6. The religious orientation of my mother is .
The religious orientation of my father is .
My religious orientation is .
This is how that background influences my experiences and how I under-
stand and relate to others.
7. My physical health and abilities are .
8. My sexual orientation is .

9. My mother’s educational background is .
My father’s educational background is .
My educational background is .
10. Other characteristics that have influenced my experiences and
how I understand and relate to others are .
Knowing What You Know and Don’t Know About Others (Baird, 2005)
Provide this list of characteristics that distinguish individuals and groups
from one another. Instruct supervisees to be thoughtful in their attempt
to identify how their own personal knowledge, understanding, or expe-
riences would enable them to accurately understand and relate to the
specified groups’ experiences, thoughts, concerns, emotions, or needs in a
therapeutic, empathic, and culturally competent way. For each group that
supervisees feel they have a level of competence to work effectively with,
ask them to provide reasons that explain why they feel such competence.
For example, the supervisor may want to ask, what experience, training,
or personal knowledge do you have relation to this group? (Baird, 2005).
This exercise is also useful in highlighting the supervisee’s awareness and
knowledge regarding within-group differences.
Age groups:
Genders:
Appearance (e.g., skin, color, facial features):
Ethnic or cultural background:
Generations lived in this country:
Economic status:
Education level:
Religion:
Sexual orientation:
Physical abilities and disabilities:
Summary
In this chapter, the authors discussed the importance of multicultural
supervision competence. Various models and frameworks for understand-
ing multicultural supervision were presented. Additionally, the authors
discussed the challenges to and provided some recommendations and sug-

gested activities for providing supervision that is culturally competent.
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Chapter 2
No Surprises
Practices for Conducting Supervisee Evaluations
Cynthia J. Osborn and Brandy L. Kelly
“I will be evaluating your work as a counselor” may not only be difficult

words for a new supervisee to hear; they may be difficult words for a super-
visor (novice or seasoned) to say. The impression supervisees have of “being
under” their supervisor’s “microscope” is understandable, and their anxi-
ety about what their supervisor will “find” is to be expected. Supervisors
may also struggle with conducting evaluations (see Gould & Bradley, 2001)
and experience what Nelson, Barnes, Evans, and Triggiano (2008) referred
to as “supervisor gatekeeping anxiety.” One explanation for this is that as
counselors, supervisors may be more accustomed to and more comfortable
with providing encouragement to other people (e.g., clients) and less famil-
iar or comfortable with what they may construe as the authoritarian and
dictatorial role of evaluator. Both supervisees and supervisors may there-
fore enter the evaluation process with trepidation because of unclear role
expectations: the supervisee may not know the specific counselor behav-
iors that will be acceptable or regarded as favorable, and the supervisor
may not know exactly how to deliver the constructive feedback supervisees
need and often expect.
Watkins (1997b) described evaluation as “one of the key definitional
features of clinical supervision” (p. 611), and Bernard and Goodyear
(2004) further prioritized it by characterizing it as “the nucleus of clinical
supervision” (p. 19). Indeed, they emphasized that “there is an evaluative
message in all supervision … [and] evaluation is a constant variable in
19
supervision … . Because we are always communicating, an evaluative mes-

sage can always be inferred” (p. 20). They listed “evaluative” as the first of
three characteristics of the supervisory relationship, and Holloway (1995)
listed “monitoring/evaluating” as the first of five functions of the supervi-
sor. Evaluation can therefore be regarded as a default feature of supervision
and a function of the counselor supervisor that cannot be avoided. This is
expressed best by Watkins (1997a):
If supervisees are to receive feedback about their performance; are
to be told about their therapeutic strengths and weaknesses; are to
be informed about their skills or areas of functioning that need to be
developed, further enhanced, or improved; and if patient care is to be
monitored and protected, then supervision must be evaluative. (p. 4)
Despite its centrality to counselor supervision, evaluation remains “the
conundrum of supervision” (Gould & Bradley, 2001, p. 271). Questions
persist about how the process of evaluation should be conducted and what
criteria should be used in evaluating supervisees. Lehrman-Waterman and
Ladany (2001) developed the 21-item Evaluation Process within Supervision
Inventory (EPSI) to assess supervisees’ experiences with the process of eval-
uation, specifically with goal-setting and feedback. Fall and Sutton (2004)
constructed their 102-item Supervisee Performance Assessment Instrument
according to five dimensions of evaluation: intervention skills, conceptu-
alization skills, personalization skills, professional behavior, and super-
vision skills for the supervisee. These and other measures provide some
guidance about the process and content of evaluation. Definitive evalua-
tion practices, however, remain elusive, and supervisors must rely on their
best judgment, which is hopefully informed by their direct observation of
supervisee skills, interactions with the supervisee, supervisory training,
ethical inclination, and consultation with other professionals.
Our intention in this chapter is to provide further guidance to coun-
selor supervisors about the nature and process of evaluation. We do not
enumerate decisive prescriptions. Rather, we offer a guiding principle that
has assisted us in our own practice of supervisee evaluation: no surprises.
By this we mean that the supervisee should not be surprised by either the
content of his or her evaluation or how the evaluation was conducted on
the occasion of formal evaluation (which may be at the close of a supervi-
sion working relationship). As Kaiser (1997) indicated, “supervisees should
know all along what is expected of them and whether they are meeting
those expectations” (p. 93). Supervisor–supervisee collaboration, mutual
understanding about the purpose and practice of supervision, and super-
visor consistency are therefore paramount. We describe six specific prac-
tices to help prevent supervisee surprise with his or her evaluation and also
No Surprises • 21
enhance supervisee professional development. We provide examples from

our own supervisory practice.
The Formative–Summative Link

There are two primary types of evaluation conducted in supervision: for-
mative and summative. Formative evaluation is considered the ongoing
provision of direct feedback during the course of the supervision process.
It is typically provided in oral form (i.e., not formally recorded) during
each supervision session and represents a here-and-now assessment, thus
constituting clear and timely feedback. In medical training, the purpose of
formative feedback is to improve the learning process so as “to help students
develop under conditions that are non-judgmental and non-threatening”
(Rolfe & McPherson, 1995, p. 837; see also Chur-Hansen & McLean, 2006;
Benson & Holloway, 2005). Because formative evaluation is a continuous
process, it “represents the bulk of the supervisor’s work with the super-
visee” (Bernard & Goodyear, 2009, p. 21). According to participants in
Benson and Holloway’s (2005) study, formative evaluation provides super-
visors with the opportunity to deliver ongoing feedback that may include
“teaching a new skill,” “providing a trainee support and encouragement,”
and “clarifying expectations.” It can serve as a form of remedial guidance
(see Rolfe & McPherson, 1995) and is an opportunity for supervisees to
engage in self-evaluation.
Summative evaluation is conducted at specific intervals (e.g., mid-
semester, end of training experience or probationary period), is more
comprehensive than formative evaluation, and represents a summation of
the supervisee’s clinical work for a specified period of time. Summative
evaluation is therefore a culminating activity that may represent the final
process of evaluation in which the supervisor reviews the supervisee’s
areas of strength, as well as areas requiring continued or greater atten-
tion. As a formal type of evaluation, summative evaluation is typically
provided in written form and the “results” placed in the supervisee’s file
(academic, personnel, and/or licensure file). Chur-Hansen and McLean
(2006) described summative evaluation as “passing judgment” on whether
the supervisee will “pass or fail” (p. 67). Their definition of summative
evaluation is thus a prime example of what is referred to as “gatekeeping”:
determining whether the supervisee should pass a practicum or intern-
ship course, graduate from a counselor preparation program, or even be
licensed or certified as a counselor.
Feedback is often used to refer to formative evaluation, and evalua-
tion is often used to refer to summative evaluation. However, we believe
that the terms are interchangeable: feedback is evaluation, and evalu-
ation is feedback. We also believe that they are inextricably linked, and
that supervisors should not practice either one independent of the other.
That is, formative evaluation is conducted for the purpose of constructing
and rendering a formal and final evaluation. Put in another way, forma-
tive evaluation leads to summative evaluation, and summative evaluation
builds on, and is the product of, a series of formative evaluations. Both
constitute “the supervisor’s response to the supervisee’s counseling perfor-
mance” (Gould & Bradley, 2001, p. 281). Chur-Hansen and McLean (2006)
concurred, stating that both formative and summative evaluations should
be based on behaviors that the supervisor has directly observed as opposed
to simply relying on supervisee self-report. In this way, supervisors are
able to conduct accurate and comprehensive evaluations, provide supervi-
sees with specific examples to substantiate their evaluative comments, and
offer specific and concrete recommendations.
Rolfe and McPherson (1995) described formative evaluation as the
supervisor’s response to the supervisee’s question, “How am I doing?”
and summative evaluation as the supervisor’s response to the supervisee’s
question, “How did I do?” Formative evaluation is therefore an ongoing
supervisory activity, assessing the supervisee’s current performance and
providing feedback that describes the supervisee’s work as being in prog-
ress. With this in mind, Chur-Hansen and McLean (2006) recommended
that supervisees not view formative evaluation as having pass–fail conse-
quences. We agree. Such consequences would be contrary to and, in effect,
undercut the very purpose of formative evaluation, that being to facilitate
supervisee remediation and promote his or her continuous learning and
development. We do not agree, however, with Chur-Hansen and McLean’s
reasoning that because formative evaluation does not pass judgment on
whether a supervisee passes or fails, it “is quite separate from any sum-
mative assessment” (p. 70). As stated earlier, we view both types of evalu-
ation as interchangeable and conducted in the service of the other; neither
should be practiced independently. Imagine continuous feedback that has
no point, a series of “whereas” statements without an eventual “therefore”
statement, or a graduate counseling course in which the weekly assign-
ments reviewed by the instructor and returned to students do not result in a
final grade (whether a letter grade or pass/fail grade). Formative evaluation
and summative evaluation are therefore inextricably linked and cannot be
practiced separately. Formative evaluation informs summative evaluation,
and summative evaluation summarizes the supervisory conversations up
until the formal and possibly final evaluation.
The challenge for supervisors is to skillfully connect formative evalu-
ation (or feedback) and summative evaluation so that (a) the latter is
informed and shaped by the former, (b) supervisees receive ongoing feed-
back about their performance, (c) supervisors are practicing the skill of
clinical assessment and providing constant evaluation in preparation for
No Surprises • 23
summative evaluation, (d) supervisors are not overwhelmed or intimidated

by the task of summative evaluation, and (e) supervisees are not surprised
by the outcome of the summative evaluation. Connecting these two types of
evaluation seems to be mutually beneficial for supervisors and supervisees.
Bernard and Goodyear (2004) described the investment of time and care in
the formative evaluation process as the “chief antidote to summative dis-
dain” (p. 21). Supervisors may thus ease their discomfort with summative
evaluation by consistently providing their supervisees with oral feedback
in every supervision session and documenting in writing the feedback sup-
plied. This practice also seems to be what supervisees prefer.
From her pilot study of supervisee preferences for supervision,
Heckman-Stone (2003) reported that one of the primary concerns about
supervision that supervisees described had to do with the context of
feedback (i.e., immediacy and frequency). Specifically, the 40 partici-
pants (graduate students in three different training programs at one
university) were not satisfied with receiving feedback only at the end of
the academic term and receiving written feedback without being able to
discuss it orally with their supervisor. From their experiences in super-
vision, however, and their responses to one item on the questionnaire
(“There were inconsistencies between my supervisor’s feedback to me in
session and written evaluations”), participants indicated a high consis-
tency between the content of the oral feedback they received in session
and the content of the written, formal, and summative feedback they
received at the end of the semester. These supervisee comments sug-
gest to us that supervisees view formative and summative feedback as
intertwined and that satisfaction with supervision is based in part on
whether the oral feedback agrees with the written evaluation. Practicing
the principle of no surprises is therefore beneficial to supervisors and
preferred by supervisees. Ensuring that weekly supervision conver-
sations are summarized in the summative evaluation is, however, the
supervisor’s responsibility.
Supervisor and Supervisee Impressions of Evaluation

Although supervisors tend to agree that evaluation is an important func-
tion of supervision, they may not identify their role as being primarily that
of “evaluator.” Freeman and McHenry (1996) reported that 78% of the 329
faculty supervisors they surveyed from counseling programs accredited
by the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational
Programs (CACREP) ranked “evaluation of student” as one of five very
important functions of supervision. Only 2.8% (n = 8), however, described
their supervisory style/approach as “screening/evaluator” (“director/
teacher” was the most frequently listed, by 18%). Providing feedback and
conducting evaluations, therefore, may not necessarily equate with being

an evaluator, or at least identifying primarily as an evaluator. And one role
may not sufficiently capture the many functions of a supervisor.
The experience of “supervisor gatekeeping anxiety” (Nelson et al., 2008)
might suggest a disconnection between function and role or between expec-
tations and actual practice. Supervisors may understand that they need to
evaluate, but may not know how. This is suggested in Ladany, Ellis, and
Friedlander’s (1999) survey of 151 psychologists in training in various prac-
tice settings. The most frequent ethical violation reported by these supervi-
sees (by 33.1% of respondents) of their supervisors was that of “performance
evaluation and monitoring of supervisee activities.” Specific supervisor eval-
uation practices regarded as unethical included “gives me little feedback” and
“never listened to my audio tapes.” One supervisee in Ladany et al.’s study
reported, “At the end of the semester I was very surprised to find that she was
unsatisfied with my work … I had never been evaluated or critiqued.”
Failure to provide supervisees with regular feedback may be associ-
ated with supervisor anxiety about conducting evaluations, and this in
turn may describe a supervisor who has not been able to fully appreci-
ate the connection between formative evaluation and summative evalu-
ation. Participants in Nelson et al.’s (2008) qualitative study reported
learning from past conflicts with supervisees the importance of clarifying
expectations from the beginning and providing more feedback early on.
Intentionally and consistently practicing formative evaluation, beginning
even in the first supervision session, and summarizing this feedback in
the summative evaluation may therefore reduce supervisee surprise as well
as supervisor gatekeeping anxiety. Such practice is also consistent with a
strong supervisory working alliance. Lehrman-Waterman and Ladany
(2001) found that clinical and counseling psychology student supervisees
whose supervisors conducted effective evaluation (based on supervisee
EPSI scores) were satisfied with supervision, reported a strong supervisory
working alliance, and tended to view their supervisor as influencing their
(i.e., the supervisees’) self-efficacy.
Recommended Practices for Conducting

Evaluation in Counseling Supervision
Freeman (1985) identified nine characteristics of effective evaluation or super-
visee feedback (whether formative or summative): timely, frequent, objective
(based on behaviorally defined criteria), consistent, clear, specific, credible
(based on direct observation, supervisor credentials), balanced (positive and
negative), and reciprocal. These criteria are incorporated into the six prac-
tices for conducting supervisee evaluations described in this section.
No Surprises • 25
Use of a Written Supervision Contract

Due to the hierarchical nature of the supervisory relationship, the supervi-
sor has the responsibility to ensure that the supervisee is clearly informed
about the evaluative structure, expectations and goals, and limits to confi-
dentiality in supervision (Nelson & Friedlander, 2001). One way to ensure
supervisee clarity on these matters is to construct with the supervisee a
written supervision agreement or contract. Contracting in supervision has
been described as possibly “the most important task engaged in by super-
visor and supervisee” (Hewson, 1999, p. 81), and Storm (1997) referred to
the contract as the “blueprint” for the supervision relationship.
We recommend that a written supervision contract be introduced in the
first supervision session to alert the supervisee to the function of supervi-
sion and to how evaluation will be conducted. Osborn and Davis (1996;
see also Osborn, 2005) described the purpose of a written supervision con-
tract as (a) clarifying the methods, goals, and expectations of supervision;
(b) encouraging professional collaboration between the supervisor and
supervisee; (c) ensuring that ethical principles are upheld; (d) document-
ing services to be provided; and (e) aligning supervision with counseling
and consultation, two services that utilize a written contract with clients.
Nelson and Friedlander (2001) reported that most conflict occurs due to
opposing expectations between supervisor and supervisee about what
should occur in the supervision relationship (e.g., confusion over who
was in charge, who would be evaluating). Because of this, we agree with
Thomas (2007) that the use of a written supervision contract can serve to
prevent misunderstandings or at least lessen the extent or intensity of con-
flict between the supervisor and supervisee.
Although several examples of written supervision agreements exist (e.g.,
Haynes, Corey, & Mouton, 2003; Sutter, McPherson, & Geeseman, 2002),
the contracts we have devised when we work with individual supervisees
have followed the structure recommended by Osborn and Davis (1996).
There are six content areas or sections (see Appendix A at the end of this
chapter for a sample of a written supervision contract). First, the purpose,
goals, and objectives of supervision are listed, including the need to fulfill
academic and licensure requirements. Second, the context of supervision
services is described. This refers in part to when and how often supervi-
sion will take place, and the method the supervisor will use to monitor the
supervisee’s performance (e.g., live supervision). The third section of the
written supervision contract clarifies how the supervisee will be evaluated
and refers to both formative and summative evaluations. We recommend
that when the supervisor reviews the initial contract with supervisees in
the first supervision session, each supervisee receive a copy of the actual
evaluation form that the supervisor will use when conducting summative
evaluations. This allows the supervisee to become familiar with the criteria
on which he or she will be formally evaluated, which should also corre-
spond to the type of oral feedback the supervisee will get in each super-
vision session. The remaining three sections of the written supervision
contract are separate listings of the supervisor’s and supervisee’s duties
and responsibilities (including three or four supervisee learning objec-
tives), procedural considerations (e.g., emergency procedures and contact,
record keeping, process for addressing supervisor–supervisee disagree-
ment), and the supervisor’s competencies or scope of practice.
Reviewing with a new supervisee the draft of a written supervision con-
tract in the first supervision session establishes the structure of supervi-
sion (including roles, responsibilities, and expectations; see Appendix B
for guidelines for constructing a written supervision contract and intro-
ducing it to supervisees in the first supervision session). It thus serves as
a role induction exercise, which Bahrick, Russell, and Salmi (1991) found
contributed to supervisee clarity about the nature of supervision and also
helped supervisees to recognize and express their needs to their supervi-
sor. Reviewing the contract with a new supervisee also establishes a col-
laborative working relationship in supervision, which we believe facilitates
the supervisor’s practice of formative evaluation. Indeed, Johnson (2007)
proposed that “when a supervisor establishes a strong and collegial rela-
tionship of trust with a trainee, he or she will be in a stronger position to
competently fulfill an evaluative role” (p. 265).
Not only has the written supervision contract allowed us to set the tone
for a collaborative supervisory working relationship, it has also served as
a “check” or an assessment of our work with supervisees once supervision
is under way. In the academic setting where we practice, the midsemes-
ter summative evaluation is an occasion to revisit the written supervision
contract with supervisees. “How are we doing?” is the question we ask our
supervisees. Additional questions include: “Is our work together so far
addressing your learning objectives?” and “What revisions do we need to
make in our contract for the remainder of the semester to be beneficial for
you?” Even if midsemester corrections are not needed, questions such as
these promote joint reflection and signal to the supervisee the supervisor’s
concern for clarity, consistency, and collaboration.
Delivering Oral Feedback in Session

The evaluation section of the written supervision contracts we construct
with our supervisees mentions that feedback will be provided in every
supervision session. This might even begin in the very first supervision
session, alluding to in-session supervisee behavior. For a brand-new coun-
selor trainee (e.g., practicum student), an example of supervisory feedback
in the first session might be: “You have a ready and natural smile. I think
No Surprises • 27
we’ll have conversations here in supervision about how you can minimize
how often you smile when you’re in session with clients.” A supervisor
comment such as this can have the effect of encouraging early supervisee
self-assessment or self-monitoring; alert the supervisee to the evaluative
nature of supervision; and prepare the supervisee for routine, specific, and
relevant feedback. This type of specific and timely feedback appears to be
what many supervisees prefer. Anderson, Schlossberg, and Rigazio-DiGilio
(2000) reported that 90.5% of the 158 marriage and family therapy students
surveyed endorsed the statement “Supervisor’s feedback was direct and
straightforward” as a characteristic of their best supervision. Other highly
endorsed statements characterizing their best supervision were “Mistakes
were welcome as learning experiences,” “Time was set aside exclusively for
supervision,” and “Supervisor provided useful conceptual frameworks for
understanding clients.”
For supervisees not to be surprised by the nature and content of the final
or summative evaluation and for the summative evaluation to represent a
summary of supervisory conversations, we recommend that supervisors
be generous with and explicit about their provision of feedback in every
supervision session. Feedback should become routine, an integral part of
each session, and offered as part of the standard supervision conversation.
In other words, supervisors should become accustomed to offering direct
and specific feedback about their supervisees’ performance in every ses-
sion; and supervisees should become accustomed to receiving such feed-
back from their supervisors. This includes feedback about supervisees’
in-session behavior or presentation in supervision. Indeed, Dohrenbusch
and Lipka (2006) found that the 12 supervisors in their study evaluated
their supervisees primarily on their behavior in supervision rather than
their behavior in sessions with clients. Although we recommend that oral
feedback be based on both counseling session behavior and supervision
session behavior, the latter may be more difficult for some supervisors to
provide. That is, supervisors may be less comfortable assessing and com-
menting on issues of immediacy, or how their supervisees conduct them-
selves in-the-moment of supervision. These issues, however, may parallel
supervisee behaviors in counseling. An illustration may be helpful.
A beginning counselor trainee one of us worked with lamented in super-
vision the number of clients who elected not to return for counseling follow-
ing their initial session with him. This supervisee naturally nods his head
repeatedly when listening to other people (e.g., classmates, clients, supervi-
sor), a behavior the supervisor had observed in practicum class, in his video-
recorded initial counseling sessions, and in individual supervision. The
supervisor’s theory had been that this supervisee’s frequent (although slight)
head nodding inadvertently conveyed to the speaker (e.g., client) premature
understanding and agreement; this was the supervisor’s experience when
talking to the supervisee in individual sessions (i.e., “He’s nodding his head,
but I’m not sure he really knows or understands what I mean”). The supervi-
see’s lament about clients not returning was used as an occasion to provide
the supervisee with this feedback: “You know, I’ve noticed that you often
nod your head when you’re listening to someone, like you’re doing right now
as I talk. This seems like a very natural thing for you to do, and something
I’ve observed you doing when you meet with clients. I wonder, though, if
your head nodding might be communicating agreement, say with a client,
when you really don’t have enough information yet to form a judgment or an
opinion. I’ve thought this myself in supervision, whether what I say is actu-
ally as clear to you as your head nodding suggests to me. I don’t know, but I
wonder how clients have interpreted your head nodding.” This supervisor’s
observation led to an extended conversation about nonverbal communica-
tion and how the supervisee could be more attentive to his body language.
Nonverbal communication was a topic in subsequent supervision sessions
and was addressed in the midsemester summative evaluation in terms of
supervisee progress (less frequent head nodding in counseling sessions,
more frequent empathic reflections offered to his clients).
Soliciting Supervisee Feedback in Session

Not only is it important in each supervision session for supervisors to pro-
vide supervisees with oral feedback, it is equally important for supervi-
sees to offer their supervisors feedback. We believe it is essential in each
supervision session for the supervisor to invite supervisees to assess their
counseling knowledge and skills, and also assess supervisory procedures
and dynamics. This practice is likened to formative evaluation, although in
this instance it is the supervisee who provides feedback to the supervisor
about the process of supervision. Psychotherapy research suggests that cli-
ents whose therapists actively solicit client perspectives about therapy (e.g.,
preferences, opinions) are more likely to assess the therapeutic relation-
ship as collaborative (Bachelor, 1995; Lilliengren & Werbart, 2005) and feel
empowered and satisfied with therapy (Timulak & Elliott, 2003). Supervisees
might respond in a similar fashion when routinely asked by their supervi-
sors for their perspectives and ideas about the process of supervision and
their progress as counselor trainees. Indeed, Fernando and Hulse-Killacky
(2005) recommended that supervisors should formally and informally eval-
uate how aspects of their style are helping or hampering supervisee devel-
opment, which we believe engages our supervisees in self-assessment and
professional collaboration. This practice also models for supervisees a style
of genuine inquisitiveness and collaboration to use in session with their cli-
ents and may also influence their practice as future supervisors.
The open-ended and constructive questions we ask our supervisees in
order to garner their impressions of their counseling performance and their
No Surprises • 29
supervision involvement are consistent with a solution-focused approach to

supervision (see Juhnke, 1996). “How do you think you did in this fourth
session with this client?” and “What did you have planned for this particular
counseling session?” encourage supervisee self-assessment and also allow the
supervisor to gauge supervisee skills. Questions about the supervisory pro-
cess include “What do you think about my recommendation?” and “What
is one thing that you and I have discussed in today’s session that (a) stood
out for you, (b) was helpful, or (c) you will take with you today and apply to
your next session with this client?” This latter question is one we typically
ask at the conclusion of each supervision session and because of its focus and
specificity (i.e., “one thing”), can be asked even when only one or two min-
utes remain in the session and as we and our supervisees gather our materi-
als before one of us exits the room. Supervisee responses are included in our
supervision notes to assist with constructing the summative evaluation.
Maintaining Supervision Notes

Falvey (2002) and her colleagues (Falvey, Caldwell, & Cohen, 2002; Falvey
& Cohen, 2003) have reinforced the importance of documentation in
supervision. Their primary motive for maintaining clear, specific, and
timely written supervision notes is to prevent supervisor legal or ethical
misconduct. The forms they have developed to encourage supervisor doc-
umentation are referred to as The Focused Risk Management Supervision
System (FoRMSS; Falvey et al., 2002). The forms include a log of all client
cases assigned to the supervisee and reviewed in supervision; an overview
of each client case (including a list of all services provided to each client,
client treatment plan); and a list of services provided in each supervision
session (including supervisor’s treatment recommendations). The promi-
nent theme throughout the FoRMSS appears to be that clients, supervisees,
and supervisors are all at risk: clients are at risk of receiving too few coun-
seling sessions due to managed care restrictions; supervisees are at risk
of not being fully prepared for assessing and treating complex and severe
client issues; and supervisors may be at risk for inadequate client oversight
by not reviewing specific aspects of each client case with the supervisee.
We appreciate Falvey et al.’s (2002) provision of a detailed and thor-
ough format to track supervisee activities (interventions and concerns)
and supervisor activities (treatment and training recommendations) in the
interest of ethical and legal standards. However, our emphasis or theme in
maintaining supervision notes is not risk prevention; it is enhancement.
That is, our focus is on supervisee skill development, and we document our
observations of the supervisee’s intervention, conceptualization, and per-
sonalization skills (according to Bernard’s 1997, supervisor focus areas),
skills performed adequately and exceptionally, as well as skills that have
yet to be demonstrated adequately. Although we record important client
information in our supervision notes (e.g., demographics, presenting and

current concerns, dates of services) and track the supervisee’s work with
each of his or her clients (e.g., written observations from tape review) as
Falvey et al. recommend, our emphasis in documentation is on the super-
visee’s growth or enhancement as a professional counselor.
We write notes when we review supervisee video recordings of counsel-
ing sessions outside of scheduled supervision times, during each supervision
session, and immediately following each supervision session. We do not use a
specific form for this (we go through a lot of legal pads!), but our format gen-
erally follows documenting client information, supervisee skills, and super-
visor recommendations. Often we make a copy of the notes we took while
reviewing a video-recorded counseling session outside of supervision, and
we provide this copy to our supervisee after reviewing it with him or her. We
also take notes during supervision to capture information exchanged in the
session and model for the supervisee conscientious and disciplined practice.
We encourage our supervisees to maintain their own notes during supervi-
sion, a practice that Dohrenbusch and Lipka (2006) found contributed to
favorable supervisee evaluations. Notes we take immediately following a
supervision session are for the purpose of highlighting specific supervisee
skills observed and lacking, specific feedback we offered to the supervisee in
session, and further actions we should take as supervisors prior to the next
scheduled supervision session.
Each supervision note represents a summary of our observations, for-
mative feedback, and recommendations. Our intent is to capture in writing
the highlights of our conversations with our supervisees, and this includes
notes taken as we watch the video recordings of our supervisees meeting
with their clients (because we provide supervisees with a copy of these
notes, these notes can be considered notes to our supervisees). As much
as possible, we try to document specifics: specific skills observed, specific
feedback offered, and specific recommendations provided. In this way, we
have a running list of examples to help us construct the eventual formal
or summative evaluation. It also means that the summative evaluation is
indeed a summary of the conversations we have had with our supervisees:
conversations about their growth and enhancement. During the review of
the formal evaluation, this allows us to make references to earlier conver-
sations, such as “As we talked about after your second session with client
Cassandra …” and “This is something that I emphasized when you started
meeting with client Jamie and we talked about the difficulty you had
knowing how to handle her disclosure.” Referring to earlier supervisory
conversations (made possible by maintaining detailed notes of each super-
vision session) suggests that the supervisee has been kept apprised of his
or her performance throughout supervision and should therefore not be
surprised with the content of his or her formal or summative evaluation.
No Surprises • 31
Constructing Narrative Reviews

Consistent with our philosophy that the summative evaluation reflects a sum-
mary of supervisory conversations is our practice of appending a narrative
review to each standard numerical rating form often used by counselor prep-
aration programs, community agencies and schools, and credentialing bodies
(e.g., state licensure boards) to evaluate a supervisee’s work. We write a one- to
two-paragraph narrative for the purpose of expounding on the numerical rat-
ings. The narrative can be written in the third person or addressed directly to
the supervisee as a letter. We often structure our narrative reviews according
to “What you did well” and “What you need to continue to work on.” Because
it accompanies the standard numerical rating form, the narrative should be
consistent with and explain the supervisee’s quantitative evaluation.
Examples of narrative reviews we have constructed (pseudonyms are
used) are as follows:
• “Tony is current about the status of his clients and prepared to dis-
cuss their issues and goals as needed to conceptualize their cases.
He intentionally infuses directives and suggestions into client ses-
sions, and he has offered thoughtful commentary on the utiliza-
tion of feedback in conversations with his supervisor.”
• “Alexia is encouraged to continue building upon her skills and
abilities in looking for meaning behind the content that is pre-
sented in client sessions (e.g., decrease emphasis placed on verbal-
ized words) … . Alexia is advised to continue working to decrease
her perceived sense of responsibility for clients (e.g., increasing
comfort with client termination and recognition of client’s work
that is needed to achieve goals).”
• “Mark, you have been able to demonstrate a more direct style, replete
with observations and reflective statements. In one session, you
were able to inquire about the client’s alcohol use in an inquisitive
and nonthreatening manner, posing specific questions that elicited
detailed information. The client later remarked that your expression
of concern was what stood out for him in this session, indicating
that your feedback was interpreted as helpful and nonjudgmental.”
• “Specific improvements I have witnessed in Jennifer this semes-
ter include her provision of more reflective statements/empathic
reflections, particularly statements that are ‘truncated’ or con-
cise (e.g., ‘Almost painful’ and ‘Got some order back’). I would
encourage Jennifer to consider how she can reflect more than cli-
ent verbalizations (i.e., not just client content or what the client
has actually said) and reflect client nonverbals and what client is
not saying (i.e., what client is not yet able to verbalize but feels or
is experiencing).”
The narrative review is intended to explain the numerical ratings, provide

specific examples to support the supervisee’s quantitative assessment, and
personalize or customize the evaluation to each supervisee. Supervisees
have commented that the narrative reviews help them understand their
ratings and clarify for them what they need to continue to work on in
ongoing counseling and supervision.
Evaluative Exchange
There is evidence to suggest that supervisees and supervisors seem to agree
on important topics discussed in supervision (Henry, Hart, & Nance,
2004), specifically (a) skills and techniques and (b) personal issues. There
is further evidence to suggest that supervisees and supervisors agree on
characteristics of supervisees who use supervision well (Vespia, Heckman-
Stone, & Delworth, 2002). These characteristics include the following:
(a) demonstrates respect and appreciation for individual differences, (b)
actively participates in supervision sessions, (c) gives supervisor feedback
regarding needs and wants, (d) takes responsibility for consequences of
own behavior, and (e) implements supervisor’s directives when client wel-
fare is of concern to supervisor. Supervisees are therefore able to be actively
engaged in the evaluation process and we encourage supervisors to solicit
their participation.
Gould and Bradley (2001) described evaluation as “a two-way street”
(p. 276) and Freeman (1985) referred to reciprocal feedback wherein the
supervisee is able to clarify feedback, provide alternative perspectives, and
offer feedback to the supervisor. We direct our supervisees to complete a
supervisor evaluation at midsemester and at the end of the semester, and we
provide them with the supervisor evaluation form in the very first supervi-
sion session. We then dedicate a significant portion of a supervision ses-
sion to what we refer to as the exchange of evaluations: the supervisor first
reviews his or her evaluation of the supervisee with the supervisee, and
the supervisee then reviews his or her evaluation of the supervisor with
the supervisor. We model straightforward communication by reviewing
each numerically rated item with the supervisee and then reading aloud
the narrative review to the supervisee. Our intent is to reinforce that evalu-
ation has been a constant focus and activity throughout supervision and
that conversation during the formal or summative evaluation session is
consistent with and a summary of prior supervisory conversations.
Evaluation as Mentoring and Preparing Future Colleagues

Evaluation is a necessary and integral part of supervision. It “goes with the
territory” of being a professional. Indeed, continuous review or evaluation
of trainees and colleagues is an important characteristic of scholarship
No Surprises • 33
(Shulman, 1998). Not only does supervisory evaluation serve preventive and
remedial functions (e.g., hindering the advancement of trainees or colleagues
who demonstrate inadequate skills or who are impaired; see Rapisarda &
Britton, 2007, for a discussion of sanctioned supervision), it is also intended
to promote or enhance professional development. In order to accomplish
this purpose and reflect a collaborative process, we recommend that evalu-
ation be the product of open and straightforward communication between
the supervisee and supervisor. The intent of such dialogue is that the super-
visee not be surprised by the nature or content of his or her final evaluation
because the summative evaluation is indeed a summary of supervisory con-
versations that have occurred throughout the supervision period. This has
been a guiding principle of our own supervisory practice.
Research suggests that supervisees want to be kept apprised of their
performance (see Heckman-Stone, 2003; Ladany et al., 1999; Lehrman-
Waterman & Ladany, 2001). This reinforces for us the importance of for-
mative evaluation or continuous feedback. Supervisors can be intentional
about this by constructing with their supervisees a written supervision
contract that includes the understanding that feedback will be provided
(perhaps even in writing) in every supervision session. Supervisors can
then be sure that formative feedback (in)forms and leads to summative
evaluation by maintaining supervision notes with specific examples of
supervisee performance to include in the formal evaluation. Throughout
the process, supervisee feedback is also solicited and processed in every
supervision session, something that can be accomplished with only a few
minutes remaining in the session.
Le Maistre, Boudreau, and Paré (2006) referred to “situated evalua-
tion” or the manner in which veteran helping professionals “track a
newcomer’s growing ability to take part in professional practice—and
to see this as a complex relationship between old-timer and neophyte”
(pp. 345–346). The manner in which evaluation—and supervision in
general—is conducted is a model for supervisees: a model for conducting
assessments and other forms of evaluation with clients; and a model for
conducting evaluations with their own supervisees when they assume the
role of counselor supervisor. The supervisor is therefore very much of a
mentor, as Johnson (2007) suggested, and one who has the potential to
significantly impact the supervisee’s development and practice as a coun-
selor. The no surprises principle of supervisee evaluation implies that the
supervisor understands his or her role as a role model, mentor, and future
colleague to the supervisee and thus maintains open lines of communica-
tion, fosters collaboration, and links and intertwines formative and sum-
mative evaluation.
Appendix A
Counseling Supervision Contract*
(Based on Osborn & Davis, 1996)
This contract serves as verification and a description of the counsel-
ing supervision provided by Brandy Kelly, Ph.D., LPCC-S (“University
Supervisor”), to Alexia Jones, (“Supervisee”), Counselor Trainee enrolled
in Practicum I in the Community Counseling Program at Pursuit of
Excellence University (PEU) for the fall 2008 semester.
I. Purpose, Goals, and Objectives:
a. Monitor and ensure welfare of clients seen by supervisee.
b. Promote development of supervisee’s professional counselor
identity and competence.
c. Fulfill academic requirement for supervisee’s practicum.
d. Fulfill requirements in preparation for supervisee’s pursuit of
counselor licensure.
II. Context of Services:
a. One (1) clock hour of individual supervision weekly.
b. Individual supervision will be conducted in the supervisor’s
office (100 Education Hall), Pursuit of Excellence University,
on Tuesdays, from 1:00 p.m. to 2:00 p.m., where monitor/VCR
is available to review videotapes.
c. Cognitive-behavioral methods, interpersonal process recall,
and role plays will be used in supervision.
d. Regular review of counseling videotapes in weekly individual
supervision.
III Method of Evaluation:
a. Feedback will be provided by the supervisor during each
session, and a formal evaluation, using the PEU Counseling
Program standard evaluation of student clinical skills, will
be conducted at midsemester and at the conclusion of the
fall semester. A narrative evaluation will also be provided
at midsemester and at the conclusion of the semester as an
addendum to the objective evaluations completed.
b. Specific feedback provided by supervisor will focus on super-
visee’s demonstrated counseling skills and clinical documen-
tation, which will be based on supervisor’s regular observation
of supervisee’s counseling sessions (via videotape and live), as
well as review of clinical documentation.
c. Supervisee will evaluate supervisor at midsemester and at the
close of Fall semester, using the PEU Counseling Program
standard evaluation form for evaluating supervisors. A
No Surprises • 35
narrative evaluation will also accompany the objective

evaluations.
d. Supervision notes will be shared with supervisee at supervi-
sor’s discretion and at the request of the supervisee.
IV. Duties and Responsibilities of Supervisor and Supervisee:
a. Supervisor:
a. Examine client presenting complaints and treatment plans.
b. Review on a regular basis supervisee’s videotaped coun-
seling sessions.
c. Sign off on all client documentation.
d. Challenge supervisee to justify approach and tech-
niques used.
e. Monitor supervisee’s basic attending skills.
f. Present and model appropriate directives.
g. Intervene when client welfare is at risk.
h. Ensure American Counseling Association (ACA; 2005)
Code of Ethics is upheld.
i. Maintain professional liability insurance coverage.
j. Maintain weekly supervision notes
k. Assist supervisee in reviewing various counseling theo-
ries, with the goal of gaining an appreciation for an inte-
grative practice approach.
l. Assist supervisee in gaining greater self-awareness during
counseling and supervision sessions.
b. Supervisee:
a. Uphold ACA (2005) Code of Ethics.
b. Maintain professional liability insurance coverage.
c. View counseling session videotapes in preparation for
weekly supervision.
d. Complete “Counselor Trainee Self-Critique and Reflection
Form” as a result of having viewed counseling session vid-
eotapes and have these ready to discuss in supervision.
e. Be prepared to discuss all client cases: have client files, cur-
rent and completed client case notes, and counseling session
videotapes ready to review in weekly supervision sessions.
f. Justify client case conceptualizations made and approach
and techniques used.
g. Complete client case notes and supervision notes in a
timely fashion and place in appropriate client files.
h. Consult with counseling center staff and supervisor in
cases of emergency.
i. Implement supervisory directives in subsequent sessions.
j. Practice working from a variety of and appropriate coun-

seling theories.
c. Supervisee’s Expressed Learning Objectives for Practicum I:
a. Refine personal counseling approach/style. This includes
the implementation and integration of the following
theories of personal interest to me: existential, cognitive-
behavioral, and person-centered.
b. To increase my ability to build trust and rapport with
clients, especially with resistant and involuntary clients.
This includes the effective implementation of relationship
building and attending skills and basic micro-skills (e.g.,
paraphrasing, asking open-ended questions).
c. Becoming more comfortable counseling diverse popula-
tions (e.g., age, gender, race, socioeconomic status). This
includes gaining exposure to diverse populations, becom-
ing aware of my personal biases, adhering to nonjudgmen-
talism, and establishing appropriate boundaries.
d. To increase my ability to conduct lethality assessments.
This also includes recognizing the limits of my compe-
tence and seeking immediate consultation/supervision
when necessary.
V. Procedural Considerations:
a. Supervisee’s written case notes, treatment plans, and video-
tapes will be reviewed and evaluated in each session.
b. Issues related to supervisee’s professional development will be
discussed in each supervision session.
c. Sessions will be used to discuss issues of conflict and failure
of either party to abide by directives outlined here in contract.
If concerns of either party are not resolved in supervision, Dr.
John Smith, PEU Community Counseling program coordina-
tor, will be consulted.
d. In event of emergency, supervisee is to contact supervisor at
the office, (999) 999-9999, or at home, (222) 222-2222, or on
her cell phone, (555) 555-5555.
VI. Supervisor’s Scope of Competence:
Dr. Kelly successfully earned her Ph.D. in counselor education and
supervision from Kent State University in 2008. She is licensed
as a Professional Clinical Counselor, with supervisory endorse-
ment (PCC-S; #E8072) by the state of Ohio, and is a Nationally
Certified Counselor (NCC). She is currently a Professional
Clinical Counselor at Turning Point Counseling Services and an
adjunct faculty member at Pursuit of Excellence University. She
has received formal academic training in clinical supervision and
No Surprises • 37
has supervised master’s degree students at two local universities.

She has received training and has practiced as a PCC-S in the
areas of individual, group, family, and couples counseling with
children, adolescents, and adults in multiple settings (i.e., out-
patient, inpatient, residential, and crisis) and utilizes primarily a
cognitive-behavioral counseling approach.
VII. Terms of the Contract:
This contract is subject to revision at any time, upon the request
of either the supervisor or supervisee. A formal review of the con-
tract will be made at the midterm of fall semester 2008, and revi-
sions will be made only with the consent of the supervisee and the
approval of the supervisor.
We agree, to the best of our ability, to uphold the directives specified in this
supervision contract and to conduct our professional behavior according
to the ethical principles of our professional association.

Supervisor Date

Supervisee Date
Pursuit of Excellence University

100 Education Hall
City, State 44444
(777) 777-7777
This contract is effective from to .

Date of contract revision or termination .
*Names of the supervisee, university, and program coordinator are
fictitious.
Appendix B
Guidelines for Constructing a Written Supervision Contract
Introducing the Supervision Contract

1. Discuss with supervisee the twofold purpose of supervision: (a)
to protect welfare of clients seen by supervisee, and (b) to assist in
the professional development of the supervisee.
2. Introduce concept of contract with supervisee in first supervi-
sion session.
3. Explain and discuss the rationale and purpose of the contract.
4. Provide supervisee with copy of draft contract.
Rationale for the Use of a Supervision Contract

1. Clarifies the methods, goals, and expectations of supervision:
• Roles and responsibilities of both supervisor and supervisee
are clarified right from the start, a means of minimizing
any “surprises.”
• Minimizes ambiguity and confusion for the supervisee, par-
ticularly at the beginning of supervision, when the process is
new and questions abound.
• Helps prevent communication gaps and misunderstanding on
the part of both parties.
2. Encourages professional collaboration:
• Allows both supervisor and supervisee to establish a collab-
orative working relationship.
• Means of promoting supervisee’s contribution to the supervi-
sory process.
• Cultivates professional cooperation and a positive working
alliance.
3. Upholds ethical principles:
• Contract exemplifies some of the principles of ethical practice:
a. Autonomy
−− Supervisee given freedom to participate in the super-
visory process.
b. Justice or Fairness
−− Having things spelled out in writing addresses super-
visee’s right to know what to expect in supervision.
−− Contract also a means of ensuring that supervision
process is fair.
No Surprises • 39
c. Fidelity
−− Contract encourages supervisor and supervisee to
remain faithful to the supervision process.
−− “We’re going to do what we say we’re going to do.”
• Clarifies components of ethical practice, such as:
−− Helps to further explain the nature of and limits to
confidentiality.
−− Ensures client has been informed that supervisee is receiv-
ing supervision on a regular basis.
−− Contract clearly describes nature of supervisory relationship
and thus minimizes conflicts related to dual relationships.
4. Documents services to be provided:
• Supervisor is ultimately legally responsible for welfare of cli-
ents seen by supervisee.
• Contract verifies the intent, nature, and occurrence of super-
vision; clarifies names of supervisor and supervisee, and dura-
tion of supervision.
−− “What was not recorded didn’t happen.”
• Clarifies expectations and duties of both parties:
−− Contract is a means of holding both parties accountable
for their actions.
5. Aligns supervision with counseling and consultation, two services
that currently utilize a written contract with clients:
• Supervision contract similar to informed consent used in
counseling.
• Supervision contract similar to written contract used in men-
tal health consultation.
• Supervision contract similar to syllabus used in academic
course work.
• Supervision contract exemplifies professional courtesy and
respect for supervisee.
Example of Introducing the Contract

“We’ve talked so far about the purpose of supervision and some of the
specific responsibilities and tasks both you and I have in this working rela-
tionship. So that both of us are clear about what’s going to take place when
you and I meet, and to ensure that both of us agree, or are on the same
page, so to speak, about our obligations in supervision, I suggest that you
and I put together a written supervision contract. My thinking is that hav-
ing such things in writing, and having our signatures to attest to an agree-
ment, will help us stay on track and remain clear and focused as we work
together. Think of the contract as a type of syllabus, but one that you get to
contribute to at the outset!”
Reviewing the Six Elements of Supervision Contract

The sample contract provided uses each of these six elements as a section head-
ing. Supervisors are encouraged, however, to tailor or customize the contract
to their specific supervision context and to encompass distinctive aspects or
needs represented in each supervisory relationship of which they are a part.
1. Purpose, Goals, and Objectives of Supervision:
• Explanation of, rationale for clinical supervision.
• Mention dual purpose of supervision (i.e., ensure client wel-
fare and promote professional development of supervisee).
• Also mention training or legal requirements (e.g., to fulfill
accreditation standards and/or state licensure eligibility).
2. Context of Services:
• Amount and length of supervision (specify regular meeting
day and time).
• Setting and format (e.g., group or individual, on- or off-site).
• Educational and monitoring activities implemented (e.g., live
supervision, viewing of audio- and/or videotaped counsel-
ing sessions outside of scheduled supervisory sessions, or the
audio- and/or videotaping of supervision sessions).
• Model of supervision used by the supervisor (e.g., develop-
mental, cognitive-behavioral, experiential).
3. Method of Evaluation:
• Supervisees should be told the amount, type (formal or infor-
mal, written or verbal), timing, and frequency of evaluation
procedures to be used.
• Explain how such information will be recorded by the super-
visor (e.g., specific evaluation form, narrative, etc.).
• Explain where evaluative information will be stored (e.g.,
placed in practicum/internship or personnel file).
• Explain with whom evaluative information will be shared
(e.g., faculty supervisor, clinical director).
4. Duties and Responsibilities of the Supervisor and Supervisee:
• “Job descriptions” of supervisor and supervisee.
• Clarifies what both supervisor and supervisee’s obligations
are to clients being seen by the supervisee.
• Allows each party to clearly understand not only his or her
particular obligations, but the parameters of the supervisory
relationship as well.
No Surprises • 41
5. Procedural Considerations:
• Include type of information supervisee will be expected to dis-
cuss in supervisory sessions (e.g., therapeutic skills used, client
diagnosis and treatment plan, countertransference issues).
• Clarify how that information is to be presented (i.e., case notes,
audio or video recordings, assessment results).
• Mention types of record keeping supervisee will be required
to conduct.
• Specify procedures to follow in instance of conflicts between
supervisor and supervisee, as well as in the event of client and/
or supervisee emergency (specifically, names and telephone
numbers of contact persons should be listed on contract).
6. Supervisor’s Scope of Competence:
• Include formal clinical and other professional (e.g., in clinical
supervision) training, and areas of expertise.
Additional Items to Include in the Contract

• Contract should be identified as such.
• Names of both the supervisor and supervisee should be clearly
marked and their signatures included.
• Places of employment, business addresses, and telephone num-
bers of both parties should be noted.
• Date on which contract was drafted and approved, day supervi-
sion was terminated, and dates of any revisions of contract are
important to include.
• Insert statement such as “Subject to Revision” (allows contract to
be regarded as a working document, as opposed to an intractable
and “set in stone” document).
Reviewing Draft Contract with Supervisee

• Provide a copy of the draft contract to your supervisee in first
supervision session.
• Review each of the six sections with the supervisee during your
first supervision session.
• Solicit questions from supervisee as you review the contract
together.
• Have supervisee take copy of draft contract home to review; encour-
age supervisee to write questions or comments he or she might
have about the contract directly on the draft contract; have super-
visee bring draft contract in for the next supervision session.
• Review any questions or comments supervisee has about draft

contract in second supervision session.
Constructing Written Contract

• It will be the supervisor’s responsibility to construct the final ver-
sion of contract (typed out, ready for signatures) to present to
supervisee in third supervision session.
• If there are no additions to contract or questions about it, both
supervisee and supervisor sign contract in third supervision ses-
sion; provide supervisee with copy of signed contract.
• Supervisor retain original contract and inform supervisee where
this will be kept.
• Inform supervisee that contract will be reviewed together peri-
odically (e.g., at midterm), as well as at the conclusion of your
supervision work together.
References
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Bachelor, A. (1995). Clients’ perception of the therapeutic alliance: A qualitative
analysis. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 42, 323–337.
Bahrick, A. S., Russell, R. K., & Salmi, S. W. (1991). The effects of role induction on
trainees’ perceptions of supervision. Journal of Counseling & Development,
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Chapter 3
Triadic Supervision
S. Lenoir Gillam and Michael L. Baltimore
Clinical supervision is an essential component in preparing competent

clinical mental health and school practitioners as it provides the func-
tion of promoting the welfare, autonomy, and best interests of families
and individuals in counseling. The form of clinical supervision has var-
ied depending on a number of factors inherent in the training process.
Mainly, the two most common modalities have been individual (i.e., one
supervisor and one supervisee) and small-group supervision with more
than two supervisees. In recent years, triadic supervision, a type of clini-
cal supervision, was approved for counselor education programs in order
to lessen the course load of counselor educators in large institutions. This
form of supervision, according to CACREP, the Council for Accreditation
of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (2001), could be used as
an alternative to individual one-to-one supervision. Thus, this alternative
became equated with individual more so than group supervision and dis-
tinguished as a form of individual supervision. However, a closer examina-
tion of the dynamics and process issues related to triadic supervision may
show that it more resembles the group supervision already put in place by
the national accreditation body.
Triadic supervision has lacked critical research support prior to, and
even after, implementation among counselor education training programs
through the accreditation standards. Implementation within counselor
education programs of triadic supervision may, in some cases, be chosen
in place of individual supervision of counselors-in-training. With a lack
45
of acknowledged distinction between individual and triadic supervision,

administrative and clinical issues connected to the practice of triadic
supervision become an important area of research. A closer examination
of this approach is needed, and practice guidelines can only help provide a
more sound approach to the delivery of clinical supervision.
History and Review

Generally, best practice approaches for clinical supervision, especially
individual supervision, are well established (see, for example, Bernard &
Goodyear, 2009). Bernard and Goodyear (2009) state:
Supervision is an intervention provided by a more senior mem-
ber of a profession to a more junior member or members of
that same profession. This relationship
• is evaluative and hierarchical,
• extends over time, and
• has the simultaneous purposes of enhancing the profes-
sional functioning of the more junior person(s); moni-
toring the quality of professional services offered to the
clients that she, he, or they see; and serving as a gatekeeper
for those who are to enter the particular profession. (p. 7)
Thus, a supervisor’s role clearly is to enhance the professional development
of the supervisee. The interaction between supervisor and supervisees pro-
vides a learning environment that includes evaluation, self-awareness and
reflection, and adherence to goals leading to competence in the field and
the enhancement of functioning as a professional.
Providing clinical supervision with one supervisor and two supervi-
sees, while not new to the field, was first established as a choice under the
CACREP standards of 2001 (CACREP, 2001) for counselor education pro-
grams. The standards state the requirement for practicum students:
“weekly interaction with an average of one (1) hour per week of individual and/or triadic
supervision which occurs regularly over a minimum of one academic term by a program
faculty member or a supervisor working under the supervision of a program faculty
member;…” (CACREP, 2001, Clinical Supervision section)
and for internship students:
“weekly interaction with an average of one (1) hour per week of individual and/or triadic
supervision, throughout the internship, (usually performed by the on-site supervisor;)
(CACREP, 2001, Clinical Supervision section)
Supervisors, including site supervisors, must have earned a master’s degree
and have
Triadic Supervision • 47
“at least two (2) years of pertinent professional experience in the program area in which
the student is completing clinical instruction;” (CACREP, 2001, Clinical Supervision
section)
According to these standards for training programs in counselor educa-
tion, an average of 1 hr of supervision, either triadic or individual, must be
provided weekly for the student. With limited interactions, clinical super-
visors must work to establish a positive working relationship with counsel-
ors-in-training that meet their needs and the standards of training.
The Supervisory Relationship and Its Elements

The creation of a good supervisory relationship that allows for professional
growth, assesses client–counselor interaction, and improves the function-
ing of the counselor-in-training is essential. Both supervisor and supervi-
see have to prepare, engage, and communicate within a process-oriented
context of learning. The platform for this learning should be based on
honest and open communication and the giving and receiving of critical
feedback with a clear structure. Thus, the structure of clinical supervision
becomes a foundation for these processes to take place.
In general, the essential elements of the supervisory relationship con-
tain the building of a working alliance that sets the stage for supervision
to begin. As supervisor and supervisee begin a “joining” process in the
establishment of a supervisory relationship, the first session or sessions
will cover elements such as theoretical backgrounds, formative and sum-
mative feedback processes, and what the supervisee can expect from the
supervisor. Goals and a working contract are also established. After the
initial overview, supervisor and supervisee begin the process, including
discussion of client cases and other relevant training issues associated with
professional goals and program outcomes.
In the course of supervision, many factors affect the process. Differences
among supervisor training, background, and experience may vary widely
(Fitch, Gillam, & Baltimore, 2004). Supervisors may also vary on factors
such as theoretical orientation, previous supervision experiences, and
cultural background. The same is true of supervisees. For counselors-in-
training, background and experience in the helping role, as well as abil-
ity to effectively use counseling content with clients, become part of the
supervision process.
Individual and triadic supervision both contain these elements. Yet,
when the structure of supervision is changed, the process and practice of
supervision become different as well. In triadic supervision, the definition
of supervision does not change, but the process becomes more challeng-
ing for all concerned. Guidelines are yet to be established that will assist
counselor education programs, supervisors, or supervisees in the practice

of triadic supervision. Numerous considerations in the examination of tri-
adic supervision will be addressed in this chapter.
Triadic Supervision: Setting the Stage

The accreditation standards do not touch upon instructions regarding how
to conduct or participate in triadic supervision sessions. This is left to the
programs and individual supervisors to create and provide. The research
offers one conceptual model called “the reflective model of triadic super-
vision” (Kleist & Hill, as cited in Stinchfield, Hill, & Kleist, 2007, p. 173),
while other studies address perceptions related to the use of triadic super-
vision (Hein & Lawson, 2008; Newgent, Davis Jr., & Farley, 2004). However,
little is found regarding the importance of considering group process and
practice in providing this modality of supervision. In fact, Newgent et al.
(2004) report that “trainees tended to view the individual and triadic mod-
els more similarly” (p. 76).
Knowledgeable supervisors who have experienced this model, either as a
supervisee or a supervisor, may have an advantage over those without such
experience. It certainly demands a set of skills that are not only associated
with individual supervision, but importantly, skills in group supervision
and leadership. Process and practice issues, including administrative and
clinical, come into play in the triadic model.
Theoretical and Management Issues

In establishing triadic supervision with two supervisees, thought must
be given to the effect of theory upon the process. Supervision theory,
those models such as social role development, and counseling-oriented
approaches will directly impact supervision. Supervisors trained in the
developmental models, for example, will consider the supervisee’s readi-
ness and abilities for counseling. One counselor development model
(Stoltenberg, McNeil, & Delworth, 1998) proposes a three-level classifica-
tion where level-one trainees may be anxious, lack accuracy in perception
of clients, and need additional support. This may be especially true with
practicum students beginning their first cases.
In Skovholt and Ronnestad’s (1992) stage model of counselor devel-
opment and themes that affect supervision, a supervisor must consider
perspectives and issues that are particularly relevant to the supervi-
sion of both the beginning and the advanced supervisee. Anxiety may
play a part, especially early on in supervision for beginning supervisees.
Triadic supervisors, considering such factors as anxiety on the part of the
supervisees and a need for tolerance and support—more so at the outset of

supervision—can effectively manage these needs while promoting compe-
tence. Differences between supervisees on these factors compels the clini-
cal supervisor to establish a supportive environment that is conducive to
supervisees’ growth.
With the development of the supervisee in mind, the supervisor intend-
ing to begin triadic supervision might look at both supervisees to decide
whether to mismatch more advanced and less experienced supervisees, or
to evenly match supervisees based on similar developmental standings.
Homogenous triadic pairings may provide support with factors such as
experience level or developmental stage in training, yet heterogeneous
matching may provide for a wider range of exposure for supervisees.
The Association for Specialists in Group Work’s Best Practice Guidelines
(ASGW, 2007) state that group selection should include “group members
whose needs and goals are compatible with the goals of the group” (Group
and Member Preparation section, para. 1).But what criteria should a super-
visor establishing triadic supervision consider?
Theoretical approaches such as counseling-based supervision provide
important interpersonal data that affect the supervision process. For
example, using a psychodynamic supervision model, the notion of trans-
ference, and even parallel process, occurring in supervision, will be altered
by the presence of a third party. It is up to the supervisor to adapt counsel-
ing-based models, based on individual paradigms, to the triadic scenario.
Systemic counseling models, such as the family therapy approaches, might
be easier for adaptation due to the incorporation of multiple members
with the treatment process, for example. In any case, the supervisor using
a counseling-based approach to triadic supervision must become aware
that there are obstacles to such application.
Management
A supervisor’s advanced decision-making regarding triadic supervision
can assist supervisees in having a positive professional growth experi-
ence. One such decision is directly related to time management within
sessions. Given a limited amount of contact with supervisees, particu-
larly in training programs, consideration of how to conduct the process
is important. Supervisees as well as the supervisor must share time; train-
ing concepts that must be covered in supervision, client caseloads, crisis
management response and personal and professional issues may all evolve.
An equity-based approach allows for time to be apportioned between the
two supervisees. Scheduling one supervisee to take a larger portion of the
time in supervision and then reversing that the next week is one exam-
ple. Allowing for crisis cases to go first, in a “triage” model, is another
approach. Regardless of how time is allotted, careful consideration must be

given in order for both supervisees to have adequate time to discuss cases
and professional concerns and the supervisor to provide feedback.
Supervisees must develop good communication skills with their peer in
triadic supervision. It may be the case that a supervisee wishes more time
to discuss an issue during supervision. During these moments, drawing
on good basic counseling skills, the participants can be aware of this need
and support each other. It will be necessary for the supervisor to moni-
tor these situations in order for both voices to be heard. In addition, it
is certainly the case that peers learn from each other (directly related to
group supervision process) and that this process adds to the experience in
a positive way. In sharing cases, interventions, and responses within the
triadic model, supervisees benefit from the learning environment. Acting
as peer-supervisors, participants may also learn the beginnings of super-
visory skill from the interactions.
Given the aforementioned time restraints, being fully prepared for
supervision is crucial. Many supervisors require their supervisees to bring
in questions related to cases and/or their professional issues. If audio- and
videotapes of counseling sessions are used, then they should be cued and
ready for play. Being ready to use the clinical supervision session as effi-
ciently as possible will aid in a successful outcome.
Time constraints affect the number and type of cases chosen by super-
visees for supervision. A complex case may take the entire session, yet
supervisors are responsible for a counselor’s entire caseload. It is necessary
for supervisor and supervisees to discuss the issues of caseload and the
decisions regarding how time will be spent in session. While this may be
associated with all forms of supervision, it becomes even more crucial as
triadic is substituted for individual supervision.
There are numerous issues related to the process and practice of triadic
supervision. The authors will attempt to address important considerations
that speak to the differences and similarities between individual, group,
and triadic supervision as guidelines for triadic supervision are outlined.
Administrative, Clinical, and Program Considerations

Whether by program faculty or individual supervisor, informed deci-
sions regarding the structure and management of clinical supervision
issues related to triadic supervision are necessary for positive outcomes.
The decision to implement triadic supervision must involve more than
the convenience of scheduling. It must be based on providing a quality
supervision experience for the supervisee that meets the highest standards
of supervision practice. These issues are also relevant for practitioners in
nonuniversity settings, as there will be someone assigned administratively

to organize the supervision process and provide oversight.
Administrative Supervision Issues

According to Bernard and Goodyear (2009), “the administrative super-
visor, while obviously concerned about service delivery and staff devel-
opment, must also focus on matters such as communication protocol,
personnel concerns, and fiscal issues, to name just a few” (p. 193), though
Bernard and Goodyear use the terms “managerial and organizational” (p.
194) to refer to these administrative organizational interventions that lend
support to the supervision process. Clinical supervisors must attend to
these managerial tasks, but practitioners or counseling program personnel
other than those professionals providing clinical services may have a role
in the management of clinical supervision, as well.
Program considerations. The organization of clinical supervision expe-
riences may, in many cases, be handled by a professional responsible for
the oversight of all program field experiences (e.g., a program coordinator,
director of clinical services). Before clinical supervisors even have supervi-
sees assigned to them for supervision, managerial functions will be taking
place. Some of these functions include practicum or internship placement,
identification of faculty or part-time instructors to handle the supervision
load for the program, and assignment of students to practicum or intern-
ship sections (or parallel process for practitioners such as assignment of
senior, licensed staff to supervise nonlicensed staff). The management
of these tasks is critical to the overall success of the clinical field experi-
ences. Decisions about which supervisees should be assigned to various
groups ought to include considerations such as developmental issues (e.g.,
practicum versus internship), personnel matters (e.g., avoiding potential
role conflicts), and group composition (e.g., relationship issues). In many
cases, the clinical supervisors may not be making decisions about which
participants are assigned to their groups, but they are likely to have a role
in determining which supervisees will partner for triadic supervision and
how triadic supervision will be employed.
Supervisor considerations. CACREP (2001) guidelines provide direc-
tion for counselor training programs in determining the supervisor/
supervisee ratio and the number of hours required for group and indi-
vidual/triadic supervision. Within those guidelines, clinical supervisors
make decisions about the structure of supervision sessions and how to
meet the requirements. Given that triadic and one-to-one supervision are
both considered individual supervision, supervisors can meet the indi-
vidual supervision requirement in one of several ways: (1) they can meet
with one supervisee at a time; (2) they can meet with two supervisees at a
time; (3) they may employ a combination of one-to-one and triadic super-
vision; or (4) they may supervise others with relevant training experience
in the supervision of practicum students/interns. In addition, CACREP
enables the individual supervision requirement for internship to be met
though on-site supervision. It is possible, therefore, that the program
may not provide individual supervision for internship. Program faculty
ought to be aware of the quality of supervision that supervisees receive
on-site. Whatever the choice, regardless of whether supervision occurs
within a counselor training program or a clinical setting, the decision
requires appropriate planning and clinical judgment in order to ensure
a satisfactory supervision experience and to address the features unique
to triadic supervision. For example, how do supervisors match partners
for triadic supervision when supervising an odd number of supervisees?
With a number of supervisees not divisible by two, someone is going to
be left out, or there may be a tendency to change partners over the course
of the supervision term, an action that will have its own implications
on the dynamics of the supervisory relationship. That is, group dynam-
ics are impacted by membership changes. Furthermore, if supervisors
assign the matches for supervision, then they may not be aware of inter-
personal or other factors that could derail the effectiveness of supervi-
sion. Conversely, allowing supervisees to choose their own partners may
result in ineffective matches for other reasons (e.g., allowing best friends
to work together or allowing decisions to be made solely based on sched-
ules might not lead to optimal matches). Though the benefits of triadic
supervision are clear, one-to-one supervision provides less risk in terms
of the possibility of one supervisee negatively impacting the individual
supervision of another supervisee.
Contextual and ethical issues. Among the composition issues noted ear-
lier, supervisors responsible for placing supervisees in groups should be
aware that triadic partners may experience role conflicts that could impact
the supervision process (e.g., one partner is the supervisor of the other
partner in a work setting outside of counselor training). These kinds of
conflicts need to be avoided when assigning supervisees to groups or tri-
adic supervision due to the potential for harm for either party or for nega-
tively impacting the training experience.
Where counselor education is concerned, a coordinated effort at the
program level to enhance consistency across field experiences is important.
Though allowing for flexibility in the process and practice of supervision,
congruence across sections in practicum and internship syllabi provides
general guidelines to insure that the use of triadic supervision is in compli-
ance with professional standards (e.g., accreditation).
Clinical Supervision Issues

The clinical supervisor’s responsibility is to facilitate supervisee develop-
ment through a process that promotes and protects client welfare.
Supervisee development. Although triadic supervision offers benefits as
a training modality, it is important to provide a supervisory experience
that will help supervisees meet individual goals for professional growth
and to explore personal issues that emerge within the context of profes-
sional development and/or impact work with clients. According to the
Discrimination Model (Bernard, as cited in Bernard & Goodyear, 2009),
the personalization piece is an important and appropriate part of clinical
supervision. Even in developmentally homogeneous pairings, supervisees
are likely to have variance in terms of individual needs for supervision.
The context of triadic supervision challenges the supervisor to structure
a process that will help both parties meet individual needs while provid-
ing an environment that promotes supervisee participation and growth.
Participation that feels safe to one supervisee may feel high-risk to the
other supervisee. The supervisor roles identified by the Discrimination
Model (Bernard, as cited in Bernard & Goodyear, 2009) will vary based on
the focus of supervision (e.g., conceptualization skills) and the supervisee’s
needs in that area. At any point in triadic supervision, the supervisor’s
role with one supervisee might be incompatible with the developmental
needs of the other supervisee. For example, if Supervisee A has experience
in working with clients with suicidal ideation, and Supervisee B has never
worked with clients at risk for self-harm, then Supervisee A may need the
supervisor to serve more as a consultant in focusing on case conceptualiza-
tion of a suicidal client, whereas Supervisee B may need the more concrete
explanations of a supervisor serving in the teaching role. Consequently,
supervisors may struggle with the delivery of interventions that can keep
both parties involved in a way that is appropriate to their different levels of
development. The challenge is to avoid providing disjointed supervision to
one student at a time while the other becomes simply an observer. Though
there is benefit in being an observational learner, supervisees tradition-
ally get this benefit in group supervision. In triadic supervision, where the
focus is supposed to be on the individual, observational learning may not
occur if the intervention is pitched above the developmental level of the
observing supervisee. Structuring insight-oriented supervision interven-
tions with trainees who can deal with this level of complexity may make
trainees who have a more concrete approach feel lost.
Relational/process issues. Social interaction is one characteristic that
defines what constitutes a group (Forsyth, 2006). Similar to group super-
vision, triadic supervision is impacted by the nature of interaction among
members, including the supervisor. The nature of triadic supervision offers
supervisees the opportunity to not only learn about themselves and their
work with clients but also gain insight about themselves, relationships, and
group process through the interactions with one another. A skilled supervi-
sor who understands group dynamics and can facilitate groups effectively
is critical to realizing the benefits provided by this modality of supervision.
Without this expertise in group work, the triadic supervision process may
resemble a one-to-one supervision session with an audience consisting of the
other participant. The challenge is to find an appropriate balance of process
and content in triadic supervision that enables supervisees to create individ-
ualized goals, receive formative and summative evaluation, and participate
in an environment that provides necessary support and challenge within a
growth experience intended to serve the needs of both parties. Compared
with one-to-one supervision, relationships between the supervisor and
supervisees are established within the context of the triadic relationship. It
is necessary at the outset for the supervisor to remember that relationships
between the supervisees need to be facilitated, regardless of the existence of
prior relationships between them. The development of the new triad, super-
visor included, reflects the emergence of a new group. Despite any history
among all three parties, this experience is likely to be the first time that this
group has been together to address the professional development of these
particular supervisees. Therefore, attention ought to be paid to the Forming
stage (Tuckman, 1965) of this triadic supervision process.
Within this Forming stage (Tuckman, 1965), supervisors have
the additional role of educating supervisees about issues such as the
process of supervision and the responsibilities of the supervisor and
supervisees. It is critical that supervisors provide aspects of informed
consent regarding supervisee expectations and client welfare, and hav-
ing this information can help participants become better consumers of
supervision (i.e., knowing what to expect can assist them in articulat-
ing their needs).
Supervisees also have the right to understand the role of formative and
summative evaluation processes. The triadic supervision process is likely
to complicate the delivery of feedback. How do supervisors give feedback,
and how do participants receive it in this triadic context? It is important
that the quality of feedback not suffer due to the presence of more than
one supervisee in the room. When discrepancies exist in the performance
of two supervisees, or when one supervisee’s performance is unsatisfac-
tory, supervisors may withhold or put off providing feedback because the
environment may not allow for candid feedback. Inadequate feedback
about evaluation can create ethical conflicts regarding client care, impede
supervisee growth, or potentially create a violation of the supervisee’s
due process (e.g., if in a university setting the trainee ultimately fails the
field experience or gets dismissed from the program). When giving verbal
feedback to one supervisee within the context of triadic supervision, the

supervisor needs to be aware that an audience is always present, which can
impact how feedback is received. Interventions that provide opportuni-
ties for individual supervisees to engage in self-reflection (e.g., goal setting,
narratives, logs) or receive feedback that is not shared with others (e.g.,
written evaluation) may help to combat this problem.
Aside from evaluation challenges, supervisors must be purposeful
in structuring sessions so that equal attention is paid to both super-
visees’ professional development or client issues. For example, if one
supervisee has several clients with difficult issues, then there may be a
tendency to focus the session on case conceptualization with that per-
son’s clients, thus missing opportunities to provide needed supervision
to the other party. Although supervisees can benefit from vicarious
learning through their partner’s experiences, too much of an imbalance
can detract from the effectiveness of triadic supervision. In addition,
the supervisee with less experience may be hard to draw out, believing
that she/he has little to add to the triad. Supervisees who appear to be
reluctant or resistant may respond differently in one-to-one versus tri-
adic environments.
Logistical issues need to be addressed as well. Scheduling problems,
absences, and emergencies are examples of factors that need to be consid-
ered in structuring triadic supervision. These issues may make it necessary
to provide supervision sessions to only one party of the triad. Supervisors
are then faced with the decision of how these individual sessions relate (or
not) to the work of the triad. Even if none of the aforementioned concerns
arise, supervisors should have a planned format for running triadic super-
vision and communicate those procedures to supervisees (e.g., check in,
agenda, prioritizing, case presentation, and so forth).
Supervisee considerations. Supervisees who are trained in supervision
process and practice and have an understanding of the unique factors
related to triadic supervision may be better able to advocate for getting
their needs met in supervision. Group work offers members opportunities
to learn to give and receive feedback appropriately, and triadic supervision
provides this same benefit. In this modality of supervision, each supervi-
see is able to serve in the role of peer supervisor to the other, as opposed to
the supervisor being the sole provider of feedback.
Another benefit of triadic supervision, as noted earlier, is that supervi-
sees can learn vicariously through the experiences of their partner. While
this benefit may assist participants in gaining new insights and skills with-
out experiencing issues directly, supervisors should be aware that some
supervisees may react positively (e.g., feel relief) or negatively (e.g., experi-
ence agitation and anger) to having the other person’s work as the focus
of supervision. Again, finding an appropriate balance of focus on both

parties is important.
Although triadic supervision offers benefits of group supervision while
also allowing for more individual time than is generally experienced,
trainees need opportunities to set and work toward individual goals for
their professional development. It is important that supervision goals be
developed within the context of the specific modality.
Contextual and ethical issues. A number of ethical considerations
that pertain to individual or group supervision also relate to triadic
supervision. First, supervisors should possess relevant training and
experience to provide supervision. A competent supervisor of triadic
supervision should be an experienced supervisor who is also skilled
as a group worker in order to deal with the complexities of promoting
counselor development, safeguarding client welfare, and facilitating
group dynamics.
Informed consent is also a cornerstone of ethical practices in supervi-
sion. Although some issues pertaining to informed consent have already
been addressed, when orienting supervisees to individual and group
supervision, supervisors should help them understand how issues such as
theoretical orientation, structure of supervision, and evaluation processes
apply across one-to-one, triadic, and group supervision. For example, it
would be important to address how an ethical violation would be handled
in the different modalities.
The issue of confidentiality needs to be addressed as a unique feature of
triadic supervision, as well. Although supervisees are expected to adhere to
the professional counseling codes, participants may learn personal infor-
mation about each other as it pertains to their work with clients, and the
expectation that this information be held confidential should be discussed.
Supervisees may feel more comfortable sharing in the triadic context than
in the group setting; their concerns that information might be disclosed
outside of supervision may limit their willingness to explore issues that
are relevant to their professional development as counselors. Furthermore,
supervisees may be aware to some degree of evaluative feedback provided
to each other, and this information should be also protected.
Although orientating supervisees to the process of triadic supervision
is necessary, planning for termination is equally important. Planning
for and dealing with the end of the triadic supervision relationship is as
important as addressing termination in individual and group supervision.
Acknowledging termination not only provides an opportunity for all par-
ties to reflect on what has been learned through the supervision experience
and to say goodbye but also serves as a model for supervisees in dealing
with future termination processes.
Regardless of the ethical consideration under question, supervisors

should be as transparent as is appropriate in dealing with ethical issues as
they arise in triadic supervision (there may be times when situations are
best addressed individually). These ethical decision-making processes may
provide excellent opportunities for learning when addressed in the context
of supervision.
Best Practices in Triadic Supervision

Planning for triadic supervision must incorporate considerations of group
process and practice. Both administrative and clinical issues are impor-
tant to address in providing a purposeful and reflective approach to tri-
adic supervision. Further, administrative and clinical issues often overlap.
That is, administrative functions may be closely related to clinical, ethical,
and legal concerns during supervision. In the university setting, programs
can establish the overall structure of clinical instruction, with individual
supervisors deciding how administrative issues within the supervision ses-
sions are managed. It should be noted that both administrative and clini-
cal considerations differ for individual and triadic supervision.
Administrative practices. Supervisors in university training programs
using triadic supervision should be purposeful in employing this modal-
ity. Using triadic supervision for the sake of convenience does not mean
that the supervisor will be effective. The skilled supervisor is one who has
a strong understanding of both supervision as well as group process and
practice. Several suggestions for training programs and program faculty
addressing administrative aspects of triadic supervision within the con-
text of group work follow in this section (these issues are relevant also in
clinical settings where triadic supervision is used):
• Recognize the similarities and differences among one-on-one, tri-
adic, and group supervision and use that information in planning
program field experiences. Although the supervisor–supervisee
ratio is smaller in triadic supervision than in group supervision,
the process of triadic supervision more closely resembles group
supervision than one-on-one supervision. Designing syllabi that
not only address accreditation requirements but also include exer-
cises for reflecting on individual goals (e.g., log entries, personal
narratives), providing opportunities for individual evaluation,
and noting logistics of scheduling are ways to address some of
the shortcomings of triadic supervision. In short, if one-on-one
time is lost altogether, then programs should implement plans for
addressing trainees’ needs when an alternative to triadic supervi-
sion is necessary (e.g., in an emergency situation).
• Consider group composition when assigning supervisees to practi-

cum or internship sections, and be careful about matching individ-
uals to be partnered for triadic supervision. Although partnerships
for triadic supervision are likely to be made in group sections and
not by a program faculty member responsible for administrative
aspects of all field experiences, the person assigning trainees to
sections can consider that pairings will be generated from among
those trainees in each group. Attention to composition can help to
minimize potential conflicts that may emerge. Allowing students
to choose their own supervisors and group supervision sections
negates attention to group composition. Furthermore, if partners
are formed out of sections with an odd number of trainees, then a
plan needs to be in place for addressing this issue. Simply switch-
ing partners regularly for the sake of convenience alters dynamics
of the triadic relationships. In a sense, this configuration becomes
an open group, which can generate problems with group develop-
ment, cohesion, and trust.
• If a part-time faculty member is providing triadic supervision,
then consider how oversight of effectiveness will be monitored. In
addition, university programs can provide training or orientation
sessions about training program expectations and clinical issues
pertaining to the use of triadic supervision.
• Consult with colleagues when necessary in order to enhance supervision
effectiveness. The nature of triadic supervision may be more complex
than individual supervision due to the dynamics of a three-person
group, and unexpected issues may arise that warrant consultation.
• Consider providing training and open discussions among clinical
program faculty and providers. As the impact of reducing or stop-
ping individual supervision and substituting triadic supervision
has not been fully researched, informed faculty can consider,
monitor, and revise their practice of providing clinical supervi-
sion to students and practitioners.
Clinical practices. Clinical supervisors need to put extra thought into how
they structure supervision sessions. It is important to remember that having
three parties in the supervision process adds complexity to the dynamics
of the supervision relationship. In addition, the use of supervision theories
and interventions, goal development, evaluation procedures, and eventual
outcomes may be affected. Process issues in clinical supervision become
shared, much as in group supervision, and the supervisor must carefully
consider the impact of the overall experience. This section addresses con-
siderations for clinical practices in triadic supervision.
• Be purposeful about structuring supervision sessions, and demystify

the process of triadic supervision. Supervisees will look to supervi-
sors for direction, especially in the early stages of the supervision
relationship. If the structure of triadic supervision is vague, or if the
expectations are unclear, then supervisees may not understand their
roles in the process. If supervisors are unclear about the structure,
then triadic supervision is likely to be limited in effectiveness.
• Share information about your theoretical orientation to super-
vision and offer insight about how that orientation might be
expressed differently depending on the type of supervision interven-
tion employed (e.g., one-on-one supervision versus triadic supervi-
sion). Addressing these issues can help clarify the expectations for
supervisees’ participation.
• Provide informed consent about other aspects related to the process
and practice of triadic supervision. Supervisees have the right to
understand how issues such as evaluation and confidentiality fac-
tor into this supervisory experience and how the application of
these issues in triadic supervision is similar to and different from
the application in individual or group supervision.
• Consider that supervisees may have varying needs for supervision
and anticipate how to intervene when individual needs conflict with
the needs of the triad. Employing structure up front (e.g., having
participants check in and identify agenda items for that session)
may help avoid this problem because they can work together to
prioritize issues to address in session that day.
• Consider also developmental differences between supervisees and
how those differences may impact the supervision process. Too great
of a mismatch between supervisees may lead to interventions that
fit one person but are developmentally inappropriate for the other.
Counselor development theories can provide a framework for
understanding possible differences and responses.
• Be prepared to be an effective time manager. Serving two super-
visees at a time while attending to the dynamics of the triad may
make it difficult to accomplish session goals. Again, prioritizing
agenda items and/or increasing the length of sessions (e.g., 90-min
versus 60-min sessions) may help alleviate this problem. As there
are several commonly used approaches to the management of
time within supervision sessions, adjusting a schedule may be in
the best interest of supervisees and supervisor. Additionally, open
discussion and formative feedback support good time manage-
ment in triadic supervision.
• Consider how to address sensitive issues that arise in supervision.
Focusing on one supervisee’s issues while having an “audience”
present may impact the dynamics of the supervision process and

the supervisee’s receptivity to the intervention. Providing oppor-
tunities for individualized feedback or attention is important to
structure. It may be that adjunct individual sessions are neces-
sary to completely address some sensitive issues. Good group and
supervisory skills on the part of the supervisor are important, as
well as an open and supportive environment from the outset of
supervision. Finally, consultation and supervision of supervision
can aid in the management of the impact of these issues.
• Notice patterns that develop in the supervision relationship (e.g.,
consistently going into greater depth with one supervisee than with
the other or withholding/tailoring feedback that you would be
reluctant to offer in front of another supervisee). Triadic supervi-
sion is about much more than the content of what is addressed in
supervision; attending to the process is important, too. Helping
supervisees explore process issues can model attention to impor-
tant process issues in the therapeutic relationship, as well.
• Seek feedback from supervisees regarding the benefits and limita-
tions of triadic supervision. Specifically request input about how
individual needs are met or not met through this modality in
preparation for future use of triadic supervision. Formative and
summative feedback regarding the process of supervision becomes
central in evaluating triadic supervision. These experiences may
differ between individuals in the same supervision triad.
• Help supervisees structure individual goals and goals that are con-
ducive to the process of triadic supervision. That is, partners should
explore together how they can benefit best from that modality of
supervision, in addition to developing individual learning goals
for the semester.
• Be aware of how supervisee defenses can impact the dynamics of the
supervision sessions. As indicated previously, conceptualization of
those defenses should be considered within the context of triadic
supervision. It may become apparent that a supervisee’s defensive
reaction to a peer, or even a supervisor’s presentation, indicates a
greater need for intervention or counseling outside of the triad.
• If requiring case presentations, consider a format that is conducive
to the structure of the supervision sessions so that one person’s case
does not monopolize the entire session. Once again, time manage-
ment includes assisting supervisees in the case conceptualization
and presentation of cases. The skill of presenting cases in a suc-
cinct and clear manner is an essential skill of good clinicians.
• Anticipate occasional scheduling problems and have a procedure
in place for dealing with them. Consider your policy for offering
one-on-one or special sessions when needed and make sure that

trainees are fully informed about these policies. Individualized
sessions can impact the dynamics of the triadic relationship.
• Recognize that the evaluation process can be challenging in triadic
supervision, particularly if one supervisee is not performing effec-
tively and requires critical feedback that might not be appropriate to
share in triadic supervision. As the evaluative process in supervi-
sion is often stress-producing, offering an adjunct individual ses-
sion may relieve some of the stress. However, providing critical
feedback is an essential process within supervision and counseling
and can provide a modeling experience for supervisees.
• Anticipate ethical concerns that may arise by using this format (e.g.,
one supervisee having a dual or multiple role relationship with the
other supervisee’s client). Again, a clear policy up front for han-
dling issues requiring individualized attention is important.
Conclusion
Triadic supervision is a training intervention that can satisfy CACREP
(2001) individual supervision requirements. Though there are benefits
associated with triadic supervision, this modality more closely resembles
group supervision than individual (i.e., one-to-one) supervision. If tri-
adic supervision is used simply for the sake of efficiency, then supervi-
sors are likely to be unaware of the impact of group dynamics on the
supervision process. Competent supervisors of triadic supervision ought
to be knowledgeable, experienced supervisors who are also skilled group
workers. By attending not only to clinical issues that are impacted by
group process and practice but also to administrative considerations
related to preparing university training programs, supervisors, and
supervisees for triadic supervision can help ensure effective delivery of
this modality of supervision.
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assessment among supervisors. Clinical Supervisor, 23, 71–81.
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Chapter 4
Innovative Uses of Technology
in Clinical Supervision
Marty Jencius, Michael L. Baltimore, and Hildy G. Getz
The onset of technology use in counseling and supervision dates back over
60 years when Carl Rogers demonstrated the values of audiotape record-
ings of clinical session (Rogers, 1942). The audiotape remains the standard
technology tool used in time-delayed supervision to this day. What has
emerged in 60 years is other formats, including text and video (in real time
and time-delayed options), that give the supervisor greater access to the
supervisee’s experience.
Use of video for supervision and training began in the 1960s as univer-
sities and professional training programs had access to video recording
technology. The leap from celluloid film to magnetic videotape eliminated
the need and cost for processing film. With videotape, the session could be
recorded 1 hr and watched in the next. Gelso (1974) noted that videotap-
ing sessions for supervision became the preferred method as the super-
visor could hear and see the interaction between client and supervisee.
Videotape remains a valued technology tool for supervision, providing a
means of exchanging information between supervisor and supervisee, a
method of self-reflection and change in supervisees, and a way for supervi-
sees and supervisors to reexperience the session for supervisor evaluation
(Huhra, Yamokoski-Maynhart, and Prieto, 2008).
In addition to these time-delayed methods of supervision, other real-
time technologies developed in the 1970s and 1980s were incorporated
into the supervision process. Phone calls into sessions from behind the
63
one-way mirror brought the supervisee directly into the room with coun-
selor and client. Less obtrusive than a telephone ring, “bug-in-the-ear” and
then “bug-in-the eye” supervision, where audio or text prompts are sent
to the supervisee in real-time, were incorporated with the development
of small radio transceivers and computer monitors. Live, real-time video
became publicly available with two technological advances: the develop-
ment of portable miniaturized video cameras (eliminating the need for
large production studios) and the public availability of high-speed Internet
transmission to share the video.
With Internet-based technologies developing in the mid-1980s, a whole
new opportunity to incorporate technology into the supervision pro-
cess opened up. Initially we saw the inclusion of time-delayed platforms
such as e-mail and LISTSERV (Myrick & Sabella, 1995), but as software
and supportive hardware became available, more real-time opportuni-
ties developed, such as chat rooms (Coker, Jones, Staples, & Harbach,
2002), desktop videoconferencing (Berger, 2004), and online group meet-
ings (Page, Jencius, Rehfuss, Foss, Den, & Petruzzi, 2003). Other digital
products such as CD-ROM and DVD technology can be used as a time-
delayed method for distributed education for supervisees and supervisors
(Manzanares, O’Haloran, McCartney, Filer, Varhley, & Calhoun, 2004).
This chapter will introduce the reader to a variety of technologies and
how they are incorporated into the supervision process. First, we define
the typology of current technologies and highlight their use, advantages,
and limitations. Second, we provide two examples from two supervision
programs, of how these technologies are being implemented in the train-
ing of supervisors and continuing education of practicing supervisors. We
then look at recommendations for adopting technology in your supervi-
sion practice followed by guidelines that may have meaning for supervi-
sors using technology. Finally, we take a look at what the future may hold
regarding technology and supervision.
Typology
When organizing technology supervision tools, consider whether they
are synchronous or asynchronous (Manhal-Baugus, 2001). Synchronous
tools are real-time technology that works in the moment. Examples of syn-
chronous supervision technology are bug-in the-ear receivers, phone-in
supervision, bug-in-the-eye methods, and videoconferencing. Tools that
are asynchronous are ones that are used to capture the experience of coun-
seling or supervision with the captured information used at another time
(i.e., time-delayed) while you are supervising the supervisee. Examples of
asynchronous supervision technology include e-mail, Web sites or course-
ware, and digital audio and video recording.
Innovative Uses of Technology in Clinical Supervision • 65
Live Supervision Using Synchronous Technology

Live supervision with synchronous technology combines direct observation
of the therapy session with some technology-based method that enables
the supervisor to communicate with, and therefore influence, the work
of the supervisee. The combination of live supervision and synchronous
technology permits the immediate involvement of the supervisor in the
supervision process; without technology, the supervisor would have to do
in-session supervision to have that kind of immediacy with a supervisee.
Bug-in-the-ear (BITE). This method consists of a wireless earphone worn
by the supervisee through which the supervisor can speak to the super
visee. Borders and Brown (2005) suggest that BITE is best used for coach-
ing because the supervisor can communicate immediate suggestions and
reinforcements. This premise is supported by recent work looking at teacher
trainees’ supervision by Goodman, Brady, Duffy, Scott, and Pollard (2008),
where they found that the rate and accuracy of effective teaching behaviors
increased when live feedback was delivered via BITE. This method has the
advantage of not interrupting the class or session but can problematically
be overused. One potential concern suggested by Byng-Hall (1982) is the
danger of “echo therapy,” where the supervisee just repeats the words of
the supervisor and does not understand their implication.
Phone-ins. This method has been used when the supervisor is watching
a therapy session and phones in to the supervisee using an intercom sys-
tem. It has an advantage over the bug-in-the-ear method or the computer
method because it stops the therapy session while the supervisee listens
to the supervisor’s directive. Also, the client realizes that there may be a
change in the direction of the therapy session. The consensus about using
phone-ins is that they should be used infrequently, that they should be brief
and concise, and that the directive should be action-oriented (Haley, 1987).
Another suggestion is that the supervisor should begin a phone-in with
some type of positive support. If the therapy session is more complex or the
supervisee needs more clarification, phone-ins are not advised. Instead,
the supervisor and supervisee should consider a consultation break.
Monitor text. This method uses a computer monitor in the therapy
room so that supervisors can send written messages across the screen to
supervisees in session (Neukrug, 1991; Miller, Miller & Evans, 2002). It
was termed bug-in-the-eye by Klitze and Lombardo (1991) and is similar
to the teleprompter used in journalism. One advantage of this method is
that the supervisee can decide when to read the messages. However, a dis-
advantage is that it can overwhelm the supervisee if overused. The advent
of new text technology in smartphones and PDAs means that the size of
the display unit on these devices could be less of a distraction to the super-
vision process (McGlothlin, Jencius, & Page, 2008).
Supervision Using Asynchronous Digital Audio Recording

Another transition that we have seen in the last 60 years is the transition of
audio recording from large reel-to-reel analog magnetic tape to small digi-
tal recorders with flash memory. While tape recording sessions allowed
for supervisors to review sessions with supervisees, tapes exchanged
between supervisors and supervisees always could potentially be lost or
damaged in the process. First the actual recording medium (magnetic
tape) remained the same, but the housing became more portable (reel-
to-reel, then cassette, and then microcassette). In the last decade, digital
recorders have advanced in technology and lessened in cost to where digi-
tal audio recording is an available, reliable option. Supervision done with
audio recordings is essentially asynchronous; the supervisor listens to the
session at some time after the session and then meets and reviews it with
the supervisee.
Digital audio recording allows for the supervisee to capture the session
with the recorder, transfer it to his/her computer, and e-mail the session to
his/her supervisor. The convenience of a digital recording is that one can
easily move back or ahead using a digital audio player or computer soft-
ware. One can also time-stamp a section in the session to revisit during the
review with the supervisee. The convenience of transferring and playing
audio recordings this way does not come without the caveat of concern for
confidentiality and unauthorized access to the audio file. A recommen-
dation is that both the sender and receiver of the file use an encryption/
decryption program that password-protects the audio file, rendering it
useless if it is lost, copied, or sent to an unintended person.
Supervision Using Asynchronous Videotape

or Digital Video Recording
With the advent of digital technology, analog recording is beginning to
give way to recordings made to disk and portable storage devices. This
change in format means that recording technology can reach a wider
audience of users, and it has become easier for the consumer to use and
manipulate. For video recording, this transition is very similar to that of
audio recording. The advent of new software and hardware that records
and stores video to hard disk or burns to DVD or CD-ROM creates a new
paradigm that has many applications.
Recordings on analog tape, while still the method of choice, continue
to have limitations that are overcome by the use of digital recordings.
Camcorders, which are prevalent in our society, mostly use videotape to
capture, store, and play back recorded events. Most use smaller, more com-
pact video recording tape. Yet this tape must be played using the recorder
itself or connected by cable to a player or other device. Using this method,
tape must be rewound and searched through to find a specific instance for
viewing. Digital video recording using a DVD disc, for example, can be
configured for “chapter points” or markers (found on most DVD record-
ings) for instant playback and search capability.
There are numerous ways in which digital video recordings can be made
from analog or digital tape. Direct input into a computer through the use
of cabling and a video capture card allows for the taped input to be con-
verted into a format for playback on a computer. Once a tape is converted
to a digital file, this file may be used for DVD creation. Another instance of
digital recording becoming readily available is recording directly to disc.
This method involves using cameras directly connected to disc drives that
capture digitally in real time. The “disk” can be a rewritable and removable
DVD with the video feed going directly into a DVD recorder, or the “disk”
can be a computer hard drive where the video is archived and stored in
digital format. Either method—recording directly to a removable DVD or
to stationary hard drive—is fast becoming the standard approach.
For those capturing material from tape into computers, software for
the creation of DVD production is available on most computers. More
advanced versions of software that allow for menus, titles, and graph-
ics to be added, multi-track editing, and added production value can be
acquired. Here, additional training and expertise is necessary.
Digital recording options of recordable DVDs or hard drive stor-
age provides multiple advantages over older analog or even digital tape
recordings. Videotape, whether analog or digital tape, must be captured
and brought into a computer for conversion into a deliverable medium that
can be used by supervisor and supervisee. Another problem with the use
of analog videotape players and recorders is that manufacturers no longer
support the hardware. For example, it is difficult to order and replace VHS
tape recorders, the standard in recent supervision settings. Connectors to
computer for capturing recordings from videotape machines require sepa-
rate converter boxes or special capture cards, adding to expense and setup.
Although there is great availability of digital cameras in the form of mini-
DVD and recordable mini-DVD cameras, the medium does not lend itself
to easy use in supervision without conversion to a portable format such as
recordable DVD.
In clinical supervision, the use of digital video recordings means that
supervisors and supervisees can target specific instances of a counseling or
supervision session for examination. This eliminates the valuable supervi-
sion time lost searching for a particular moment in the analog method.
Counseling labs equipped with digital recorders and disc recorders can
create a DVD of a session for the supervisee and supervisor to review
immediately after a session.
One currently marketed digital recording and coding system is the

Landro Play Analyzer (www.landro.com). The Landro Play Analyzer
was adapted for use in counseling from its already popular function in
analyzing athlete performance during athletic practice and competition.
The system allows the user to review a time-stamped video of events
and tag information directly into the video for later analysis. Desmond,
Dandeneau, and Guth (2007) have used the system successfully with
training counselors. Sessions can be recorded, analyzed, and coded
by trainees and supervisors for later playback and review. If a series of
trainees are working on a technique, such as confrontation, a supervisor
can call up the coded video across sessions and show multiple examples
of confrontation with clients. Being able to find quickly coded clinical
examples within and across client sessions is one of the great advantages
of this type of system. Landro Play Analyzer system has both a Personal
Edition (for laptops and individual use) and an Enterprise Edition (for
larger institutional training). The Enterprise edition includes stor-
age hardware as a part of the system and an established network for
recording and playback. New to the athletic play analysis market is XOS
Coaching Solutions from XOS Technology (www.xostech.com). Similar
to the Landro Play Analyzer, the XOS Coaching Solutions is beginning
to cross over for counseling clinic use.
Finally, counseling labs may also transmit live recordings using the
intranet or LAN connection directly to a supervisor’s office. In some train-
ing centers, clinical supervisors can view from their office various coun-
seling rooms while in session and record segments of live counseling for
use in supervision sessions. Transmitted over a secure LAN computer net-
work, the video stream remains secure.
Digital video recording is becoming the standard for new counseling
labs and is similar to the advent of desktop publishing for writers. Video is
becoming easier to create and use. It has widespread potential for training and
skill development for counseling. For clinical supervisors, the use of digital
recordings instead of analog tape will be a welcome technology transition.
Using Technology in Teaching and Practice of Supervision

It is no longer a case of whether or not technology is being employed in
the teaching and practice of clinical supervision, but in what form and
focus. Technology that supports clinical supervision, as well as the extent
to which that technology is infused in the teaching and delivery of clini-
cal supervision, is an area in definite need of further examination. The
use of technology is naturally dependent on a number of factors, includ-
ing faculty familiarity and resource availability. So far, the question of
how to deploy technology has been largely left to the instructor of record.
Depending on factors such as one’s interest, willingness to put in the

extra work that is involved, willingness to solicit assistance from outside
sources, availability of equipment and one’s level of expertise, technology
may be used to a greater or lesser degree. For clinical supervision, particu-
larly for the review of supervisee skills, technology presents a means for
supervisors to monitor supervisors-in-training in meeting requirements
and ensuring competent treatment of clients through session review. In
this regard, supervisors typically depend on recordings of counseling ses-
sions and supervision sessions, whether audiotape or videotape, handed in
by the supervisee.
In the practice of clinical supervision, quality review of counseling
sessions remains an essential component. A supervision private practice
presents more difficulty in the implementation of technology and requires
a supervisor to construct a paradigm where technology is beneficial. For
example, a clinical supervisor must put in place all the necessary policies
and procedures to gain permissions, set up a recording approach (includ-
ing cameras and other recording devices), and determine the purpose of
recording when using technology to record sessions. While the clinical
practice of supervision can be enhanced using technology, especially video
recording technology, additional resources are required whether in a group
or solo practice. Observing degree-granting programs’ approach to tech-
nology use in supervision training will help determine how a practitioner
may wish to develop a practice in this regard.
The teaching of clinical supervision is often carried out in an expe-
riential practicum or internship in supervision, under the direction of
a faculty member or advanced instructor. A course may include class-
room instruction, clinical group training, and individual supervision of
supervision. Each of these methods may have a technology component.
In particular, recorded supervision sessions are an indispensable feature
for quality review. This section will examine two universities’ (Columbus
State University and Virginia Tech) use of e-mail, Web sites, courseware,
videoconferencing, and analog/digital recordings in the teaching of clini-
cal supervision.
Teaching Clinical Supervision: Digital Video

Production (Columbus State University)
The counseling programs in the College of Education at Columbus State
University have advanced their use of technology in the counseling curric-
ulum. Along with the Journal of Technology in Counseling, founded within
the department, a new video production laboratory was created for faculty
teaching and professional development. This focus on technology has led
to the creation of video products that are used in the classroom and on
the Web. With instructor interest and support from the administration,
hardware and software products have been organized in a video produc-

tion studio so that faculty can supplement their classroom teaching online,
in the classroom and with supplemental materials for students.
While the adaptation and integration of video for teaching purposes
remains challenging, more instructors are taking advantage of the studio
setting for lectures, interviews, podcasts, panel discussions, and other pro-
fessional productions. In particular, for counseling-related course content,
recording role plays in counseling practice scenarios allows both instruc-
tor and student to review their work from a professional production venue.
In addition, a faculty member can design specific scenarios tailored to a
training objective. Students, having prior exposure and experience in past
courses, readily adapt to video recording in the classroom, in the produc-
tion studio, and on clinical sites.
For example, video recording technology and production was used in
the Counseling Supervision course, which was limited to those students
with a master’s degree who were continuing their education and training
in clinical supervision. This course introduced prospective supervisors to
the research, theory, and literature in clinical methods of effective super-
vision. While the course was designed to survey theoretical and applied
concepts appropriate to counseling supervision, an experiential approach
was used. In addition, the course was designed to motivate students of
supervision to formulate their own personal and professional model of
supervision. Finally, this course was heavily infused with video record-
ing and playback. This technology allowed for the practice, review, and
improvement of clinical supervision effectiveness.
The didactic portion of the course focused on three textbooks: Bernard
and Goodyear’s Fundamentals of Clinical Supervision (2004); Clinical
Supervisor Training (CST), Baltimore and Crutchfield (2002); and the
New Handbook of Counseling Supervision, Borders and Brown (2005).
Experiential activities for supervisors were suggested in part from these
three texts. Course requirements for the supervisors-in-training included
supervising master’s level interns, video recording of individual supervi-
sion sessions with the interns for playback within the supervision class, and
a major writing assignment designed to elicit their personal philosophy of
clinical supervision. In addition to course requirements, the supervision
class itself was recorded and used in instruction throughout the academic
term. Written permission was obtained from all involved prior to begin-
ning any recordings.
The instructor created several Web sites to support the clinical supervi-
sion course, which included training materials and student role plays dem-
onstrating ethical dilemmas and “stuck points” in the clinical supervision
process. Students were also encouraged to create their own role-play sce-
narios that could be used on the Web sites.
Technology in the supervision course. This counseling supervision course

included modules on the following topics: assessment of counselor needs;
defining supervision and creating a working contract; taking a supervisor’s
perspective; supervision models and their application; experiential moments;
ethics in clinical supervision; and evaluation and feedback. Within each of
these modules, video recording technology was used. In the first module
(assessment of counselor needs), students reviewed videos of counseling ses-
sions and focused on counselor training needs. Students used a rubric for
evaluating counselor effectiveness and use of basic counseling skills, and then
presented their evaluations. By using a linear embedded “time code,” that is,
a digital counter on the video (starting at zero and progressing through the
videos in increments of minutes, seconds, and frames), students could mark
the exact moment within the video to present to the rest of the group. This
technique of using a time code to illustrate a counseling process example
for use in supervision supports the supervisor-in-training’s clinical decision
and/or recommendation. That is, students appeared to increase their skills at
finding moments in the counseling session when a supervisory intervention
might be used. Also, students reported that this exercise was helpful and that
they received reinforcement of their findings when shown to the group.
Students in the course were given the assignment of reviewing chapters
from the CST interactive CD-ROM on defining supervision and complet-
ing exercises, including viewing a video role play of a four-part counsel-
ing session and choosing an appropriate supervisory response. This video
CD-ROM can be viewed on a Windows-compatible computer. Students
were encouraged to begin thinking of their own cases in terms of role-play
scenarios that could be demonstrated in class and for possible recording
later in the term.
As students progressed to taking a supervisor’s point of view and learn-
ing to think like a supervisor, a video presentation from Borders and
Benshoff, Learning to Think Like a Supervisor (2000), was used. This video
also introduces the students to Bernard’s Discrimination Model of super-
vision and the next module for the course, supervision theories. As part of
the assignment in this section of the course, students begin to use the theo-
ries from the developmental, social role, and counseling theories’ models
with their supervisees. During video presentation of the individual super-
vision session, students applied one model from each of the categories to
their supervision work. Developmental models, such as Stoltenberg and
Delworth (1987), Skovholt and Ronnestad (1992), Bernard’s Discrimination
Model, and various counseling theories’ approaches were used to familiar-
ize the student with working from a supervision theoretical approach.
An important aspect of this course was training aimed at giving and
receiving critical feedback. The modeling of appropriate feedback was
demonstrated in three different ways throughout the course. First, video
demonstrations of supervision were provided. There was a combina-

tion of supervision sessions recorded previously from the production
lab and from the CD-ROM training text. Live demonstrations from the
instructor accompanied the supervision sessions presented in the class.
Finally, ongoing feedback interactions among the supervisors-in-training
occurred throughout the course. Process comments made by the instruc-
tor regarding the students’ feedback to each other were additive. Moreover,
Interpersonal Process Recall (Kagan, 1980) was a valuable method in
getting at issues below the surface level presentation. These experiential
moments in supervisor training helped the participants to evaluate the
impact of critical feedback.
During this portion of the course, video cameras were set up to record
most if not the entire 3-hr course. Two video camcorders on tripods were
used, one with a wide-angle lens and the other arranged so that close-up
shots were easily made. Videotape recorded for 1 hr, so that for the entire
class six videotapes were needed. The camcorder closest to the student con-
ference table used an external microphone for improving sound quality.
Prior to editing in the video production lab, the camcorders were started
at the same moment using an audio marker so that the two videos could
be matched and edited using one soundtrack. The postediting process took
place on a video editing computer and used a video and audio timeline
method that allowed for an innovative approach similar to those used in
larger video production facilities.
Obviously, the recording of a classroom can be used in follow-up ses-
sions to review material and presentations and to further discussion
regarding the topic at hand. After an initial review, the faculty member
chose to present various segments of the recording to the students in a
later class. In addition, the same recording method was used in other ways,
including professional development purposes for faculty.
To familiarize the supervisors-in-training with the ethical standards
for supervisors, the CST training CD-ROM’s chapter on ethics in super-
vision (including ethical dilemmas for supervisors) was reviewed. Short
video vignettes of ethical dilemmas that arise in clinical supervision were
examined, ethics codes were reviewed and assigned to the dilemma, and
finally, the supervisor-in-training outlined a response.
Student learning. Students throughout the course had opportunities to
review their own work on video, review the work of others, and to view
professionally produced videos and locally created videos that were tar-
geted to particular content for the clinical supervision course. Feedback
from students regarding the heavy use of video recording of their work,
both in and out of class, indicated that after an initial level of anxiety they
became more comfortable with the process.
Student feedback about the course indicated that students spent more
time in preparing for video presentation with their own outside recordings
of their supervision session and in the preparation for classroom presenta-
tion and discussion. Interestingly, the course evaluation was recorded dur-
ing class. In addition, the traditional anonymous class evaluation forms
were used as well. Both forms of feedback indicated that students spend
additional time with the material and worked toward a more professional
presentation. Also, feedback regarding the course indicated that students
felt that the technology used during the course was helpful in their train-
ing and understanding of the material.
Instructor learning. The use of video recording during the class and
the preparation for video materials to be used in a course requires addi-
tional time and effort on the part of the instructor. Video recording in
the classroom is a highly interactive process which demands that all
involved be part of the learning experience. The instructor and student
are both recorded and viewed. The instructor will be provided with feed-
back on teaching as the student receives feedback about his or her per-
formance. Openness to learning plays an important part in the success
of this method. Using this parallel process, videotaping of teaching then
has multiple uses both for the improvement of teaching as well as improv-
ing supervisor-in-training skill. In the future, classrooms will have video
recording capabilities built in, making this much easier for instructor and
student. Just as many classrooms at a number of universities and colleges
now have podcast recording capabilities, so video capability in a class-
room seems like the next step.
Multimedia production laboratory. In recent years at Columbus State
University, a classroom within the College of Education was converted to
a multimedia lab for faculty. The lab was set up to assist faculty in creating
video to enhance teaching and learning. The lab, designated “Studio 212,”
was designed to create, record, and produce video for use in teaching and
learning in classrooms, conferences, Web streaming, CD-ROM, and DVD.
This lab has video camcorders, wireless microphones, stage lighting, a tele-
prompter, backgrounds, including chromakey capability, with sets designed
to fit a wide range of production needs. Any segment, event, or complete
DVD production can be captured and produced in the various formats in a
short amount of time compared to outsourcing video production. Planning
and producing video products in-house can save time and money. In fact,
recent figures collected in the region show an average of $1000 per finished
minute of video charged by video production companies.
Interest in capturing events and enhancing classroom teaching and
Web-based instruction has gained momentum. From this small lab alone,
24 DVDs were created in 2008. From this experience, universities and
training facilities are encouraged to plan, find resources, and implement
a production laboratory aimed at creating faculty-led video to enhance

teaching, particularly in training counselors and supervisors. Creating
specific video to support teaching clinical skills has been underutilized.
The experiential activities necessary for quality training in clinical super-
vision are naturally suited for video production.
Consideration in using video in clinical supervision. The use of video and
the video development process must be planned well in advance. Resources,
including hardware and software for postproduction, if used, must be con-
sidered. Video recordings can be played back in most classrooms and can
be produced in DVD format, CD-ROM format, and for Web streaming, as
well as standard videotape. The successful use of video technology in the
classroom results in more focused discussion and demands much of the
instructor and student. The following is a list of tips to develop and deliver
a course using video technology:
• Plan your use of video. This includes how video will be recorded
and how often. In addition, you must determine your target audi-
ence. Will this be a demonstration of a technique? Then it must
be clearly presented. Is it a piece that stimulates discussion? How
is this achieved? Further, any video shown in class should engage
the students and be closely evaluated in terms of impact on the
learning process.
• Determine your purpose. Will this video recording be only for
your supervision students? What will this video accomplish?
Another important factor is how the video will be evaluated.
• Consider timing, budgeting, and scheduling. A syllabus that
includes a production schedule can be helpful.
• Have all the hardware necessary for recording available. Making
quality recordings depends on more than the recording device.
This includes having quality lighting and sound. Recording
rehearsals will lessen technical difficulties.
• Spend time orienting students to the project. Students who have
more experience with video technology can assist your efforts.
Assisting students who are unfamiliar with video recording early
in the process will be helpful.
• Become familiar with simple-to-follow videography techniques
such as shot composition and arrangement. Camera angle and
scene composition should be considered beforehand.
• Outsource video editing and production, if possible. In order
to use your video beyond the classroom, production value
includes titling and graphics with other elements such as voice-
over and commentary.
• If editing video yourself, make use of software that allows for

transition and titling and ease of use.
• Use summative and formative evaluation techniques that include
the use of technology combined with traditional methods
throughout the course.
• Become acquainted with technology support at your facility.
• When using a video you have created, have others review your work.
Receiving feedback prior to showing your video can help greatly.
Teaching Clinical Supervision: Videoconferencing (Virginia Tech)

Since its inception in 1993, the Virginia Tech Faculty Development Institute
(FDI) has been the most visible component of the four-part, university-
wide Instructional Development Initiative (IDI). IDI provides a systematic
approach to the effective integration of current trends and technologies
into teaching, learning, and research at Virginia Tech. The FDI component
centers on teaching faculty how to effectively and efficiently integrate tech-
nology into their teaching and research activities. This integration includes
the following approaches: rethinking faculty teaching methods and goals,
exploring the potential of specific instructional technology and research
applications, and investigating strategies to improve the effectiveness of
current teaching and research practices. Although FDI provides a great
deal of skills training for critical computer hardware and software, the FDI
program is not designed to be a mastery-based teaching model. Rather, it
is designed to be a program that provides general and targeted informa-
tion to let faculty members decide which specific training will meet their
individual needs. Support is readily available for faculty to move beyond
the basic levels whenever appropriate.
As a faculty member in the Counselor Education program at Virginia Tech,
the third author was able to receive training and support in using new technol-
ogy tools for a Clinical Supervision class. Because the Counselor Education
program had two locations, training of all the doctoral-level students in the
Clinical Supervision class required the use of several technologies.
Videoconferencing. The first of these technologies was videoconferenc-
ing, a process in which compressed video is transmitted through digital
phone lines to provide real-time, interactive audio and visual communica-
tion between sites that are geographically separated. Using this video tech-
nology, the local site was the classroom where the instructor was located.
The remote site had only students and, sometimes, a facilitator who assisted
with the startup of the class. Two television monitors viewed the local and
remote site. Microphones were placed on the table in front of the students,
and they had to press a button to speak. The instructor had a desk arrange-
ment with both a computer and a graphics camera for presenting didactic
material. A control tablet was placed on the desk for the instructor. When
the instructor sat there, the students at the remote site saw the instruc-
tor on one monitor and their class on the other monitor. Sometimes the
instructor asked a student to sit at the desk to learn how to use the sys-
tem. The camera then showed the instructor sitting with the students and
that seemed to facilitate good discussion. The system also had a videotape
player. Support personnel were available at both sites if there were techni-
cal problems. Videoconferencing, the key element in cyber supervision, is
more secure than e-mail or chat room transcripts, which are considered
public record, and is used extensively in counselor supervision.
Many of the counselor education doctoral students were not new to
videoconferencing because they had taken several videoconferencing
courses, but to teach a clinical course like supervision this way presented
some unique challenges. It was decided that the course would have both a
didactic component and the experiential component of supervising mas-
ter’s students in their internships. Thus, the supervisors-in-training in
both locations were required to videotape the supervision sessions with
their supervisees. Informed consents were gathered from all involved. The
Bernard and Goodyear book Fundamentals of Clinical Supervision (2004)
provided most of the didactic material for discussion. The instructor sup-
plemented with some presentations and had several guest speakers. The
main focus was on the supervision processes of class members. They took
turns presenting descriptions of supervision sessions and then showed
video segments from those sessions. The professor and the students pro-
vided feedback so that the process became supervision-of-supervision. The
professor facilitated a variety of feedback methods to the supervisee. For
example, role plays were conducted sometimes with one student at one
location and one at the other. A live supervision session was conducted
at one site when a supervisor brought the supervisee into the class dur-
ing the videoconference. Peer supervision methods were very appropriate
for the instructor to facilitate. Several of these group methods such as the
Structured Peer Group Format (Borders, 1991) and the Structured Group
Supervision Model (Wilbur, Roberts-Wilbur, Hart, Morris & Betz, 1994)
facilitated interaction between the two sites. The class syllabus, forms for
the supervisors and supervisees to use in structuring the supervision ses-
sions, examples of supervision learning contracts, and evaluation instru-
ments were all placed on Blackboard, which provides the university’s
online course delivery system. The instructor developed a LISTSERV of
students to support e-mail interaction among them.
Building a learning community between two sites required not just
spanning physical distance but psychological distance as well. Group
dynamics and the role of the instructor became very important aspects
to consider. Each year the instructor has gone to the remote site to con-
duct class from there and to meet with individual students if desired. The
students appreciated that effort, as their site was 4 hr away. Several said that
the course really “began” once they met the instructor face-to-face. The
instructor also decided that a meeting of the entire group was very impor-
tant. So a meeting place at a midway geographical location was arranged
for a Saturday. The students emphasized the benefits of a face-to-face com-
ponent. Being counselors, they appreciated seeing one another “up close
and personal.” Most students have said that they would prefer face-to-face
meetings. Showing one’s clinical supervision sessions on tape produces
vulnerability and anxiety, so the instructor expended a great deal of effort
to make the class feel safe. In contrast though, students did see the advan-
tages of learning about distance education technology and recognized that
it was necessary to the counselor education program to use it.
Although the technical problems of connecting or reconnecting to the
two sites have decreased greatly over time, there are still technical issues.
Audio from the students’ videotapes of supervision sessions that were
being played in class was sometimes difficult to understand. Unless the
videoconferencing camera is zoomed in on a speaker during class, it is
hard to read facial expressions. The microphones had to be activated by the
students when speaking and at times they forgot to do that.
Advantages for the instructor were several. Videoconferencing tech-
nology more closely approximates the traditional face-to-face classroom
than other distance modalities such as online courses. Videoconferencing
gave the professor an opportunity to teach students in different localities,
which added diversity and greater perspective to the class. Classroom vid-
eoconferencing was excellent preparation for desktop videoconferencing,
which may be the next significant distance education modality.
According to the recent American Counseling Association guidelines
(2005), ethical issues and confidentiality apply to teachers, students, and
broadcast technicians involved with distance technology. One of the fea-
tures of videoconferencing is the ability to record class sessions. Faculty
members, as well as students who miss class, can use the recording for
review. It is vital that the recordings not be made available to anyone but the
instructor and be viewed privately so that confidentiality can be honored.
The use of videoconferencing will continue to increase because of its
time and cost efficiency. As the quality of the technology improves, there
will be fewer technological glitches. The following is a list of tips to develop
and deliver a course in videoconferencing so that it truly becomes a learn-
ing community:
• Vary instructional methods: videos, overhead, role plays, or other
experiential methods, lectures, discussions.
• Limit class size to no more and preferably less than eight students
at each site.
• Prepare students for technical distractions or difficulties.

• Present the instructor’s view of the strengths and challenges of
videoconferencing.
• Establish norms for class conduct on the first night. For example, dis-
courage students from talking among themselves at one site because
it can create misperceptions of bad manners at the other site.
• Arrange the class so that members at the remote class can see both
the instructor and classmates at the same time. This means sitting
with the class instead of at the instructor’s desk all the time.
• Spend time on an icebreaker at the beginning of the course and
team-building activities throughout.
• Pay attention to nonverbal behavior of students at both sites.
• Maintain eye contact with the camera.
• Try to have a site facilitator present at the remote site for the first
several class meetings.
Albrecht and Jones (2001) give more good ideas on providing interaction in their
book High Tech/High Touch: Distance Learning in Counselor Preparation.
Electronic mail. E-mail (or e-supervision) was another technology used
as a supplemental training tool in the Clinical Supervision class. Myrick
and Sabella (1995) developed a LISTSERV (a list of counselors and their
e-mail addresses) so that when situations arose, counselors could post
e-mail messages about counseling or client questions and receive feedback
and suggestions from others on the list. E-mail was used in the Clinical
Supervision class in several ways. For supervision sessions that were not
viewed in class, the students had to e-mail their instructor a report of
their supervision. The written e-mail material about a supervision session
was organized so that the supervisor could read about the client and the
counseling goals, about progress or lack of it, about the supervisee’s reac-
tion to the client and the process and about future direction (Getz, 1999).
It provided an opportunity for supervisees to ask for and obtain written
feedback in between class meetings. They could also pose any particular
questions to their colleagues in the class. Written assignments about the
chapters in the textbook were e-mailed to the LISTSERV of all the students
in addition to the instructor.
E-supervision has aspects that supervisees and supervisors find ben-
eficial and also challenging. In a study about e-supervision by Graf and
Stebnicki (2002), they found that supervisees reported it to be very benefi-
cial. They especially liked having ongoing access to their supervisors, and
they reported it to be more relaxed and informal. For the supervisor there
is an advantage in that supervisee’s development can be tracked over time
by analyzing the written documentation.
The biggest concern about e-supervision is confidentiality. A drawback

to the use of computers for transmitting information is that there is no
guarantee as to the identity of the receiver. When sent, e-mail is stored
on an individual’s server until it is read, responded to, saved, or deleted.
E-mail messages may also be sent by mistake to the wrong recipients. If
an individual is using an unsecure server, or is on a computer accessed by
a group of people, confidentiality may be compromised. Protecting confi-
dentiality is of utmost concern. The names of clients and significant others
must never be used, nor should there be any identifying data about geo-
graphical location.
Centra. Centra courseware is a powerful tool for online multiple-user
interaction and course organization that includes real-time two-way audio,
application sharing, Web browsing, whiteboarding, and text chatting.
Once an instructor is familiar with the Centra environment, he or she will
be able to design and deliver materials for synchronous and asynchronous
use by the students, as well as lead interactive sessions at a distance. The
professor and students download the software for Centra and then view a
tutorial that explains its use. With headsets plugged into their computers,
the instructor and a student can have an individual supervision session.
The instructor controls the interaction though icons viewed on the com-
puter. The students can put brief, simple agendas on PowerPoint presenta-
tions that would be uploaded. Centra helps facilitate one-to-one audio chat
so that a student can express concerns, raise questions, or request help. The
one-to-one chats allow some students to share more than they would if
they were reluctant to share in a larger group. Students can use the Centra
system to present a short clip of a supervision session. This process has the
possibility of increasing rapport between the instructor and the student
that would otherwise be lost by physical distance.
Web-based training for clinical supervisors. Another example of the use
of technology to train clinical supervisors is the development of a Web
site to be used for training on-site clinical supervisors. CACREP now
requires that on-site supervisors receive clinical supervision training
before supervising counseling interns. One significant challenge in meet-
ing that requirement is that some cannot attend the training provided by
the university because of geographical separation or schedule conflicts.
Although it is preferable to have faculty trainers and on-site supervisors
come together for interaction and the development of professional alli-
ances, a supervisor training Web site offers some unique benefits as well.
Supervisor training Web sites can provide more extensive information
than that provided in a one-time live training. Information about clinical
supervision can be accessed at any time.
The supervisor training Web site (Getz & Schnurman, 2001) is orga-
nized around the clinical supervision competencies that are now required
by NBCC for the approved supervisor credential and by many states that
require these competencies of those who provide supervision for postmas-
ter’s counselors working toward state licensure. There is information about
supervision models, the supervisory relationship, counselor development,
supervision techniques and interventions, evaluation, and ethics. There is
a resource list of valuable books and articles on clinical supervision. The
Web site presents a variety of training points complete with examples
and video clip demonstrations. Also, hyperlinks are included to expand
the readers’ connection to professional materials. The same Web site can
be adapted for use in continuing education in supervision, satisfying the
state’s requirements that those who supervise have training or retraining.
Some researchers have suggested that developing an online learning
community requires deliberate and skilled instructor facilitation to suc-
ceed (Rovai, 2001; Wikeley & Muschamp, 2004). Rovai (2001) found that
instructors needed to establish group identity, foster trust between stu-
dents and between the instructor and students, encourage both social and
task interactions, and create opportunities for the construction of shared
knowledge through virtual dialog. The technologies presented here can
be used to help facilitate such development. Engagement with e-mail, vid-
eoconferencing, video production, courseware, and Web site instruction,
even in a simple exercise for a short time, can produce results that aid in
the teaching and learning process. The clinical supervision training pro-
cess can be enhanced through the use of technology as counselor trainees
and instructors gain valuable insight into their work.
Adopting Technology in Supervision

The best strategy in considering technology adoption is to take a point
of view that considers each potential user. Who will be involved with
the technology you adopt? Immediately, you think of the supervisor and
supervisee, but if you are working in a clinical setting, then the technology
adoption may include support staff, management and information services
people, and clinic administrators. A multiple user point-of-view suggests
that you do a 360° analysis for each of the potential stakeholders in the
technology. Put yourself in the place of each potential stakeholder and
consider the issues he or she may have to address with the new technology.
From this you can draw a list of questions or concerns that stakeholders
might have with the adoption. The advantage of a 360° analysis is that you
can emerge from the process with anticipated issues that you would not get
by taking your point of view alone.
In considering and adopting a technology framework to provide super-
vision, careful planning and execution will lead to the most satisfying
outcomes for the supervisor and supervisee. We are suggesting the 4 P’s;
Prepare, Purchase, Practice, and Preserve, as a strategy for technology

adoption in the supervisory experience.
Prepare
Good preparation will make all the other steps in the process run smoothly.
To achieve good preparation, one needs to take time in making decisions
about the use of technology for supervision. Preparation means exploring
what technology platforms for supervision may serve your needs. Research
each of the technologies further and contact those colleagues who have
incorporated them into their supervision process, asking for consultation
with them regarding their experiences with the technology. Most tech-
savvy professionals are more than happy to share their experiences, and
the benefits and challenges of adopting technology in their practice. If pos-
sible, see if they will provide you a demonstration of the technology you
want to adopt. Talk with your immediate colleagues, staff, and supervisees
about adding a technology layer to the supervision process. Collect articles
on technology-based supervision and share your ideas with instructional
technologists. Consider confidentiality, safety, and security issues when
using a new technology.
Purchase
Consider the cost of equipment, software, and expenses associated with staff
use and training before implementing any new technology as it applies to
supervision relationships. Think about the additional cost to your program
or practice. Perhaps this new technology is replacing some other costly tech-
nology or process. In this case, factor in any potential cost savings. Provide a
budget to administrators or responsible parties with best estimates of the ini-
tial cost of the technology and what cost will be involved in maintenance.
Practice
As part of your preparation for the new supervision technology, con-
sider staff training. Establish a training program for supervisors that
will allow them plenty of opportunity to learn and to practice. We sug-
gest that you have a series of training sessions with all staff who will
use the new technology. If you are considering a new videoconferencing
system, supervisors and supervisees should be made aware of the process
for using the equipment and training involved when the videoconferenc-
ing system is operational at the site. Pairing learners can be helpful, as
they can become resources for each other. Once training is complete,
you need to give counselors and supervisors opportunities to practice on
the system and develop self-confidence in using the equipment, software,
and supervision process.
Preserve
It is important that you keep any new technology in good running con-
dition. Any software should be backed up and updated regularly. Some
designate should be responsible for regular maintenance and checking
the equipment and software. A designate should also periodically review
and scrub computers of files that could be potential risks to confidential-
ity. E-mails, chat logs, and digital audio and video should be removed to
reduce the likelihood that the data will fall into unauthorized hands.
Ethics of Technology-Based Supervision

Since the provision of technology-assisted supervision is not standard-
ized, there is no standard set of ethical guidelines for its practice. Many
practitioners engaged in technology-based supervision use a combination
of technology platforms that suit their pedagogical needs. The examples
of Columbus State University and Virginia Tech presented in this chap-
ter show the diverse and creative ways in which two institutions have
responded to their programs’ educational needs. Without specific ethical
guidelines for cybersupervision, we need to turn to existing parallel ethical
codes to ensure ethical and best practice.
The best first solution is to check with your professional association’s gen-
eral Code of Ethics and/or Standards of Practice. If your action would be con-
sidered unethical in the standard face-to-face practice, it would certainly be
troublesome in cyberpractice. We would encourage you to check with state
licensure laws where you practice to ensure that certain forms of technology-
based supervision are considered acceptable by state licensure standards. It
would also be helpful to look at the Association for Counselor Education and
Supervision (ACES, 2007) Technical Competencies for Counselor Education
as it covers ethical use of technology and issues with security of material on
the Internet. The National Board of Certified Counselors (NBCC, n.d.) has
a document titled The Practice of Internet Counseling that is a good overview
of considerations one should take into account when doing online counsel-
ing. These ideas also extend to safe and ethical online supervision.
Future Trends
What does the future hold for technology inclusion in the supervision pro-
cess? If the process we see with past adoption continues likewise in the
future, to predict the future in supervision we should be looking at cur-
rent technology issues in allied fields that have not yet made their way into
counseling and supervision.
We are just beginning to see the use of Web 2.0 tools in other fields.
Web 2.0 is advancement from the first generation of Web tools that were
primarily static. First-generation Web tools such as e-mail, Web pages, and
discussion boards relied on one person to make a contribution and that
information remained in place with little interaction from the user. Web 2.0
tools are developed so multiple users can contribute, edit, and co-construct
the narrative. These next-generation tools such as blogging, microblogging,
wikis, social networking sites (such as Facebook), video-sharing sites, and
virtual worlds (such as Second Life) allow for more user interaction with
other users. Supervision requires a higher level of interactivity between
supervisor and supervisee, and Web 2.0 tools permit this interactivity.
One idea being discussed and researched in reference to human
communication through technology is the idea of virtual presence.
Virtual presence is the experience that users can have with technol-
ogy that allows them to have an emotive connection with someone else
(Patrick, 2002). In the process the user “forgets” that this relationship
is being mediated through technology. The use of technology to have
the experience becomes a non-issue. As we see a new generation of stu-
dents making personal connections through social networks such as
Facebook and MySpace, surely supervision using new media will not
lag far behind.
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Chapter 5
Using Expressive Arts in
Counseling Supervision
Sondra Smith-Adcock, Mark B. Scholl, Elaine
Wittmann, Catherine Tucker, Clarrice
Rapisarda, and Mary amanda Graham*
Since the development of clinical supervision to address the preparation of

counselors, supervisors have created ways to effectively facilitate the pro-
cess. Since the early 1990s, authors have proposed using expressive arts to
help supervisors and supervisees meet personal, professional, and clinical
goals. Drawing, music, movement, and writing are the most traditional
forms of expressive arts that have been proposed for use in clinical super-
vision (Wilkins, 1995).
The overarching aim of using expressive arts in counseling supervi-
sion is to foster a creative process that promotes more in-depth learning.
Expressive arts also help to facilitate the counseling supervisor’s knowl-
edge and awareness of the supervisee’s learning process. Authors have
associated a number of positive outcomes with using expressive arts in
counseling supervision. Expressive arts have been recommended as a way
to enhance students’ identity development (Neswald-McCalip, Sather,
Strati, & Dineen, 2003; Neswald-Potter, 2005; Newsome, Henderson, &
Veach, 2005; Pearson, 2003; Scholl & Smith-Adcock, 2007; Wilkins, 1995;
Young & Borders, 1998, 1999), promote learning goals, and yield positive
* Note: The authors, except for the first and second authors, have made equivalent contri-
butions to this chapter and authorship order has been determined at random.
87
views of supervision by supervisees (Neswald-McCalip, et al., 2003; Young

& Borders, 1998, 1999).
Using creative approaches in supervision allows students to advance their
learning through approaches that are designed to liberate conscious and
unconscious information and promote change. These approaches emphasize
use of expressive techniques that promote more spontaneous, livelier engage-
ment with the supervision process. In addition to encouraging spontaneity,
these methods also facilitate the objectification or a disidentification with
regard to aspects of oneself. This distancing or loosening of identification
renders aspects of the self more amenable to creative change. In this chapter,
we review the foundations, methods, and implications of four emerging cre-
ative approaches to supervision that meet these criteria.
Authors of each of the expressive arts approaches included the following
in their description: (1) how to use the technique in supervision, including
the proper setting, materials needed, modality (e.g., individual or group);
(2) examples of how to use the approach during and across sessions, and
ways to process; (3) discussion of issues related to using the approach in
supervision, such as supervisees’ developmental stages; and (4) anecdotes,
dialogue, photos, or drawings for many of the approaches also will be
included to illustrate counselor awareness and development. And finally,
when appropriate, authors have included recommendations for training
supervisors to use the approach.
In this chapter, we present four approaches to using expressive arts in
counseling supervision. The first approach presented is the art of using pup-
petry in supervision, authored by Clarrice Rapisarda. The second approach,
authored by Sondra Smith-Adcock and Mark Scholl, involves the use of
psychodrama-related techniques in supervision. Third, Mary Amanda
Graham presents her approach, called Bibliosupervision, which involves the
incorporation of bibliotherapy into supervision. Lastly, Elaine Wittmann
and Catherine Tucker present a supervision approach involving the use of
Sandtray/Worldplay.
Using Puppetry In Counseling Supervision

Clarrice Rapisarda
I (Rapisarda) have been working with puppets in counseling and super-
vision for 9 years, and during that time they have moved from being a
convenient resource to a core tool. In this section, basic information about
working with puppets and a general process that guides supervision work
with puppets is presented. An example with photos will be discussed to
help illustrate the process. Lastly, issues related to working with puppets in
supervision will be examined.
Using Expressive Arts in Counseling Supervision • 89
Using Puppetry in Supervision: The Basic Elements and Terminology

The Proper Setting There are no specific setting requirements for
working with puppets in supervision. The key requirement for the set-
ting is to make sure that the puppets are within reach so that they can
be placed and manipulated as needed. Puppets are extremely portable
and versatile for adapting to any environmental constraints, whether
in a school (James & Myer, 1987), or in a community setting. During a
typical academic semester, my puppets frequently make trips from my
counseling office to the classroom.
Materials Needed Time and puppets are the key materials needed for
this technique. Due to the nature of the work with the puppets and the
amount of processing that occurs when following the outlined proce-
dure, it is important that the supervisor allocate enough time during
the supervision session for the puppet processing. As the supervisor
and supervisee become more comfortable with the process, it can be
adjusted to fit shorter amounts of time.
While there are many types of puppets ranging from marionettes to
ventriloquist’s dummies (Carter & Mason, 1998), the technique pro-
posed in this chapter focuses on the use of animal hand puppets (pup-
pets that generally fit over the hand and where the fingers and hands
are used to move the face, mouth, or body of the puppet). The majority
of puppets I work with are animals for several reasons. First, I have
found that animals transcend many cultural layers that people can-
not. It can be very challenging to find people puppets to represent all
races and ethnicities; however, the supervisor can intentionally select
core and basic animals with characteristics that resonate with many
people across cultures. Second, the use of animal hand puppets offers
the supervisee greater freedom to express possible cultural concerns in
a nontraditional method. Third, it may be easier and safer for strong
and conflicting emotions to be projected onto an animal puppet and
then processed.
It is recommended that the supervisor have a variety of puppets avail-
able during supervision in order to conduct this process (Figure 5.1); how-
ever, the number is not as important as the category of puppets. It is helpful
to have at least a few puppets in the following categories (see pictures at the
end of the chapter):
Aggressors: These are puppets that show strong, scary emotions and often
attach/eat other puppets. Examples: a bear, wolf, bee, spider (Figure 5.2).
1. Magical: These are puppets that have extra powers, relate to super-
stitions, or are lucky/magical. Examples: rabbit in magician’s hat,
peacock, three-headed dragon (Figure 5.3).
Figure 5.1
Figure 5.2 Aggressive puppets.

Figure 5.3 Magical puppets.
2. Nurturers: Puppets that represent love and loving may be placed

in the caretaker role, or in need of caring or nurturing. Examples:
baby birds in nest, mother armadillo and baby, mother mouse and
baby mice (Figure 5.4).
3. Shy: These are puppets that are able to hide in order to stay safe and
protected, possibly from aggressor puppets. Examples: dinosaurs
in eggs, armadillo that can curl into ball, turtle with shell, snail
with shell (Figure 5.5).
Figure 5.4 Nurturing puppets.

Figure 5.5 Shy puppets.
Other puppet categories that could be included to help with the processing
include aquatic puppets, insect puppets, and generally friendly puppets.
It is helpful to have puppets made from different fabrics and textures to
appeal to a broader audience. For example, I worked with a supervisee who
had sensory integration issues, and who preferred to only work with the
smooth-textured puppets such as the ant. The best guideline to use when
purchasing a puppet is to choose one that you would be willing to work
with yourself. If it does not appeal to you, chances are it will not appeal to
your supervisees, students, or clients.
Modality Working with puppets in supervision can occur in individual

supervision or group supervision. The technique that is outlined can be
easily expanded to include a group interaction and processing response.
Puppet Processing in Supervision

The steps for puppet processing will now be described. It is helpful for
supervisors who use puppet processing to document the key themes that
emerge as well as the puppets that are used as the process unfolds. Photos
are an ideal way of capturing the staging of the puppets. Steps that are sug-
gested for puppet processing include the following:
1. List 3 to 9 key elements that will be focused on during the process-
ing. These may be people (including the person who is completing
this processing), feelings, things, or events.
2. The supervisee then chooses and gathers the puppets that will por-
tray each element. There is no limit to this part of the process. One
element may need two or three puppets to adequately express it.
3. The supervisee states which puppet is representing which elements.

4. Puppets are placed physically in the room in such a way as to lit-
erally and accurately represent the various elements and display
their relationship to the puppets representing the supervisee; for
example, a defensive supervisee may choose to place the super-
visee and supervisor puppets in opposite corners of a room. Any
additional props may be used to help achieve this; for example,
placing a puppet on books to portray it looking down on another
element (Figure 5.6).
5. The supervisee is asked to step away from the arrangement of
puppets and is encouraged to make any adjustments necessary to
most accurately portray the elements.
6. The supervisee then steps away from the puppets to a different
viewpoint and reflects out loud on the scene as an outsider view-
ing the elements for the first time. During this step, the supervisor
(and other supervisees if supervision occurs in a group format)
is listening for affect present in the supervisee’s voice, noticing
details, and paying attention to any incongruities.
7. The supervisee processes the story from step 6. The supervisee is also
asked to process any thoughts or reactions to physically watching
the elements symbolized and displayed in the puppets. To facilitate
the processing, the supervisee addresses each element by taking each
puppet, and touching and manipulating it. The supervisee tries out
the abilities of the chosen animal as seen from that element. It is not
necessary to actually speak as the puppet. The supervisee can instead
speak from the perspective of that puppet in the element to which it
Figure 5.6 Supervision steps 4 to 6.

was assigned. When used in group supervision, other supervisees can

be assigned to the different puppet elements and can share in the pro-
cessing by expressing what they would feel from that perspective.
8. The supervisee is then offered the freedom to change any pup-
pets in order to resolve or eliminate various elements that are cur-
rently present. To do this, the supervisee may bring in different
puppets to portray the same elements or to portray new elements.
The supervisee discusses what changed in the scene.
9. Processing occurs again (as in Step 6), with the supervisee try-
ing out the new changes. When used in group supervision, other
supervisees can be assigned to the different puppet elements and
can share in the processing by expressing what they would feel
from the changes represented (Figure 5.7).
10. The supervisor then goes through steps 2 to 6 using the same ele-
ments identified by the supervisee. By following the same process, the
supervisor offers the supervisee a chance to experiment with growth
through the selected elements in a safe, less threatening space.
11. The core elements and their representations in each of the stories
are processed. The overall experience is processed (Figure 5.8).
An Example of Puppet Processing There are two general areas that can
be the focus of puppet processing in supervision. The first area focuses
on the supervision process and the roles of the supervisee and supervisor
in that process. Puppet processing used in this area can foster increased
insight, self-awareness, and growth of the supervisee as a developing coun-
selor. The supervisor gains insight and understanding of the supervisee’s
Figure 5.7 Supervision step 9.

Figure 5.8 Supervision step 11.
development by utilizing puppet processing at various points during the

supervision process, such as during the first or second session, at mid-
points, and at the close of supervision work with the supervisee. Through
the employment of puppet processing, the supervisor and supervisee are
also able to assess the actual supervision process itself. As demonstrated
in the following example, puppet processing can offer supervisees a safer,
less confrontational method of expressing any worries, concerns, hopes, or
expectations about the supervisor, counseling, supervision, or themselves.
In the following example, the supervisee was a recent graduate who had
been counseling full time for 3 months. The supervisor had noticing that
the supervisee had exhibited a pattern of internalizing clients’ issues, lead-
ing to increased stress. The supervisee was also reporting feeling frustrated
with a perceived lack of progress, which was leading to feelings of pressure
to do more for the client. The supervisor suggested puppet processing as an
opportunity for both the supervisor and supervisee to view these elements
in a different light. The puppet processing steps were as follows.
First, key elements identified were the supervisee, the supervisor, pressure
to do more, frustration, and stress from internalization of clients’ issues. In
step 2, the supervisee selected the puppets needed to represent the identi-
fied elements. Puppets portraying the elements were the raccoon-in-can
(supervisee), the three-headed dragon (supervisor), rabbit-in-hat and spi-
der (pressure to do more), turtle (frustration), and glove puppet with five
different animal heads (stress). In steps 4 and 5, the supervisee placed these
puppets to physically represent the various key elements. Then, in step 6,
the supervisee related the following story about the puppets.
The three-headed dragon supervisor is placed on the armrest looking down on the
raccoon-in-can supervisee because the supervisee feels constantly judged by the
supervisor. The supervisee feels like mixed messages are received from the supervi-
sor, sometimes positive and supportive, sometimes negative or challenging, and the
dragon’s three heads represent this. The raccoon-in-can supervisee is over in the corner.
In the can with the raccoon supervisee, who has a paw raised for help, are the clients’
issues, as represented by different animal heads. The raccoon-in-can supervisee is
feeling stressed about having no personal space away from the clients. The can is sit-
ting on top of a turtle representing the supervisee’s frustration at how slowly the clients
are crawling toward change. Up ahead of and just out of reach of the raccoon-in-can
supervisee is a magic rabbit-in-hat symbolizing all of the wonderful, mysterious tech-
niques the supervisee believes are needed in order to make clients change quicker. The
black spider crouching on top of the rabbit-in-hat symbolizes the pressure the supervi-
see feels at needing to do more but being unable to in counseling sessions.
In the following steps (7, 8, and 9), the supervisee and supervisor pro-
cessed the story by talking about each element and brainstorming possible
examples from supervision sessions to further elaborate upon the story. The
supervisor then asked the supervisee to change the current puppet story to
reflect what the supervisee would like to see. The supervisee changed some
of the puppets and told the following story:
Winnie the Pooh is now the supervisor and is holding the raccoon-in-can supervisee,
providing complete support, guidance, and an always positive, encouraging message.
The raccoon-in-can supervisee has learned the mystical techniques required to become
a better counselor, as shown by the magic rabbit-in-hat sitting against the raccoon’s
can. With these mystical techniques, the supervisee is now able to help the clients,
whose issues are no longer in the can with the raccoon, but are instead next to the can
and the rabbit. The clients are working on their issues quickly and as busily as bees, as
symbolized by the bumblebee resting in front of the clients.
The supervisor and supervisee then processed the story.

In step 10, the supervisor then goes through steps 2 to 6 and, using the
same elements as identified by the supervisee, creating an alternate story.
The supervisor’s story was as follows:
Armadillos now represent both the supervisee and supervisor. The shells of the armadil-
los represent the internal barriers counselors needed in order to keep clients’ issues
separate from themselves. The armadillo supervisor was next to and slightly behind the
armadillo supervisee, positioned to give support, guidance, and a nurturing nudge when
needed to facilitate the supervisee’s growth as a counselor. The armadillo supervisee
is holding an ant instead of the magic rabbit-in-hat to symbolize that hard and steady
work, not mystical techniques, are what is needed in a good counselor. The clients and
their issues are still the puppet with many animal heads, and they are still busy as bees,
working on their issues. The clients, supervisee, and supervisor are all facing forward as
they work on achieving goals in parallel processes.
In the final step, the core elements and their representations in each of
the stories are discussed. The overall puppet experience was processed.
The second focus on processing with puppets is the supervisee’s coun-
seling work with clients. Puppet processing can help the supervisee
develop and gain insight and perspective into clients’ stories and issues
as well as gain insight and perspective into developing counseling skills.
Puppet processing may be particularly helpful in recognizing transfer-
ence issues present in a session. Because the supervisor also participates
in puppet processing, the supervisee is provided with an opportunity
to explore the parallel processes that occur in supervision between the
supervisor and supervisee, and in counseling between the supervisee
and the client.
Conclusion and Recommendations

Puppet processing is a useful and flexible process that can be incorpo-
rated with different theoretical approaches in a supervision session at any
point during a supervisee’s development. The animal puppets provide
external, physical symbols for the safe expression of feelings (Maurer,
1977), conflicts, and the practice of new or challenging skills, resulting
in improved decision-making skills and increased self-esteem (Carter &
Mason, 1998). The puppets offer a tactile, hands-on approach for super-
visees to explore the process of their own intrapersonal and interper-
sonal development as a counselor. Puppet processing is also useful to
encourage divergent thinking skills by increasing creativity (Deacon,
2000) in both the supervisee and supervisor. The elements as portrayed
by the puppets allow for an opportunity to restructure and experience
core patterns on a visceral level.
Puppet processing offers the supervisor and supervisee a transfer-
able skill. The supervisee in both community and school settings can use
puppet processing in counseling sessions to help clients express various
elements connected with their issues. The client would receive similar ben-
efits from the process. The supervisor can use puppet processing in group
supervision with additional processing leads, as mentioned in the outlined
steps. The supervisor can also take puppet processing into trainings and
into the classroom for use with students.
The challenges with puppet processing are that some people may not
care for puppets or may not feel very creative. However, it is not required
to actually speak as if one were the puppet, as in a traditional puppet show.
I encourage all of my supervisees to work with the puppet process at least
once for the creative exercise and benefits discussed. The puppet process is
flexible enough to work with any amount of creativity a person may have
because it uses physical, concrete animal puppets to help represent the core
elements that are the focus for that session.
The most rewarding part about puppet processing is that it is truly only
limited by the extent of one’s creativity and imagination. After several
years of puppet work in supervision, I continue to be humbled and hon-
ored to share in the new story that emerges from puppet processing with
my supervisees.
Using Psychodrama In Counseling Supervision

Sondra Smith-Adcock and Mark B. Scholl
In the context of group supervision, the use of activities adopted from
psychodrama facilitates participants’ creative and spontaneous self-
expression. Role-plays and similar here-and-now enactments facilitate
increased engagement in the supervision process. As a result, partici-
pants feel empowered to experience enhanced self-efficacy, self-esteem,
autonomy, self-awareness, and opportunities to enact underdeveloped
aspects of themselves (Gladding, 2005). By processing the enactments,
participants are able to intentionally integrate new behaviors and per-
sonality characteristics into their evolving counselor identities. The use
of creative approaches to counseling supervision has been recommended
by a number of authors for enhancing the identity development of coun-
selors-in-training (Neswald-McCalip, Sather, Strati, & Dineen, 2003;
Newsome, Henderson, & Veach, 2005; Pearson, 2003; Wilkins, 1995;
Young & Borders, 1998.
Moreno’s (1969, 1975, 1993) psychodrama theory describes a develop-
mental progression culminating in a greater capacity for authentic, inti-
mate relationships. In speaking of the psychodramatic approach, Lipman
(2003, p. 6) wrote: “Each time we sociometrically choose a person, place,
or thing we are sculpting our identities. We are defining our identities
through the roles that we play in any given situation.”
In a similar manner to Moreno’s theory of ego development,
Loganbill, Hardy, and Delworth’s (1982) conceptual model of counselor
development emphasizes the supervisee’s ability to intentionally make
conscious choices contributing to his or her growth and development.
More specifically, the Loganbill et al. model includes a holistic range of
seven sequential developmental issues. In the initial stages, counselors-
in-training are more likely to be concerned with developing a sense of
competence, their ability to manage emotions, and a sense of autonomy.
Next, supervisees are more likely to focus on their capacities for authen-
tic interpersonal relationships with clients and appreciation for diversity.
Later on, they become more concerned with issues related to how their
identities (e.g., gender, race, religion) influence counseling practices, and
with developing a strong sense of purpose in their counseling. Lastly,

Loganbill et al. suggested that more advanced supervisees will empha-
size issues related to professional ethics.
Using Psychodrama in Supervision: The Basic Elements and Terminology

The psychodrama-related techniques presented here were developed by two
of the authors of the present chapter (Scholl & Smith-Adcock, 2007). We
recommend that in applying these techniques, supervisors remain mind-
ful of the developmental sequence proposed by Loganbill et al. (1982). In
accordance with their developmental model, an activity designed to pro-
mote a sense of competence would be introduced earlier in a supervisee’s
training than an activity designed to promote more effective management
of emotions. We have been using these techniques in our practicum and
internship supervision classes for the past 9 years.
Sociometric Exercises Sociometric exercises allow individuals to choose

where to physically place themselves in order to demonstrate their psy-
chosocial choices. For example, a common warm-up activity requires an
individual to stand next to one of four or more pillows best representing
how the individual currently feels. These exercises increase participant’s
self and other awareness, and also emphasize self-responsibility for mak-
ing social choices. Sociometry gives individuals feedback regarding their
patterns, preference, and values (Lipman, 2003). This activity can easily
be adapted to ask counselors to stand in areas representing their preferred
counseling orientation, preferred counseling role (e.g., supporting, attend-
ing, collaborating, etc.), or even their preference for supervisory relation-
ships (e.g., dependent, independent, interdependent, etc.). This sociometric
feedback contributes to group cohesion, group vitality, and provides mate-
rial for further exploration.
Role Talk The act of naming an attitude or aspect of oneself (e.g., advice
giving) as a role renders that aspect more amenable to change. The idea is
to objectify the more specific aspect of the individual so that flexibility and
creativity are increased. For example, role talk may occur in the context of
a role play, which facilitates isolation and exaggeration of the aspect of the
individual. In the words of Blatner (2003, p. 106): “Pinpointing a specific
role takes it away from one’s general identification with the role and makes
it a bit more distant and workable.” As a result, the participant is able to be
more objective, creative, and flexible.
Three Stages of Psychodrama

1. Warm-up: This is the beginning stage of psychodramatic group
work, which increases readiness for action and facilitates increased
depth during the subsequent action stage. The warming-up pro-
cess promotes group cohesion and a sense of safety. It also allows
the director to build a foundation for the action stage by revealing
“who” the people are and “what” themes are present in the group’s
structure (Lipman, 2003, p. 9).
2. Action: The action stage allows the protagonist to enact things
in the past, present, or future. Participants work on their iden-
tity development while engaged in the past, present, or future.
Throughout the duration of this stage, the group members per-
form and practice new roles and behaviors and, as a result, expand
their role repertoires.
3. Sharing: In this stage, the members acknowledge that they are no
longer on stage and that they are no longer performing or play-
ing roles. Members once again communicate as in their everyday
selves. The sharing phase helps the members to better understand
their relationships with one another and to more intentionally
and selectively integrate feelings, thoughts, and behaviors from
the action stage into their counselor identities.
The Proper Setting In general, the use of psychodrama requires ample

space for the group participants to engage in sociometric exercises.
Activities sometimes require a space that is free of chairs and tables so that
participants are able to move without feeling restricted. Although a stage is
not required, it would be helpful to designate a portion of the supervision
room (e.g., the front of the room) as the area where the action occurs.
Materials Needed An advantage of psychodrama is that it typically does

not require elaborate materials or props. Of course, the materials required
can vary a great deal depending on the nature of the activity the supervi-
sor has planned. Most activities can be facilitated with little more than the
provision of a few chairs. For example, in one activity described later in
this section, five chairs are provided representing five different emotional
states from which participants may choose. In other sociometric exercises,
we use multicolored objects including pillows, towels, and bean bags to
represent a range of subjective choices for participants. Lastly, a number
of psychodrama-related approaches may incorporate activities in which
participants are asked to draw pictures representing various aspects of
themselves. These activities typically require materials such as paper and
crayons, markers, or paint.
Modality The use of psychodrama in supervision is best suited for

use in a group format. Although some of the techniques could be used
with a single supervisee, much of the value of these techniques is based
on group dynamics.
Psychodrama Processing in Supervision

In this section we present a detailed description of a psychodrama-related
activity and its application. For this activity we provide a developmental
rationale for the activity, describe the activity, and provide an example
of our experience applying the technique in our group supervision work.
Although we have developed additional activities, a presentation of these
activities is beyond the scope of the current section. For additional descrip-
tions of activities we have developed, the reader is referred to Scholl and
Smith (2007).
The Affective Seating Chart This activity is based on one used by two psy-
chodrama group counselors (Lipman & Nally-Seif, 2001), who are mem-
bers of the Psychodrama Training Institute in New York City. Based on
the second set of supervisory issues in the Loganbill et al. model, we have
used the activity to promote supervisees’ awareness of their emotions
in counseling sessions, and how they might use these emotions produc-
tively. The activity is intended to normalize and facilitate the supervi-
see’s expression of uncomfortable emotions. During the warm-up, five
chairs representing five feelings (e.g., anxious, calm, numb, distressed,
other) are placed in a circle. Participants are asked to stand by the chair
that most closely matches how they are currently feeling. Once all par-
ticipants have shared, they then return to their original seats. For the
action phase, place the five chairs in a row facing the class. Next, facili-
tate a discussion of the feelings the group members have experienced
as supervisors in recent sessions they have conducted. Alternatively, for
those without prior counseling experience, you may ask them to consider
feelings they have experienced in other helping relationships. Select five
prevalent emotional themes, and write them on five sheets of paper. Tape
these sheets to the five chairs.
Allow each group member to volunteer to sit in each chair one at a time.
Participants may sit in the chairs in any order they desire. For each chair,
the volunteer (protagonist) should talk about his or her feelings related to
the emotional label in the first person (role talk). After everyone has had an
opportunity to volunteer, process the activity by asking everyone to sit in
a circle. One at a time, each participant shares what he or she gained from
the activity.
I (Scholl) recently introduced this activity to a group of 10 interns. Four
prevalent feelings that emerged from the group discussion included feeling
frustrated by my client, feeling annoyed by my client, need to give advice,

and need to be admired by my client. These feelings were written on four
separate sheets of typing paper, and these sheets were taped to the back of
four chairs facing the interns. A fifth chair with a sheet of paper reading
“other” was added to permit students to talk about any additional feel-
ing of their choosing. One of the intern participants was a 32-year-old
Chinese American woman named Amanda. Prior to this activity, she had
been reticent during group discussions. However, when asked to partici-
pate in this activity she appeared to welcome the structure and expressed
herself openly regarding her frustration in working with one of her intern-
ship clients. Although typically she was reserved, on this occasion she was
quite emotional as she expressed the irritation she felt toward this client.
Expressing these feelings appeared to be cathartic for her, and some of her
fellow group members shared similar experiences of frustration with their
clients. All 10 participants took a turn sitting in the five chairs and speak-
ing about their emotions in the first person.
Lastly, the 10 supervisees and I sat in a circle and processed what
they had gained from the activity. Amanda stated that the activity had
allowed her to recognize and speak about her emotions and that she
enjoyed finding out that other interns felt similar to the way she did. The
processing phase also included a discussion of the importance of under-
standing one’s emotional responses during a session, and an additional
discussion of how uncomfortable emotions can be put to positive use in
a session.
Recommendations for Using this Approach in Supervision

Based on our experiences of applying psychodrama-related activities to
our supervision work, we have some recommendations for working with
supervisees who appear to be uncomfortable with these activities. First,
it may be helpful to prepare supervisees for a psychodrama activity by
informing them in the previous group meeting. For example, when using
the five-chair activity described earlier, a supervisor might ask supervi-
sees to come to the next meeting prepared to discuss two or more uncom-
fortable emotions they have experienced as counselors, and even provide
them with a sample list of feelings to choose from. Second, we recom-
mend that the warm-up phase allow all supervisees to self-disclose and
participate in a manner that is comfortable. As previously mentioned,
an effective warm-up facilitates a deeper level of exploration during the
action stage. Third, participation in an activity should be completely
voluntary with no negative consequences for electing not to participate.
Even supervisees who do not participate may vicariously experience sig-
nificant growth. Finally, we believe that it is important to remain flexible
in leading the activities. For example, in the activity described earlier
(i.e., The Affective Seating Chart), we found that allowing two group
members to perform at once enabled hesitant supervisees to overcome
feelings of trepidation. In general, we believe that it is especially impor-
tant to provide a climate of safety and support, and to empathize with
supervisees who are reluctant or anxious.
Recommendations for Training Supervisors to Use the Approach

We recommend that supervisors who plan on using psychodrama-related
activities become familiar with Moreno’s (1969, 1975, 1993) theory of psy-
chodrama. Blatner (2000) provides a useful overview that discusses both
Moreno’s theory and some of the basic techniques employed. For supervi-
sors with limited exposure to psychodrama, we also highly recommend
participating in psychodrama workshops in order to learn by observing
experienced practitioners.
Conclusion
Our approach to using psychodrama-related techniques in supervi-
sion has evolved and developed as a result of our work with supervi-
sees over a long period. In accordance with the Loganbill et al. (1982)
model of development, we agree that the techniques or activities should
be employed in a manner that supports the supervisees’ current devel-
opmental concerns. For example, we believe that the activity called The
Affective Seating Chart (used to promote emotional awareness) should
be introduced to beginning counselors to foster emotional awareness
and acceptance, and reduce their anxiety.
Consistent with the spirit and philosophy of Moreno’s psychodrama,
we recommend that supervisors should feel free to experiment and to
modify activities to accommodate their instructional purposes as well as
the unique developmental needs of their supervisees. For example, to meet
the needs of a particular group, a supervisor may decide to only include
two chairs representing two particularly problematic emotions when lead-
ing The Affective Seating Chart activity. We have found that our use of
these psychodrama-related activities has enabled us to feel more effective
as supervision group facilitators. Further, we believe that psychodrama-
related techniques contribute to the development of trust and group
cohesion by facilitating deeper levels of self-disclosure. Perhaps most
importantly, these activities promote spontaneity and flexibility, which
opens participants up to their potential for growth and change. We hope
that other supervisors will use psychodrama-related activities in their
supervision and experience some of the same benefits for themselves and
their supervisees.
Using Bibliotherapy in Counseling Supervision

Mary Amanda Graham
Both bibliotherapy and supervision are processes of encouraging indi-
viduals to engage in self-discovery and growth (Abdullah, 2002; Bernard
& Goodyear, 2004; Pardeck & Pardeck, 1998). Supervision and biblio-
therapy relationships are as unique as client and counselor relationships.
Bibliotherapy and supervision both focus on the developmental level and
needs of the client or supervisee. “Bibliotherapy can be a highly personal-
ized tool because it represents the counselor’s unique judgment at so many
different junctions of its application” (Riordan, Mullis, & Nuchow, 1996 p.
173). This remains consistent with the supervision process.
The characteristics shared by supervision and bibliotherapy are their
unique relationships, goals, objectives, and outcomes toward the growth of
the individual. Both relationships are highly individualized based on the
needs of the client and supervisee. The implementation of a bibliosupervi-
sion model applies a creative tool within the larger context of supervision
to assist the supervisee in the development of skills.
The Graham Model of Bibliosupervision: The Basic Elements

and Terminology
Bibliosupervision is a process guided by the supervisor, using fictional
children’s literature, to support the developmental processes of the super-
visee. It is based on Caroline Shrodes’ (1949) model of bibliotherapy, which
includes a three-step process of identification, catharsis, and insight. The
bibliosupervisor assists the supervisee in identifying, analyzing, and
relating to the book characters, and storylines as they pertain to coun-
selor development and case conceptualization. The bibliosupervisor also
facilitates supervisees’ growth processes by assisting them in expressing
emotions, cognitions, concerns, and issues, as they relate to counselor
development, all done in the safety of the supervision or supervisory set-
ting. The articulation of these emotions, thoughts, and cognitions enables
the supervisor to guide the supervisee toward insight, leading to a benefi-
cial dialogue regarding his or her thoughts, feelings, and emotions as they
relate to current concerns and issues in counselor development. Together
the supervisor and supervisee develop plans of action that will facilitate the
supervisees’ learning and movement from the status of a novice to that of
an expert in the counseling field. The Graham Model of Bibliosupervision
(GMB) recommends the use of fictional children’s literature to facilitate
the growth, development, and working alliance in supervision. Fictional
literature provides a wide arena of themes and is easily presented as a non-
threatening intervention. The three stages supervisees experience while
participating in the GMB are as follows:
1. Identification: The supervisee is able to identify with characters

and storylines presented in the literature that relate to his or her
personal development as a counselor.
2. Catharsis: The supervisee becomes meaningfully involved in the
story and with the characters in the literature, and is able to pro-
cess emotions, thoughts, and feelings as they relate to the develop-
ment of his or her counseling skills and techniques.
3. Insight: After catharsis, the bibliosupervisor is able to facilitate
constructive dialogue that aids the supervisee in becoming aware
of and working through issues that may arise in his or her devel-
opmental processes as a counselor in training. This includes, but is
not limited to, case conceptualization regarding client issues, pro-
fessional development areas, and growth and skill development.
Although the GMB approach recommends the use of children’s literature,
consistent with bibliotherapy tenets, the supervisor has the option to use
any literature he or she deems appropriate. This can include children’s
literature, adult fiction or nonfiction, and resource material. The media
selected must be congruent with the supervisees’ development and be
applicable to supervisees’ growth and skill level (Graham, 2007).
Modality Bibliosupervision can be facilitated in either individual or group

supervision. In individual supervision, the supervisor has the opportunity
to become more connected to the supervisee by using bibliosupervision.
The supervisor can create an individualized learning environment using
the techniques that specifically focus on the supervisees’ developmental
process and client concerns. In individual supervision, the following is a
suggested framework for using bibliosupervision:
1. Weekly check-in on current site issues or concerns.
2. Revisit supervisory concerns or issues from the previous session.
3. View and discuss videotape or audiotape.
4. Bibliosupervision experience (flexibly used at any point during
the supervisory session that the supervisor deems appropriate).
In group supervision the supervisor has the opportunity to use bibliosuper-
vision to facilitate group discussions on specific counselor developmental
issues, clients concerns, and case conceptualization. The bibliosupervi-
sion experience can be used to open up dialogue at the beginning of group
supervision, to link together reoccurring themes in group supervision, to
encourage a deeper level exploration of counselor growth and develop-
ment, and as a transition into needed discussions that may not arise in a
typical group supervision session.
Bibliosupervision Materials and Framework

There must be informed consent by the bibliosupervisor and supervisee.
This goes beyond the initial informed consent established in any super-
vision relationship based on the probability that the supervisee will be
exploring issues on a deeper, more emotional level in supervision. Because
this approach encourages a deep level of exploration and cathartic process,
it is important when engaging in bibliosupervision that the supervisee be
aware of and agree with the process taking place. The supervisee needs to
feel safe and comfortable within the supervision sessions in order to fully
benefit from the bibliosupervision experience.
If the bibliosupervision process is thriving, then both the supervisor
and supervisee will be able to easily identify growth and change toward
professional development. This will be evident through skill development,
processing, case conceptualization, and supervisory participation.
Bibliosupervision books should be selected based on thematic match
to the developmental process of students undergoing supervision. Before
selecting a book to use in supervision, the bibliosupervisor needs to
consider books that provide topics or themes focusing on a wide array
of developmental issues supervisees can relate to in various stages of
development. Books should be evaluated based on themes, subject mat-
ter, suitability to supervision, length, appropriate developmental level for
supervisee, transferability to supervision, diversity factors, and therapeu-
tic use in supervision.
Below is an example of a 10-week supervision framework using biblio-
supervision. Each week a different book is presented based on a specific
supervisee and his or her development. Each week the supervisor facilitates
the discussion, following the reading of the book. Some sample questions
to begin dialogue are included. Questions, reflections, paraphrasing, and
guiding will vary depending on the reaction to the book by the supervisee.
The bibliosupervisor should consider selecting books that are consistent
with and individualized to match the developmental needs of a specific
supervisee. Below is an actual series of books one supervisee experienced
through bibliosupervision:
Week 1:
Book: Lost in the Woods by C. Sam and J. Stoick (2004)
This book is about a young fawn that is left by its mother in the
woods. The fawn is confused at first by the mother doe leav-
ing, but learns to trust its instincts. There are several charac-
ters in the book that attempt to give the fawn advice.
Supervision Themes: Perspectives, internal reliance and knowl-
edge, trust, questioning, fear, empowerment, change, growth,
development
Guiding Questions (examples used to begin dialogue each week):

1. What was happening in this story?
2. What themes seem familiar when relating to your coun-
selor training or work with clients?
Following each bibliotherapy experience the supervisor continues
the facilitation of dialogue based on themes that arise from the
book as well as the guiding questions.
Week 2:
Book: Wilfrid Gordon McDonald Partridge by M. Fox (1985)
This book is about the aging community and losing memory,
voice, and empowerment. A small child engages in a relation-
ship with an aging woman and helps her find her voice.
Supervision Themes: Listening, validation, talents, acceptance,
perspective, connections, change
Week 3:
Book: The Giving Tree by S. Silverstein (1964)
This book is about the relationship between a tree and a boy. It
addresses the changing of the relationship as the boy ages
and takes from the tree until the tree has nothing left to
give. There is a moment of realization for both the tree and
the boy.
Supervision Themes: Self-care, reliance, change, growth, devel-
opment, perspective, closure, acceptance, disappointment,
perspective, empathy, closure
Week 4:
Book: Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad
Day by J. Viorst
This is a book about a young boy who thinks he is having the worst
day ever! Through dialogue he understands that everyone has
struggles and bad days from time to time.
Supervision Themes: Struggles, emotions, detachment, disappoint-
ment, self-care, validation, perspective, control, interventions,
change
Week 5:
Book: My Mama had a Dancing Heart by L. Gray (1999)
This book is about the relationship between a mother and her
daughter. It addresses relationship changes with the change
of seasons.
Supervision Themes: Efficacy, trust, closure, strength, reliance,
empowerment, career, love, grief, choice
Week 6:
Book: Sneetches by Dr. Seuss
This book addresses oppression and differences both internal
and external.
Supervision Themes: Comparison, diversity, struggle, social jus-
tice, perspective, risk-taking, acceptance
Week 7:
Book: The Old Woman Who Named Things by C. Rylant (2000)
This book is about an older woman who will only name nonliving
objects based on the fear of losing relationships.
Supervision Themes: Developmental process, closure, attach-
ment, risk-taking, acceptance, change, grief
Week 8:
Book: Harriet, You’ll Drive Me Wild by M. Fox (2003)
This book is about the many frustrations one may experience when
involved in a relationship with another person, specifically a
child. The characters have a trying day but in the end learn to
appreciate and understand one another’s perspectives.
Supervision Themes: Humility, frustration, emotions, failure,
coping, risk-taking
Week 9:
Book: Whoever You Are by M. Fox (2001)
This book is about honoring differences and diversity and under-
standing global perspectives.
Supervision Themes: Diversity, social justice, comparisons,
change, acceptance, empowerment, uniqueness, communica-
tion, families, friendships, relationships, trust
Week 10:
Book: Oh, the Places You’ll Go by Dr. Seuss
This book is about the journey a person takes to reach his or her
goals. There are many challenges and things to think about
when taking the journey, but in the end the person taking the
journey is left empowered.
Supervision Themes: Empowerment, closure, success, fear,
change, moving on, taking risks and steps, excitement, valida-
tion, communication, relationships
Bibliosupervision Processing
The birth of bibliosupervision came about from my work with supervisees
who struggled examining deeper-level supervisory issues. Having only 10
weeks of supervision, I felt that it was my responsibility as a supervisor to

create a safe and challenging environment to assist supervisees in examin-
ing issues related to counselor development. Having used bibliotherapy in
practice with clients, and understanding the impact bibliotherapy had on
the growth and development of my clients, I decided to create a model of
bibliosupervision.
My first experience using bibliosupervision was with a young man
who was resistant to deeper-level dialogue in supervision. His responses
in supervision were particularly closed, and when asked, “how are things
going at your site or with your clients?” he would respond “great, perfect,
no issues.” Having been a master’s student in training, trained as a coun-
selor supervisor and understanding the developmental levels of supervi-
sion, I understood the possibility of this young man masking his areas of
concerns and anxieties. I spoke to him about reading a book. He agreed
wholeheartedly, and my first bibliosupervision experience with this super-
visee was the reading of Oh, the Places You’ll Go by Dr. Seuss. This was a
powerful experience for both of us. When I facilitated the dialogue regard-
ing the book, the supervisee spoke with more depth and intensity than
he had in the previous sessions. He spoke about relating to the “waiting
place” in the book and how he felt like he was waiting to develop “good”
counseling skills, waiting for things in his life to settle down, and waiting
for school to be done. This book created a powerful dialogue that led to
the examination of his definition of “good” counseling skills, transference,
client expectations, wellness, and balance. Each of the supervision sessions
following included a book, per the request of the supervisee. Other super-
visees who have experienced bibliosupervision have shared their reactions
(Graham, 2007):
“It was useful for reflecting on my experience as a developing
counselor—I thought themes discussed provided a deeper
understanding of my development and areas of future growth.
I found it somewhat less helpful in determining new ways of
working with clients and understanding client’s perspectives”
(p. 51).
“Being read to lessened my anxiety in supervision and provided
a comforting experience. I enjoyed the opportunity to engage
with my supervisor around the colorful and creative themes
that emerged” (p. 52).
“The supervisory relationship became more of a human and col-
laborative relationship. The dialogue regarding the literature
provided an opportunity to learn and grow from differing and
similar perspectives” (p. 52).
“The bibliosupervision process created an environment in which

I felt understood, and I was able to discuss themes relevant to
counseling and life”(p. 52).
“I felt the themes that emerged were mostly directly applicable to
my own development as a counselor. In many ways I’ve felt
like a child as a fledgling professional so the simply stated yet
powerful messages in the books seemed very appropriate to
where I was developmentally” (p. 53).
Recommendations for Training Supervisors to Use Bibliosupervision

In order for the bibliosupervision session to be successful in individual or
group supervision, it is important that the bibliosupervisor have knowl-
edge of the developmental process of supervision, understand the goals
of counselor supervision, and be able to identify and understand current
themes facing supervisees. The bibliosupervisor must have an understand-
ing of the developmental aspects of the supervisory process in order to
link appropriate literature to the developmental level of the supervisee. It is
essential that the bibliosupervisor have a working knowledge of the tenets
of bibliotherapy, the written material being used in supervision, and how
the selected literature pertains to counselor development and client con-
ceptualization. Bibliosupervision can be integrated within any supervision
setting as a tool for developing a strong supervisory working alliance and
for the facilitation of skill development for the supervisee.
Conclusion
It is essential for supervisors to have a variety of techniques available to
assist counseling students in the journey of learning, developing, and grow-
ing into professional counselors. Bibliosupervision is a creative and nontra-
ditional approach to facilitating the supervision process. Bibliosupervision
not only offers a creative approach for supervisors, but also acts as a possible
means for developing and maintaining a strong working alliance between
the supervisor and supervisee. Bibliosupervision assists in the joining of
the supervisor and supervisees in the human condition.
Using Sandtray-Worldplay In Counseling Supervision

Elaine Wittmann and Catherine Tucker
The potential benefits of applying the use of sandplay to the counseling
supervision process are evident from my (Wittmann’s) recent experience
with one of my supervisees. Jane, a clinician with a year of postgraduate
experience, presented a difficult case week after week in supervision. The
family she was seeing was in crisis, and Jane felt as if she was attempting to
put out the wild fires and not getting to the root of the difficulties. As Jane’s
supervisor, I recognized a parallel process in which I felt frustrated in my
attempts to facilitate Jane’s development as a counselor.
Sandtrays and figures were in view and available in the room, and clini-
cians who came for supervision expressed curiosity about this treatment
option. I was aware that using the sandtray to gain insights and consider
options proved useful for clients, and considered the sandplay process as
a useful approach for counselors to present cases that would potentially
enhance the supervision process.
In an attempt to help Jane understand her difficult case, she was asked to
create the “world of the case” or “put the case in the sand.” She chose from
miniature figures and placed the dynamics of the case in the sandtray. She
grouped family members across the tray, and was asked to “be with this
‘World’” she created. Jane had difficulty disconnecting herself from the
continuing chaos. I asked Jane to stand and look at the tray in its entirety.
She stood and witnessed how she perceived the “World” of this family.
When she looked at the sandtray from above, and from various angles,
she saw the family in a fresh way with different perspectives and multiple
viewpoints. She began to see the alliances, and groupings of conflict. When
she was able to observe the family dynamics with these new insights, Jane
was able to disengage from the ongoing chaos, and give the family new
perspectives to consider.
Sandtray-Worldplay in Counseling Supervision:

The Basic Elements and Terminology
The use of sand as a medium for gaining insights and enhancing the heal-
ing process has been recorded across cultures and time. From Tibetan
Buddhist and Navajo sand paintings, to divination rituals of the Dogon
people of Mali, traditional ceremonies were performed for personal and
communal restoration (Baker, 1993; Barnes, 2005; Gold, 1994; Jongeward,
1990; London & Recio 2004; Stevenson, 2006).
H. G. Wells inspired others to consider the richness of children’s play as
he observed and recorded his own children playing with miniatures and
toys in complex scenes on the floor of his home (Wells, 1975). Influenced by
Wells’ observations and recognition that children “think differently than
adults” (Turner, 2005, p. 691), London child psychiatrist and pediatrician
Margaret Lowenfeld introduced a box of sand, water, and miniature toys
to her playroom in the 1920s. This “Wonder Box,” or “The World,” evolved
into the development of the “World Technique” as a psychotherapeutic
tool with children (DeDomenico, 1988; Turner, 2005). Other therapists
soon followed and explored the medium of sand and miniatures as assess-
ment tools for applying psychotherapeutic techniques.
In the 1950s, Swiss Jungian analyst Dora Kalff studied with Margaret
Lowenfeld, integrated her experience with Eastern philosophy, and
developed what is known as “Sandplay.” The therapist, silent witness, in
the Sandplay process, creates a “free and protected space” or “Temenos”
(Turner, 2005, p. 212) whereby the client uses symbols in the sand that
derive from an unconscious need to move toward wholeness and healing.
The awareness of transference and countertransference between the client
and therapist are key healing factors in Sandplay. Ultimately, the goal is
for the transference to be made to the sandtray. Archetypes emerge from
the cultural experiences, and the collective unconscious as the images are
placed in the tray and the story is formed (Turner, 2005; McNally, 2001).
Individual sandtray worlds are tracked over time, symbols are interpreted
by the therapist, and connections are made between the unconscious and
conscious in the move toward individuation.
Drawing on the teachings of Lowenfeld and Kalff and others, Dr. Gisela
Schubach DeDomenico described her approach, in the early 1980s, as
growing out of her personal “phenomenological, hermeneutic research,”
and her work with children, adults, families, and couples (DeDomenico,
1988, p. 30). In DeDomenico’s Sandtray-Worldplay, the psyche reveals
itself as the builder illustrates his or her story in the sand. Objects become
real when placed within the sand; they are no longer symbols or represen-
tations. These formations are defined by the builder and not interpreted by
the therapist. Transference is recognized in Sandtray-Worldplay, but the
transfer is with the “World” and not the clinician. The counselor is actively
involved in the process as an observer who is also reflecting and jointly
experiencing the World of the builder (DeDomenico, 2002b; Rae, 1998).
The Process of Sandtray-Worldplay In Sandtray-Worldplay, the psyche

reveals itself and leads the process. The experience is deepened in the tray,
and the symbolic becomes concrete. Images can bring powerful insights
to consciousness. In Sandtray-Worldplay, the builder and witness move
together through four stages: (a) building and observing, (b) experiencing
and reflecting, (c) joint experiencing, and (d) photographing. The builder
or counselor is simply directed to “put the World in the tray.” They are
encouraged to “let the figure choose you,” and are given time to place
the objects in the sand and experience this World they have created. The
World becomes concrete and can be touched, experienced, moved, pon-
dered, changed, and discussed. The internalized material becomes con-
scious. The symbolic becomes alive in the here and now (DeDomenico,
1988, 1992b, 1999a).
The importance of the role of the witness is emphasized in Sandtray-
Worldplay. The sandtray process is led by the builder and facilitated by
the witness. The witness not only observes the creation of the World in
the tray; this empathetic companion must also be fully attentive and be
able to hold the outer aspects of the World, while the client holds the inner
aspects. The observer takes an active role in the sandtray process by being
mindful of her or his own personal responses.
Sandtray Materials Materials needed for sand play methods include sand,
sandtrays, water, figures, paper and pencil, and a camera. Generally, sand
trays measure 57 × 72 × 7 cm, or approximately 20” × 30” × 3 to 4 in. in
depth. This construction allows the builder to encompass the whole World
in a glance and contains the space that will be used in the sandtray activity.
Trays are constructed of wood or plastic, and the inside sides and bottom
are traditionally painted blue. Two trays, one with dry sand and the other
with slightly damp sand, allow greater possibilities for the builder. A round
tray can be useful to decrease anxiety, bring unity, or leave the builder no
place to hide. Deeper, 5-in. trays may be needed for younger children or
builders who need to go deeper. Trays are half-filled with sand. Sanitized
sand is available in building supply and toy stores, and is appropriate for
the sandtray process. Other colors and textures can be used as adjuncts to
the play sand, but may not be as amenable to sculpting or shaping. Black,
white, garnet, green, coral, and other colors of sand can also elicit differ-
ent emotions and memories. Water is available to moisten sand, to flow
into earthly bodies of water, to cleanse, to flood, etc. An additional tray for
water only may be beneficial. (See Figure 5.9 for photograph of sandtray
setup).
Figure 5.9 Wooden and plastic sandtrays hold dry and damp sand. A round sandtray is an alterna-
tive. Water and a towel are available. Shelves hold a wide variety of miniatures.
Sandtray miniatures and figures include a wide range of synthetic and

natural objects.
They are chosen with intention and include humans and nonhumans,
fantasy and reality, natural materials including mineral and vegetation,
transportation, and housing to reflect diverse experiences, time periods,
ethnicities, and emotions. Figures, usually placed on shelves, or in drawers
or cabinets, and behind curtains, are displayed in categories so that the
builder has the ability to access and use as the psyche wishes. The figures
speak for the builder in a metaphor (Hegeman, 2001; DeDomenico, 2002).
The sandtray process is documented in several ways. Sandtray worlds
are documented by the written journey of the movement of the process,
the verbalizations of the builder, and with photographs. In the Sandplay
model, photographs are not taken in the view of the client, are tracked
by the clinician, and are reviewed at the end of the process. In Sandtray-
Worldplay, pictures may be taken with the client present and can be given
to the client to process between sessions.
Sandtray-Worldplay Processing in Supervision

As a clinical supervisor, I am challenged to monitor the client care of
supervisees as well enhance their professional functioning. I must con-
sider the personal growth of supervisees and find ways to present oppor-
tunities for their learning and development (Werstlein, 1994). Using the
Discrimination Model (Bernard, 1997), my role involves teaching, skills
building, consulting, guiding, monitoring, and evaluating the counselor
and following counselor self-awareness.
As a clinician, I use the Sandtray-Worldplay model, and as a supervisor,
this model is offered to supervisees. As with Jane, who presented a complex
and anxiety-producing case, the counselor is invited to “put the World in
the sand.” The clinician builds and experiences how he or she perceived the
“World” of the clients, the group, the family, the World of the therapeutic
issue, the World of the therapy, and the World of the clinician in the ther-
apy. As the clinician moves through stages of Sandtray-Worldplay, he or she
is invited to deepen the experience of the World and the figures, and to con-
sider their placement, their perspectives, relationships, and movement. In
the same way the clinician holds the space for the client and experiences the
World with the client, the supervisor witnesses the clinician’s process. Thus,
the supervisee’s experience can parallel that of the client in many ways.
The supervisor holds the space, experiences the World with the builder
(supervisee), and is given a window to observe the process with the clini-
cian. The clinician and supervisor are given opportunities to observe clini-
cal issues in the sand as well as options for treatment for the client, and the
role of the therapist. Stages of clinical development can be considered by
the supervisor and clinician, and plans for training and skills building can
be made as necessary.
This method of case presentation has the capacity to increase clinicians’
abilities to perceive dynamics of presented cases, develop skills, and grow
as a therapist. Using this method of the sandtray process also gives the
supervisor another way to observe clinical issues, and foster the develop-
ment of the clinician. Sandtray building can help the supervisee develop
plans for training and identify areas for skills building. It also provides a
training ground for the sandtray techniques and helps to build confidence
in its use. The supervisor must be aware of and respond to the needs, abili-
ties, and readiness of the supervisees to use this form of supervision, and
must respect and understand the use of metaphors, images, and fantasy.
Clinical issues can present themselves in the sand, emerging both from
the client and from the clinician in supervision. When the clinical issues
of the client match those of the therapist and/or the issues of the therapist
match those of the clinical supervisor, a phenomenon called parallel pro-
cess occurs. Parallel process is a treatment impasse that continues until the
issues of the therapist or supervisor can be disentangled from those of the
client or supervisee. Sandtray work is often very helpful in both identifying
and clearing these parallel issues.
Figure 5.10 illustrates this bidirectional transference and countertrans-
ference in the sandtray. The clinician placed the World of the family in the
sand and introduced this family who went through a divorce several years
before. The presenting problem for the family was the resistance their
7-year-old was expressing to visiting with her father. The builder was asked
Figure 5.10 Parallel process is represented. Figures on the right represent mother, daughter, and
life without the father (presented as the ghost). Figures on the left are father and his new family. The
therapist stands in the middle (background) as fairies pull the jewel (the child) back and forth.
to “experience” or to “be with” the figures, get to know this place, and share
the associations. In verbal sharing by the counselor, new information was
gleaned for the supervisor: the mother’s continuing anger at the father and
his new family, the child’s fear of betraying her mother, the father’s power-
ful domineering stance, and the clinician’s allegiance to the mother and
anxiety in making contact with the father. The supervisor observed that
while the clinician presented the World, she pulled her fingers across the
sand nearest to herself. The supervisor wondered aloud about the “coun-
selor figure” and requested that the supervisee explore her thoughts and
feelings. The counselor expressed her anxiety in the role, became aware
of her physical and emotional responses in the sand, and realized how her
own allegiances and resistances may be contributing the lack of movement
for the family. By addressing her own issues around conflict, possibilities
could be opened for the family, for herself as a counselor, and personally.
A counseling intern placed herself in the sand with a “resistant” ado-
lescent client. In Figure 5.11, the 14-year-old client aimed her arrow at the
intern (i.e., a two-headed dragon) as the question was posed by the builder/
intern: “How do I work with her hostility?” As the intern experienced the
World from the client’s position, she understood how the adolescent was
attempting to protect herself and ward off continuing danger. The adoles-
cent presented as angry; screaming at the World, including the counselor.
The Builder looks at the World of the counselor/dragon in this World and
saw her own capacity to “spit fire back and defend self” or to experience the
World of the child and “be more open and receptive to the fire (of the cli-
ent).” The original question was answered with “compassion.” The intern
Figure 5.11 Countertransference issues come alive in the sand. The two-headed dragon (right
foreground) sees the child’s problematic behavior and the pain behind the behavior.
was able to see the transference of the client on to her environment and her
own countertransference.
Specific Examples of Sandtray-Worldplay Processing

In this section, I present illustrations of individual and group format
applications of the Sandtray-Worldplay approach to supervision. Finally,
I present examples illustrating how this approach facilitates supervisee
development from the perspective of Stoltenberg and Delworth’s (1987)
counselor development model.
Example Illustrating an Individual Format A newly licensed clinician

expressed frustration as she presented the case of a family with multiple
conflicts, turmoil, and pain. Early in treatment, a sandtray representation
of the case was created in supervision. Figure 5.12 illustrates the forces
that impacted the family: the howling adolescent daughter (wolf) taking
center stage, the father who was described as “abusive,” mother who did
not believe she had any power or control, and the clinician. The builder
wrestled with the identification of the primary client and how to proceed
with appropriate therapy. Six months later, the counselor, again, presented
the family in the sand. The counselor’s current frustration seemed to be
coming from her perception of a minimum change for the family. This
second sandtray [Figure 5.13] gave the counselor a new perspective as she
recognized changes. The father was not represented in the World; he was
no longer living in the family, the mother had plans to move into a new
home, and the daughter still raged. This time, the mother and clinician
Figure 5.12 Observing treatment over time. First, a howling wolf represents an adolescent
daughter.
Figure 5.13 Six months later, the fence protects and the daughter’s pain is recognized.
noticed the adolescent girl, but the fence protected them. They were not
afraid to face the child; they were able to see her in her pain. The family
was this counselor’s client.
Example Illustrating a Group Format I have found applying Sandtray-

Worldplay in supervision with groups to be useful as well. In particular, the
use of sandplay can assist supervisees who are making the difficult transi-
tion from their hectic workday schedule to a group supervision session.
With one ongoing supervision group, I offered the sandtray as a begin-
ning silent ritual. Figures were placed in the sandtray, sand was moved,
and additions were made during this group check-in. They experienced the
World of the group at that moment. They then processed their World ver-
bally and experienced the group as a container, developed group support
and cohesiveness, and the supervisor could observe group development in
a new way. The participants had the advantage of building confidence with
the medium to use with individuals, families, and other groups.
At the start of another ongoing play/sandtray supervision group ses-
sion, members set individual and group goals in the sandtray. Each mem-
ber chose a figure for the individual goal, placed the figure in the sand,
and was joined by the others. The group could identify with each other:
bringing clarity to their work, being grounded, letting go of obstacles,
gaining insight, and “filling in the holes in my head.” Individual goals
were acknowledged and held by the group as a whole. The group goals
for each member were then placed in the sand, and “the World of the
goals” was processed. With great respect, each member placed a figure
in the sand and voiced his or her desire for the group: “Strength from the
individual and coming out larger,” “learning together as a unit,” “expe-
rience the organic process and integrate information from each other,”
“freedom and power in who we each are at the moment of truth as we
come together.” Figures were moved and honored until the entire group
agreed that the World was as it was to be. The group owned this World
collectively and became united at this moment. In addition to the identi-
fication, clarification, and incorporation of goals, this group experienced
an early intimate experience toward group cohesion, and now had a tech-
nique they could also use with therapeutic groups, families, classrooms,
and administrative groups.
Processing clinical cases in the sand may be accomplished in groups
as well. After giving a short review of the case verbally, the same instruc-
tions are given to the individual in the group: “Put the World of the cli-
ent (i.e., family, problem, etc.) into the sand.” The group becomes aware of
the clinical process, the clinical issues, and development of the case as the
individual counselor builds the case in the sand. That is, the presenter is
given the opportunity to experience the role of builder and the group as
witnesses. In processing sandtray Worlds, group members are also given
an opportunity to see the benefits of processing sandtrays in groups.
Examples Illustrating Supervisee Stage Development Stoltenberg and

Delworth (1987) described three levels of development for the coun-
selor: beginning, intermediate, and advanced. In these levels, the authors
considered self-and-other awareness for the counselor, motivation, and
autonomy. They identified eight growth areas for counselor, including
intervention, skills competence, assessment techniques, interpersonal
assessment, client conceptualization, treatment goals and plans, and pro-
fessional ethics.
Simpson (2000) reported developmental stages of a clinician that par-
alleled human development. The first-stage—“Entrance into field”—clini-
cians were described as wide-eyed, naïve, fearful, excited, and self-centered.
Considerations for supervision included therapeutic boundaries, and trans-
ference/countertransference issues. The second stage was of the “Adolescent”
who displayed a “kind of know-it-all” attitude while being overwhelmed at
same time. The role of the supervisor is to be “monitoring while encourag-
ing.” The third stage of “Maturation” encompasses a sense of mastery while
“life continues to humble you.” Supervision/consultation considerations
include burnout, rest/assimilation, and appreciation of beauty and wisdom.
Figure 5.14 Stages of development for the counselor.
The following illustrations are examples of stages of development for

the clinician and how sandtray Worlds reflect that growth. A beginning
counselor, an intern working in a school setting, presented a 7-year-old
who was “acting out” at home, but not in school. The intern was able to see
the boy at school and used a variety of play therapy tools to develop a rela-
tionship with the child, but the mother was inconsistent in attending ses-
sions despite transportation offered by the school. The intern spoke with
the mother by phone occasionally, but was disappointed by the mother’s
critical attitude toward her son.
In Figure 5.14, which depicts an early stage of supervisee development, a
small deer (the boy) appears in the foreground of the photo with the teacher
and counselor to either side as support. A mentor (the bear across from the
boy) was described as formidable and an asset to the boy, but uncommuni-
cative with the counselor. The World of the mother was seen in the upper
left as a tiny bunny that dug a hole in the sand and was surrounded by a
fence. In this enclosure was the father (wrestler), who appeared as control-
ling and physically abusive to the mother. Younger siblings were included
here as well. The supervisee experienced each figure and realized that the
mother’s hole was so deep that she could not see the World outside the
fence. Her son was outside the fence, as was willing assistance, if she could
only see outside the fence. The mother was being held in the enclosure
by fear of what was inside and outside the fence, and powerlessness. The
intern looked at the outside World from the perspective of the bunny and
understood. The frustration the intern felt was turned into compassion
and a new way of considering the World of the child. He would have to find
a new way of reaching the mother.
In the intermediate stage of development, this counselor built on self-
awareness and exhibited less dependence on the supervisor as he experi-
enced the case for himself. Figures 5.15 to 5.17 illustrate the journey of a
Figure 5.15 In the beginning stage, the counselor learns the perspective of the client. The coun-
selor identifies with the character of Robin.
talented builder as he experienced his position as the counselor to a family.

It seemed ironic that the clinician identified himself as Robin, junior hero
to Batman, possibly identifying his stage of development as an apprentice
to a superhero.
In Figure 5.15, the counselor realized that Robin was “standing above
the family.” Robin, then in Figure 5.16, was moved, and now the clinician
was aware that he was standing in the light of the lighthouse, which was
identified as therapy. He discovered that he was interfering with the thera-
peutic process and rethought his role. With these new observations, the
counselor joined the family in Figure 5.17 and increases his effectiveness.
At advanced stages, supervisees often focus on their relationships with
clients, manage deeper emotions, and make connections to their own life.
For example, one master clinician was moved by the situation her 13-year-
old client presented. The adolescent was being seen in therapy for issues
around her mother’s mental illness and the child’s removal from the home,
Figure 5.16 In the intermediate stage, Robin stands above the family in the session.
Figure 5.17 In the final stage, Robin stands with the family.
but as the builder/clinician presented the case in the sand, she realized that
the greater issue was “fitting in” with peers. The girl’s clothes were from a
thrift store and her less fashionable glasses were purchased by the state. As
the counselor experienced the World of the child, she also realized that
her World includes her own children, whose desires paralleled those of her
13-year-old client, but she had the financial resources to allow her children
to purchase the desired objects.
Conclusion
As a supervisor applying Sandtray-Worldplay to my work with supervi-
sees, I have repeatedly observed that this approach fosters development
in terms of the stages identified by Stoltenberg and Delworth (1987) and
Helm Simpson (2000). Further, as supervisees progress through these
developmental stages, I have noticed the following changes in their sand-
play processes:
• The complexity of the sandtray mirrors the clinician’s under-
standing of the complexities of the case.
• At times, more experienced clinicians presented their cases with
more figures in the sandtrays. They seem to be able to “hold” more
in terms of metaphor and sandplay “Worlds.”
• More mature and advanced supervisees seem to show a deeper
understanding of their own journey. Sandtray-Worldplay appears
to facilitate a depth of experience that more experienced clini-
cians seem to accept. Advanced clinicians appear less fearful of
presenting their own journey and understanding that we all have
a journey.
• With experience, there seems to be a greater honoring and respect-
ing of the client’s process.
• Overall, cases presented in the sandtray appeared to accurately

and literally reflect the stage of development of the clinician.
After witnessing more than 50 sandtrays in supervision, I have come to
the conclusion that the process of Sandtray-Worldplay has enabled me to
experience the World of the client, the World of therapy, and the World of
the clinician working with the client, which is very different from using
the verbal process alone. The process of Sandtray-Worldplay provides the
supervisor and supervisee a better understanding of the case, the clinician,
the therapy, and himself or herself.
Summary and Conclusions: Using Expressive Arts in Supervision

In this chapter, skilled counseling supervisors have shared and docu-
mented their creative experiences in helping supervisees find insight,
growth, and change for themselves and the clients with whom they
work. Expressive methods, including Puppet processing, Psychodrama,
Bibliosupervision, and Sandtray-Worldplay, have been fully articulated
by the supervisors who use them. Furthermore, in this chapter, we have
attempted to find and document some of the most creative and innova-
tive approaches to using the expressive arts in supervision—likely those
that we do not hear about or consider using regularly. In this regard,
this chapter by no means summarizes the full extent to which creative
and expressive arts may be used in counseling supervision. The theory
and practice of using the creative and expressive arts in supervision is
limited only by the imagination of supervisors and the engagement of
their supervisees. The development of a working alliance, a desire for
growth on the part of both supervisee and supervisor, and the need for
change in clients will continue to drive supervisors to develop new and
creative ways to approach the complicated and fulfilling task of counsel-
ing supervision.
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Chapter 6
Principles of Best Practices for Clinical
Supervisor Training Programs
L. DiAnne Borders
Supervision training opportunities have exploded in recent years. A num-

ber of supervision textbooks, edited books, DVDs, online modules, and
home study courses are now available. Descriptions of training programs
have been published, and supervision workshops and presentations are
regularly included at counseling conferences. In addition, an international
interdisciplinary conference on clinical supervision is held annually.
Thus, it appears time to assess the status of what we know about
effective supervisor training programs. In this chapter, I propose five
underlying principles of best practices gleaned from my review of the
supervision literature, standards for supervisor training, and some key
findings from research on the learning process. These five principles
should not be considered exhaustive, and are, of course, influenced
by my biases about the conduct of supervision and supervisor train-
ing. In addition, readers will note that there is some overlap among the
principles (e.g., the core content areas [Principle 1] should be addressed
through developmentally appropriate instructional strategies [Principle
3] with both didactic and experiential activities [Principle 2]), although
each was emphasized strongly enough in my review that they all seemed
to merit individual attention.
127
Principle 1
Supervisor training programs should address all the core content areas
identified in professional standards and the literature.
Several professional organizations and credential groups have devel-
oped standards relevant to clinical supervisor training over the last 20 or
so years (e.g., American Association for State Counseling Boards, 2007;
American Board of Examiners in Clinical Social Work, 2004; Borders,
Bernard, Dye, Fong, Henderson, & Nance, 1991; Dye & Borders, 1990;
Falender et al., 2004; National Board for Certified Counselors, 1997).
Review of these standards suggests strong consensus regarding the core
content areas that need to be included in supervisor training programs.
These core topics may be summarized as follows:
• Roles and functions of clinical supervisors (including teaching,
counseling, and consultation skills as applied in supervision)
• Models of supervision
• Models of counselor development
• Supervision methods, techniques, interventions, and approaches
• Supervisory relationship dynamics
• Cultural/diversity issues in supervision
• Group supervision (including roles/functions of supervisor, group
supervision methods, supervision group dynamics, etc.)
• Ethical, legal, and professional regulatory issues
• Formative and summative feedback methods
• Assessment and evaluation of supervisee competence and devel-
opmental growth
• Evaluation of the supervision process
• Supervisor self-assessment
• Administrative supervision skills
• Research on clinical supervision (including all of the aforemen-
tioned areas)
For each core topic, the standards suggest covering three areas: theoreti-
cal and conceptual knowledge, skills and techniques, and self-awareness.
Thus, training programs would necessarily include a range of instruc-
tional methods, including readings, opportunities for application and
practice, and focus on self-knowledge and self-assessment. Although not
always stated explicitly, it is assumed that a specific supervisor training
program will give varying emphasis to each core topic area, depending on
the supervisors’ goals, their background in counseling and supervision,
the supervision setting and training program context, and other relevant
factors (see following text).
Principles of Best Practices for Clinical Supervisor Training Programs • 129
Of existing standards statements, the curriculum guide for supervi-

sor training (Borders et al., 1991), developed under the auspices of the
Association for Counselor Education and Supervision (ACES), provides
the most explicit framework for the actual design of training programs. For
each core area, the guide includes specific learning objectives for develop-
ing self-awareness, theoretical and conceptual knowledge, and skills and
techniques. These learning objectives suggest training activities as well as
competencies to be evaluated. For example, to achieve the learning objec-
tive “Describes the sequential, ongoing nature of counselor development”
(Core Content Area: Counselor Development; Theoretical and Conceptual
Knowledge), the supervision instructor might outline stages from vari-
ous developmental models and show video clips of supervision sessions
with counselors at various developmental levels. As evidence of this com-
petency, supervisors-in-training might include concrete examples of such
growth in their final evaluations of supervisees. Similarly, for the learning
objective “Chooses and implements appropriate strategies that enhance the
quality of the supervisory relationship” (Core Content Area: Supervisory
Relationship; Skills and Techniques), the supervision instructor could
include readings and discussion around how various supervision strate-
gies (e.g., Interpersonal Process Recall [IPR], self-disclosure, immediacy)
tend to affect the relationship. Later, in supervision of supervision (and/
or in case notes), supervisors-in-training could state their rationale for
choosing a strategy relevant to their assessment of and goals for the super-
visory relationship and receive feedback on the implementation of that
strategy. Learning objectives around cultural issues suggest self-awareness
exercises, readings, and demonstrations of awareness, knowledge, and
skills during supervision sessions. Research on clinical supervision might
be infused into instruction for site or agency supervisors, while at least
selected research articles would be critically analyzed in a doctoral-level
academic course in clinical supervision.
Getz (1999) described a supervision training and assessment approach
based on the ACES curriculum guide (Borders et al., 1991). She referred to
the core content areas as competencies. Doctoral students in her supervi-
sion course are required to write a summative evaluation that includes, for
each competency, goals, action steps, and evidence of goal achievement.
The competencies also are integrated into ongoing supervision of supervi-
sion sessions using videotapes and peer feedback. In these sessions, for
example, students present information about the supervisee (Counselor
Development), their focus and role in the supervision session (Models of
Supervision), approaches used (Supervision Methods and Techniques), and
reactions to the supervisee (Supervisory Relationship). Early in the semes-
ter, students also write a supervision informed consent document (Ethical,
Legal, and Professional Regulatory Issues) to share with their supervisees.
The ACES curriculum guide (Borders et al., 1991) was intended to be com-
prehensive and inclusive. Thus, not all of the more than 200 learning objec-
tives may be relevant for any one supervision training program. For example,
supervision instructors working with novice supervisors (i.e., those in their
first training experiences and who have little or no experience conducting
supervision) likely will need to focus primarily on the core content areas of
Models of Supervision and Counselor Development so that a framework for
thinking about supervision is established. Supervision instructors working
with practitioners, such as supervisors in mental health agencies, will need
to give more attention to the core content areas of Executive (Administrative)
Skills and Ethical, Legal and Professional Regulatory Issues. The core con-
tent area Supervisory Relationship includes learning objectives along a range
of complexity, subtlety, and professional maturity.
Thus, the ACES curriculum guide (Borders et al., 1991) provides a tem-
plate for a supervisor instructor’s intentional selection of learning goals based
on the needs of a particular group of supervisors-in-training. The guide also
can serve as a “checklist” for determining if all the core topic areas are being
covered at some point in a clinical supervision training program.
Principle 2
Clinical supervision programs should include both didactic instruction
and supervised practice, concurrently and/or sequentially. Experiential
activities should involve direct observation of supervision practice with
feedback.
Early writers who proposed systematic training in clinical supervision
(e.g., Borders & Leddick, 1988; Dye & Borders, 1990; Loganbill & Hardy,
1983; Russell & Petrie, 1994; Stoltenberg & Delworth, 1987; Watkins, 1991)
emphasized that training in the theories and concepts of supervision was
necessary but insufficient. They urged trainers to include some form of
supervised practice as an adjunct and/or follow-up to didactic instruction.
Actually, many of these early writers were battling an even more basis issue:
that supervision comprised a separate, distinct professional activity from
counseling and, thus, specialized training in supervision was necessary for
competent, ethical practice. Indeed, there is increasing evidence that expe-
rience as a supervisor alone does not increase supervisor competence (e.g.,
Johnson & Stewart, 2008; Lyon, Heppler, Leavitt, & Fisher, 2008; Stevens,
Goodyear, & Robertson, 1997; Worthington, 1987). Today, the need for
supervisor training is widely accepted, across a number of clinical disci-
plines (e.g., counseling, psychology, social work, speech-language pathol-
ogy), although the practice of requiring, even offering, supervisor training
in academic programs continues to vary rather substantially across disci-
plines (Johnson & Stewart, 2008; Lyon et al., 2008; Scott, Ingram, Vitanza,
& Smith, 2000). Anecdotally (based on conference presentations, informal

discussions with other counselor educators, etc.), it appears most coun-
selor education doctoral programs offer a two-semester sequence of a
didactic course, often including observations and role plays, followed by
a semester of supervised supervision of master’s-level practicum students.
This approach reflects current professional standards and credentialing
requirements in the counseling field.
For example, didactic and experiential supervision training is required
in accredited doctoral programs (CACREP, 2009). In addition, the
American Association for State Counseling Boards (AASCB, 2007) has
endorsed an “approved supervisor model” that involves didactic train-
ing (graduate course or 30 hr of face-to-face training), 25 hr of supervised
supervision, as well as ongoing continuing education in supervision. The
requirements for the Approved Clinical Supervisor credential available
through the Center for Credentialing and Education (affiliated with the
National Board for Certified Counselors [1997]) are similar: a graduate
course in clinical supervision or 30 contact hours of workshop training,
a minimum of 100 hr of experience providing clinical supervision, and a
minimum of 20 hr of supervised supervision. Clearly, both didactic and
experiential supervisor training are valued.
In terms of academic training for doctoral students, several combina-
tions and sequences of didactic and experiential training have been rec-
ommended (Borders, in press; Russell & Petrie, 1994; Stoltenberg, McNeill,
& Delworth, 1998). In addition, descriptions of supervision workshops
for practitioners also include didactic and experiential components. The
didactic-experiential model, then, appears to be widely accepted and
practiced. Empirical investigations of the didactic-experiential approach,
though limited, tend to be supportive. Representative reports of academic
courses for doctoral students and workshops for practitioners that included
at least some empirical evaluation of the training experience are summa-
rized here.
Baker, Exum, and Tyler (2002) compared two small groups of doctoral
students on a measure of supervisor development over time. One group (n
= 12; experimental group) had completed a course in supervision theory
and research and was starting a practicum in supervision. The control
group (n = 7) had not enrolled in either experience. All participants com-
pleted the supervisor development measure at the beginning, middle, and
end of the semester. At time 1 (beginning of the semester), there were no
significant differences in the experimental and control groups’ supervisor
development scores, even though the experimental group had completed
the didactic supervision course. At times 2 (midsemester) and 3 (end of
semester), the experimental group scored significantly higher than the
control group. These results suggested that the supervised experience of
supervising several master’s-level practicum students had a greater impact

on doctoral students’ self-perceptions of their development as supervisors
than did the didactic course alone, which appeared to have little to no
influence on their self-perceptions.
Nelson, Oliver, and Capps (2006) conducted focus groups with doctoral
students in supervision practicum/internship experiences to explore their
perception of the process of becoming a supervisor. One group (n = 13)
was interviewed over three semesters of their practicum/internship expe-
riences; a second group (n = 5) discussed the results from the previous
cohort’s reports and provided additional comments and observations. The
“practicum/internship” training experience was not described, but a read-
ing of the results suggests that both didactic and experiential components
were included. Students reported that the combination of academic learn-
ing, experiential activities (e.g., role plays, actual supervision with feed-
back from peers and instructor), and watching (i.e., observing themselves
and others) were crucial to their development as supervisors.
In a retrospective study of doctoral students, Lyon et al. (2008) sur-
veyed interns in APA-accredited internship sites across the United States
and Canada regarding the extent and quality of their training in supervi-
sion. The 233 respondents were primarily from clinical psychology (n =
151) and counseling psychology (n = 67) programs. More of the counseling
psychology interns (73%) than the clinical psychology interns (26%) had
completed a supervision course. Respondents reported high frequency of
reading assignments and group discussions of readings and cases; teach-
ing methods used less often (“moderate frequency”) included individual
supervision of supervision and class review of supervision tapes. All
teaching methods were rated highly helpful, although the supervision
of supervision activities were rated higher than the more didactic teach-
ing methods. Lyon et al. tested the relationship of the reported training
activities to interns’ self-ratings of supervisor development. Experience as
a supervisor (i.e., the total number of hours of providing supervision) did
not predict supervisor development levels. Significant predictors were the
total number of supervision training activities and the number of hours
of supervised supervision. Lyon et al. concluded that “the experience of
supervising a trainee, in concert with an opportunity to reflect and consult
with a more advanced supervisor, was the best predictor of interns’ devel-
opment of felt supervision competence” (p. 282).
Borders and Fong (1994), however, suggested that experiential training
alone is not sufficient to affect counseling doctoral students’ felt compe-
tence. They followed nine students from two universities who were enrolled
in a supervision practicum course. They found no significant differences
between pretest and posttest self-reports of cognitive appraisals (difficulty)
of their supervision abilities. They also found no significant differences for
the students’ content of thoughts (e.g., focus on client vs. counselor, focus
on counselors’ psychological traits vs. the process) nor choices of super-
vision interventions (multiple-choice measure). The researchers noted
several patterns in students’ responses that differed from expert raters’
responses on the intervention measure. In particular, students tended to
choose clinical interventions over educational options, and they avoided
addressing relationship issues directly. Borders and Fong cited a number
of limitations, such as their sample size and complications with the mea-
sures. Nevertheless, results suggested the one-semester experiential-only
training experience had little positive impact and seemed to create confu-
sion in the students’ conceptualizations about appropriate supervisor roles.
Borders and Fong concluded that both didactic and experiential training
opportunities were needed to develop doctoral students’ supervision con-
fidence, knowledge, and skills.
In a follow-up study, Borders, Rainey, Crutchfield, and Martin (1996)
investigated the effectiveness of a supervision course that included both
didactic instruction and a brief supervised practicum experience. Didactic
instruction (lectures, seminar discussions) was based on the ACES cur-
riculum guide (Borders et al., 1991); the experiential practicum involved
supervising one or two first-year master’s students in their first counsel-
ing practicum (five sessions) with a volunteer undergraduate client. Using
multiple pre-post measures of students’ cognitions about supervision, the
researchers found no significant differences in self-reports of supervisory
style and only one difference in supervisory focus; students reported they
had emphasized conceptualization skills during their supervision sessions
(posttest) more than they had anticipated they would (pretest). At the
end of the course, students rated supervision as significantly less difficult
and rated themselves as having significantly more skills and resources for
coping with the tasks of supervision. Students’ conceptualizations (clini-
cal hypothesis formation measure) of their supervisees revealed few sig-
nificant differences along rated categories (e.g., categories of information
sought about the supervisee, elements considered in understanding the
supervisee, number of divergent questions asked). There was some indica-
tion, however, that the students improved in their divergent thinking. In
addition, judges rated students’ posttest conceptualizations as significantly
clearer and of higher quality. Borders et al. (1996) cited a number of limita-
tions (e.g., sample size, inter-rater reliability). They noted that the supervi-
sors seemed to maintain their pretraining preferences for supervisor style
and emphasis, but did report less stress and more confidence about doing
supervision following the course.
Others have studied the effects of supervisor training workshops for
counseling and/or supervision practitioners. These workshops included
both didactic and experiential components, although the experiential
methods ranged from role plays only to supervised supervision over some
time. In addition, these studies were mostly program evaluations based
on participant feedback and/or self-ratings, with few comparison control
groups. Although the rigor of these studies was varied, results do suggest
that both didactic and experiential activities are needed and valued.
Getz and Agnew (1999) evaluated an extensive training program for
supervisors in community agencies, including a 1-day workshop followed by
3 hr of supervised supervision sessions per month for 5 months. The work-
shop covered many of the core areas in the ACES curriculum guide (Borders
et al., 1991), provided instruction in a structured approach to supervision,
and included role plays. Evaluation data came from focus group interviews
and semantic differential reports. Participants reported the training pro-
gram gave them credibility as a supervisor and increased confidence, and
said they used more direct (e.g., tapes) and experiential approaches (e.g.,
role plays) in supervision. They thought the supervised supervision was
vital and appreciated the structured approach they had learned.
Peace and Sprinthall (1998) provided an extensive supervision in-ser-
vice training program for experienced school counselors, with a focus
on supervising the novice school counselor. During the first semester,
supervision theory and practice were covered through a sequence of
explaining the rationale for the topic being covered, modeling relevant
skills, practicing with peers, and generalizing the learning. Participants
were taught a structured approach for supervision “conferences” with
supervisees, and were taught how to use a rating scale of supervisor
skills consisting of two categories (e.g., direct and indirect behaviors).
The second semester training consisted of weekly reviews of recorded
supervision sessions, including use of the indirect/direct behaviors rat-
ing scale to analyze the conferences. One goal was to increase the use of
indirect behaviors (e.g., asks about feelings, accepts or uses supervisee’s
ideas) over direct behaviors (e.g., giving information, giving direction).
A sample of four conferences across the two semesters indicated a “sub-
stantial” pre-post increase in the use of indirect behaviors (55% to 74%).
Importantly, the conduct of the training also was devised to encour-
age supervisors’ cognitive growth. Peace and Sprinthall reported sig-
nificant increases on measures of conceptual development and moral
judgment. Such cognitive gains are unusual, even over a two-semester
time span.
McMahon and Simons (2004) conducted a 4-day training program (20
hr total) for practicing counselors and supervisors in Queensland. Of the
experimental (n =15) and control group (n = 42) participants, most had
received less than 1 week of supervision training. Learning objectives were
based on the ACES curriculum guide (Borders et al., 1991); experiential
activities included case discussions, role plays, and practice supervision
sessions. The researchers developed a 30-item questionnaire measuring

confidence/self-awareness, theoretical and conceptual knowledge, and
skill and techniques in clinical supervision. All participants completed
the questionnaire three times: before and after the training program and
6 months later. There were no significant differences between the experi-
mental and control groups at Time 1, but significant differences at Time 2
and Time 3, with the experimental group showing significant gains and
the control group showing no changes. The experimental group showed a
slight but nonsignificant decline from Time 2 to Time 3, suggesting ongo-
ing supervision or consultation may be prudent to maintain supervisor
training gains.
In sum, there is some empirical support for including both didactic and
experiential components in supervisor training programs, at least in ini-
tial training experiences such as those just reported. Few established out-
come measures have been used, but didactic-experiential programs have
led to increases in supervisor development (Baker et al., 2002), supervi-
sor confidence (Borders et al., 1996), and cognitive complexity (Peace &
Sprinthall, 1998). Based on supervisors’ feedback, it appears the value of
the didactic component is in providing a framework for understanding
supervisor’s roles and the functions and goals of supervision. In addition,
at least for novices, learning a structure for conducting supervision ses-
sions also seems important. Supervisors consistently gave high ratings to
the experiential components of their training, especially actual supervision
of counselors with regular observation and feedback from a supervisor/
instructor. There is no evidence that a particular sequence of combination
of didactic-experiential training is more effective; direct comparisons of
different training programs have not been reported. Likely, no one train-
ing sequence is appropriate for all training contexts nor all supervisors. In
addition, training experiences of supervisor beyond the novice stage have
not been studied, although it appears that ongoing supervised supervision
is needed. Importantly, experiential activities should be introduced early
and often in supervisor training programs, as those who have received
supervision of their work are likely to be more open to ongoing supervi-
sion and consultation to facilitate ongoing growth of their work (Borders
& Usher, 1992; Wheeler & King, 2000).
Suggested sequences of didactic content and supervised experiences
(e.g., Borders, in press; Russell & Petrie, 1994; Stoltenberg et al., 1998) have
not been tested, but are grounded in developmental models of supervisor
development. These models, described next, provide another important
principle for constructing supervisor development training programs.
Principle 3
Supervisor training programs should reflect a developmental approach in
their content and sequencing.
Several models of supervisor development have been proposed (e.g.,
Alonso, 1983; Hess, 1986, 1987; Rodenhauser, 1995; Stoltenberg & Delworth,
1987; Stoltenberg et al., 1998; Watkins, 1990, 1993). Earlier models (e.g.,
Alonso, Hess) assumed there was no formal training in supervision; sev-
eral (e.g., Alonso, Rodenhauser) are specific to psychiatric settings. Thus,
the models of Stoltenberg and colleagues and Watkins are more relevant to
the focus of this chapter. In addition, Heid (1997) provided an integrative
look at relevant models. As will be obvious to the informed supervisor,
models of supervisor development parallel models of counselor develop-
ment in many ways, but in comparison there is much less empirical sup-
port for supervisor models (Borders, in press).
Stoltenberg and colleagues. Stoltenberg and Delworth (1987) described
the first model of supervisor development that was based in an academic
setting and which involved both didactic and experiential components. In
1987 (and then again in Stoltenberg et al., 1998), they outlined four levels
of supervisor development that are determined by the supervisors’ level of
counselor development (based on their corresponding model of counselor
development) as well as their training and experience in supervision. Level
1 supervisors tend to be anxious, naïve, highly motivated, self-focused,
anxious to do the “right” thing, fairly structured, and dependent on their
own supervisor. The Level 2 supervisor, overwhelmed by the complexity of
supervision, experiences confusion and conflict, and is alternately depen-
dent and independent. The focus shifts from self to the counselor, leading
to overidentification with and/or withdrawal from the counselor and to
feelings of sympathy or anger. At Level 3, supervisors have genuine inter-
est in supervision and are aware of their strengths and weaknesses in the
role. They freely seek consultation as needed. Stoltenberg and Delworth
believe the majority of supervisors function at this level. Those who reach
the final “integrated” level are both master supervisors and master coun-
selors. They have a wide repertoire of roles and skills, and can work equally
well with counselors at a variety of experience levels.
Stoltenberg and Delworth (1987) reported that they tie their supervi-
sion training method to the supervisor’s developmental level. Pre-Level
1 counseling students are introduced to supervision theory primarily as
a way to understand their own development. Techniques are emphasized
with Level 1 supervisors through simulations and role plays. Group super-
vision is recommended for Level 2 supervisors, who need to process their
doubts, feelings, and uncertain commitment to supervision. The authors
suggested that an academic course on supervision be taken early in the
counseling psychology training program, and an experiential class be

added just before or during the counseling internship, when the super-
visor likely would be doing advanced clinical work as well as providing
supervision to novice counselors. In fact, they described good and bad
matches based on developmental levels of supervisor and counselor. For
example, they suggested that a Level 1 supervisor who is functioning as a
Level 2 counselor provides adequate supervision to Level 1 counselors. The
integrated supervisor (who also would be an integrated counselor) may be
particularly effective in helping Level 2 counselors (and supervisors) work
through their confusion and conflict. Supervisors of supervisors need to
be functioning at Level 3, Stoltenberg and Delworth indicated.
Watkins. Watkins (1990, 1993, 1994) proposed the four-stage Supervisor
Complexity Model as well as training and supervision implications for
each stage. Novice supervisors experience role shock and focus on what
they don’t know, feel overwhelmed, and are heavily dependent on their
own supervisors. Novices need “a clear, strong holding environment”
(1994, p. 421) that provides structure, direction, instruction, and model-
ing. Supervisors in stage 2, role recovery/transition, have developed some
confidence based on their successes, but are easily shaken by new supervi-
sion experiences and supervisee issues. They have limited self-awareness
about their impact on counselors and their professional identity as a super-
visor. Stage 2 supervisors need a stable “anchor” who can help them ride
the ups and downs of confidence, support, and encouragement. In stage 3,
role consolidation, supervisors are more realistic and settled, more consis-
tently confident, and report more accurate perceptions of self and supervi-
sees. They have a more solid sense of professional identity as a supervisor,
including a fairly coherent personal theory of supervision. Stage 3 supervi-
sors are ready to focus on relationship and process issues, including their
own values, beliefs, and personal reactions to supervisees, as well as trans-
ference, countertransference, and parallel process. When supervisors reach
stage 4, role mastery, they have a well-integrated, consolidated professional
identity as a supervisor, consistently rely on their personal theory of super-
vision to guide their work, understand their strengths and limitations, and
handle unexpected supervisory events effectively. They are best served by
a consultant, on an as-needed basis, who challenges them to further refine
their beliefs and conceptualizations of supervision.
Watkins’ (1990, 1993, 1994) discussions of his model are based on gen-
eral developmental theories (i.e., Piaget, Erickson, Chickering) as well as
models of counselor development (e.g., Hogan, 1964; Loganbill, Hardy, &
Delworth, 1982; Stoltenberg, 1981), and also reflect psychoanalytic con-
cepts. He emphasized personality characteristics, such as openness, flex-
ibility, motivation, and nondefensiveness, as influencing how smoothly a
supervisor moves along the developmental stages. He asserted that “the
most positive supervisor developmental process will result primarily from

the interaction of training/supervision in how to be a supervisor, expe-
rience in functioning as a supervisor, environmental supports, and con-
structive personality factors” (1993, p. 70). Later (1995), he asserted that
the ability (and willingness) to be self-critical (i.e., reflect on and question
one’s work on a regular basis) is a key factor—if not the key factor—to
enhancing supervisor effectiveness.
Watkins’ (1990, 1993) model has received some limited empirical sup-
port, primarily based on a scale (Psychotherapy Supervisor Development
Scale, PSDS) he developed with colleagues (Watkins, Schneider, Haynes,
& Nieberding, 1995) to measure key issues in his model. Baker et al. (2002)
reported increases in PSDS scores across a semester for 12 doctoral students
in a supervision practicum course. Barnes and Moon (2006) conducted a fac-
tor analysis that supported the four key areas of supervisor development as
reported earlier by Watkins et al.: competence and effectiveness, commitment
to supervision and the development of a supervisory identity, self-awareness,
and sincerity in the role of supervisor (i.e., being honest in self-evaluations).
Otherwise, there is mostly indirect support of supervisor models from
studies of novice supervisors and comparisons of inexperienced and expe-
rienced supervisors (see Borders, 1989, for a comprehensive review of early
research in this area). Drawing from his experience as a supervisor educa-
tor of doctoral students, Ellis (Ellis, 1991; Ellis & Douce, 1994) reported
characteristics and critical incidents that reflect developmental assertions
about novice supervisors. Similarly, Borders and Fong (1994) found that
doctoral students in a supervision practicum tended to use dichotomous
thinking and were challenged by relationship dynamics, as would be pre-
dicted by the models. Supervisors at more advanced developmental levels
(not to be confused with more experience) rarely have been studied.
Heid. Rather than propose a stage model, Heid (1997) identified ten
“strands” or developmental issues across the levels or stages in existing
supervisor development models:
1. Sense of identity as a supervisor.
2. Felt confidence as a supervisor.
3. Degrees of felt autonomy and/or dependence on others.
4. Use of power and authority with supervisees, including the meth-
ods and process of supervisee evaluations.
5. Degrees of structure, flexibility, and variety of interventions.
6. Focus on the needs of the supervisees and/or self.
7. Degree of personal investment in supervisee and client success.
8. Emphasis on and use of the supervisory relationship and the pro-
cess of supervision.
9. Degrees of awareness and appraisal of impact of self on the super-

visory relationship and process.
10. Degree of realistic appraisal of competencies and limitations, cou-
pled with an awareness and containment of personal issues and
biases and countertransference reactions. (p. 147)
Heid indicated that her Integrated Model of Supervisor Lifespan
Development was appropriate for all “experienced supervisors,” includ-
ing those with and without formal training in supervision. She used the
ten strands to illustrate the nonlinear nature of development. In line with
Hess (1986), Stoltenberg and Delworth (1987), and Borders et al. (1991),
she asserted that supervisors may recycle through issues at deeper levels
or from other perspectives. (Actually, facilitation of such a “spiraling pro-
cess” of “progressively more sophisticated levels of awareness and under-
standing” (Borders et al., 1991, p. 78) would be critical; see Principle 5 in
the following text.) Heid also suggested that supervisors will vary in their
continued development along each strand based on factors such as age,
gender, ethnicity, culture, professional maturity, and life experience. In
fact, she emphasized the intertwining of personal growth and professional
development, particularly important life experiences in each (e.g., birth
of a child, promotion). Finally, she brought attention to the interaction of
the supervisor, counselor, and client, including the ways supervisors are
affected by their supervisees and the clients, in addition to the supervisor’s
reciprocal influences.
Heid (1997) did not offer suggestions for promoting supervisor develop-
ment along the ten strands, stating only that she hoped they would stimu-
late “further research and self-reflection that, given sufficient training and
external support systems, may prove to be critical to the developmental
process of supervisors” (p. 151). Her assertions remind supervisor train-
ers that developmental models should not be applied rigidly. Supervisors
likely will reflect the general characteristics of developmental levels as they
progress through their training, but exhibit much individual variation
also. In addition, we should heed Heid’s reminders that supervisor trainers
and/or supervisors of supervision will need to give some attention to the
influence of personal life events on a supervisor’s development, as well as
the impact that particular supervisees and clients have on the supervisor’s
growth along the ten strands.
In sum, supervisor models strongly suggest a developmental approach
to supervisor training. Unfortunately, these models are more descriptive
than prescriptive, especially in terms of what content and which experien-
tial activities are the best match for each developmental level. Stoltenberg
et al. (1998) suggested some academic training in supervision theory before
beginning to supervise, while Watkins’ (1990, 1993, 1994) descriptions
imply supervisors are supervising during each of his four stages. The view
of supervisor growth as developmental recycling (Borders et al., 1991;
Hess, 1986; Heid, 1997; Stoltenberg & Delworth, 1987) strongly suggests
a sequence of concurrent didactic and experiential training, but existing
descriptions are either very brief (e.g., Russell & Petrie, 1994; Stoltenberg
et al., 1998) or specific to a particular training context (e.g., Borders, in
press). It may be that current supervisor instructors need to turn to models
of counselor development, as described later, and extrapolate implications
of those models in designing supervisor training programs.
Principle 4
Supervisor training programs should include instruction in a wide range
of supervision methods, techniques, and approaches, with an emphasis on
the intentional and flexible use of these approaches.
In applying Bandura’s (1997) social cognitive theory to supervisor train-
ing, Johnson and Stewart (2008) noted that self-efficacy “involves more
than the possession of relevant subskills. Rather, it represents the confi-
dence and mastery needed to mobilize energy to use the right skills at the
right time in the right way across varying situations” (p. 233). Acquiring a
wide repertoire of supervision interventions generates flexibility, which is
the first step within Principle 4; gaining the knowledge of when, why, and
how to choose among these interventions is the necessary second step to
achieve intentional flexibility. A range of supervision skills is promoted
in the dominant models of counseling supervision (see following text), so
that supervisor training programs should provide opportunities for stu-
dents to become well grounded in these models early during the training
experience.
Bernard’s (1979, 1997) discrimination model outlines a matrix of three
roles (teacher, counselor, consultant) used to address three focus areas
(counseling performance skills, cognitive counseling skills, self-aware-
ness; as labeled by Borders and Brown, 2005). The model does not pro-
vide explicit guidance on the selection of role/focus area, but it is clear that
a wide range of supervision skills is necessary. Neufeldt (1999) provided
examples of behaviors in each of the supervisor roles that illustrate their
differential actions and intentions.
Developmental models of counselor supervision (e.g., Blocher, 1983;
Loganbill et al., 1982; Stoltenberg et al., 1998) offer the needed framework
for choosing the role and focus of supervision, as well as the supervisor
skills and approaches that are appropriate for supervisees at various devel-
opmental levels. Importantly, counselor developmental level is based on
cognitive and psychosocial theories of development and is not equiva-
lent to counselor experience. Thus, the acquisition of counseling skills,
conceptualization skills, and greater self-awareness is governed by the

counselor’s level of cognitive complexity, and encouraging cognitive
growth is an underlying yet fundamental goal of developmental models.
Such growth is achieved through the appropriate mismatch (i.e., one-
half step higher) of supervisor challenges and counselor functioning. The
appropriate learning environments for various counselor developmental
levels are described in some depth in the models, and there is a rather sub-
stantial body of empirical literature supporting the tenets of the models.
Of relevance to this discussion is the compelling need to acquire a range
of supervision strategies during supervision training programs, including
the ability to provide both high structure and low structure, address con-
crete skills and complex relationship dynamics, and the ability “to use the
right skills at the right time in the right way” (Johnson & Stewart, 2008,
p. 233).
Several studies have indicated that supervisor training results in more
flexibility, particularly when expansion of interventions is a goal of the
training. In two case studies (Milne & James, 2002; Milne & Westerman,
2001), the efficacy of supervised supervision (“consultancy”) to broaden
the supervisor’s range of behaviors was tested. Both supervisors increased
their range of behaviors, particular the use of “guided experiential learn-
ing” (e.g., modeling, role play), which was the goal of supervision of super-
vision. Relatedly, in a thought-listing response to a recorded counseling
session, supervisors with more training reported thoughts that suggested
they were more flexible, more supportive, less dogmatic, and less critical of
the counselor (Stevens et al., 1997).
Additional emphasis on flexibility was found in two systematic reviews
of empirical studies of supervision (primarily from the learning disabil-
ity field; Milne, Aylott, Fitzpatrick, & Ellis, 2008; Milne & James, 2000).
Results of both reviews indicated that the use of multiple interventions,
methods, and techniques was a pronounced characteristic of effective
supervision. Milne and James defined “good supervision” as the balanced
use of “symbolic” (e.g., feedback, theorizing), “iconic” (e.g., observing a
model), and “enactive” (e.g., role plays) methods.
Although intentionality is a theme in the supervision education litera-
ture (e.g., Borders, 2001; Borders & Brown, 2005; need another non-Borders
one), few investigators of supervisor training programs have described a
specific emphasis on intentionality or measured variables related to inten-
tionality. Such variables would be more cognitive-based, compared to
the more behavioral measures of flexibility. Indeed, an implication of the
supervisor development models (see Principle 3) is that an underlying, fun-
damental goal of supervisor training programs is to encourage cognitive
growth of supervisors. (Such parallel cognitive goals are more specifically
described in developmental models of counselor supervision; for example,
see Blocher, 1983.) Higher levels of cognitive complexity are necessary for
the intentional flexibility proposed here for supervisors.
The school counseling supervisors who participated in Peace and
Sprinthall’s (1998) workshop (described earlier) evidenced such cognitive
growth. The researchers believed that this growth was the result of the
instructor providing different learning environments based on the supervi-
sors’ learning needs, with some requiring very high structure, consistent and
frequent positive support, multiple practices of skills, and little challenge,
while others enjoyed low structure, challenging feedback, and more give-
and-take dialogue with the instructor. They also believed weekly reflective
journals contributed to the supervisors’ growth. Notably, increases in the
supervisors’ cognitive growth paralleled greater flexibility in their behav-
iors with their supervisees. Peace and Sprinthall asserted that “there is no
viable short-cut” for promoting substantial developmental growth.
A range of supervision methods, techniques, and approaches have been
described (e.g., Bernard & Goodyear, 2004; Borders & Brown, 2005), so
that the promotion of supervisor flexibility is relatively easy to include
in supervision training programs. Methods to encourage intentionality
and, even more, underlying cognitive growth of supervisors, are less clear.
Current findings from the field of learning theory, described in the follow-
ing text, may be instructive.
Principle 5
Supervisor training programs should include instruction in basic prin-
ciples of learning theory.
Clinical supervision is an educational process (Borders, 2001), which
makes it necessary for supervisors to learn how to plan and behave as edu-
cators rather than clinicians. One’s clinical skills certainly are relevant
to the work done in supervision, from the content the supervisor teaches
the counselor to the supervisor’s perspective on and use of the supervi-
sory relationship. There is wide consensus, however, that supervision is
not counseling and should not be for a variety of reasons, such as ethical
requirements and the evaluative nature of supervision. Yet most supervi-
sors have vastly more training in clinical processes than educational pro-
cesses. In making the shift from thinking like a counselor to thinking like
a supervisor (Borders, 1992), supervisors must turn their attention from
how to construct a client treatment plan to how to create (even craft) the
appropriate learning environment needed for a counselor to become more
competent and effective.
Several supervision writers have referred to the educational nature of
supervision (e.g., Borders, 2001; Falender & Shafranske, 2008), but few
have provided much explanation of the underlying learning processes and
dynamics. Certainly, an educational perspective means that “supervision

must be proactive, deliberate, intentional, and goal directed, involving
active learning strategies designed to engage a particular supervisee (or
group of supervisees)” (Borders, 2001, p. 418). It would be helpful, however,
for supervisors to have some understanding of key general processes that
greatly affect how people learn, whether they are learning math, geography,
writing, or counseling.
Bransford, Brown, and Cocking (2000) offered a helpful overview of key
learning principles from the perspective of the “science of learning,” which
views students “as goal-directed agents who actively seek information” (p.
10) by which they can make meaning of their learning and experiences as
well as move toward competent performance. It is not possible to provide
a complete summary of their work in this chapter. Here, I present three
key findings they reported from research on the science of learning, restat-
ing them in terms of the clinical supervision context. I will also highlight
supervisory interventions from the literature that appear to support these
learning principles. Readers may note that several aspects of the first four
principles for best practices in supervisor training programs, as noted ear-
lier, are reflected in Bransford et al.’s key findings.
First, counselors come to supervision with preconceptions about how
counseling works that may interfere with their learning. Such preconcep-
tions or naïve understandings include equating being a counselor with
being a friend to clients, believing counselors “fix” clients, or believing
that medication is not helpful or appropriate for any clients. They also may
assume that supervisors will tell them the “right” way to do counseling
or the ethical and legal response to a situation. In addition, they arrive
in supervision with conceptions and opinions about persons in author-
ity, safe boundaries in relationships, and their willingness to be known,
based on their life experiences and how they have made meaning of these
life experiences. Supervisors need to engage in initial and ongoing assess-
ments, then, of counselors’ knowledge, skills, and conceptions about coun-
seling, the role of the counselor, as well as supervision and the supervisor.
Preconceptions tend to persist, so that ongoing interventions that appro-
priately challenge them will be needed. Bransford et al.’s (2000) reference
to “just manageable difficulties” (p. 24) parallel the one-half step challenges
described in developmental models of supervision (e.g., Blocher, 1983;
Stoltenberg, 1981). Importantly, Bransford et al. also noted that preconcep-
tions typically are grounded in cultural beliefs, ranging from stereotypes
of others to comfort with the active learning strategies they advocated.
These cultural beliefs need to be assessed and taken into consideration in
designing the supervision environment.
Study of developmental models of supervision (e.g., Blocher, 1983;
Loganbill et al., 1982; Stoltenberg, 1981) can help supervisors identify the
predictable preconceptions, anxieties, and needs of counselors as well as

appropriate learning environments for counselors at various developmen-
tal levels. Techniques such as Interpersonal Process Recall (IPR, Kagan,
1980; Kagan & Kagan, 1997) also aim to reveal counselors’ thoughts and
feelings about clients and the counseling process. Clearly, a safe learning
environment is needed if counselors are to reveal their preconceptions and
beliefs, including those they themselves suspect are naïve (Bransford et al.,
2000). Such a safe, positive, and collaborative environment is emphasized
by most supervision writers, who often assert that the supervisory rela-
tionship is pivotal to the learning process (see Borders & Brown, 2005).
Second, to help counselors develop competence, supervisors need to
help students develop “deep factual knowledge,” understand this knowl-
edge within a conceptual framework, and organize their knowledge in
ways that allow fluid retrieval and application to new situations. Bransford
et al. (2000) cited the growing literature comparing experts and novices
in various fields, noting that experts’ deep understanding and command
of the “facts” “allows them to see patterns, relationships, or discrepancies
that are not apparent to novices” (p. 17). Supervisors give attention, then,
not only to the “what” but also the “why.” They need to ask meaningful
questions that encourage reflection, and focus on fewer topics with more
depth. Active learning strategies encourage counselors to take control of
their own learning, to begin to recognize when they understand and when
they need more information. Bransford et al. (2000) noted, however, that
“teaching by telling” can be a very effective strategy, especially after stu-
dents [counselors] first have grappled with issues on their own. In short,
supervisors are helping counselors learn how to transfer their learning so
they can apply their knowledge to the new and challenging clinical con-
texts they will encounter over their professional lifespan.
From the supervision literature, use of interventions such as the Socratic
method (Overholser, 1991) seem appropriate here, as do some applica-
tions of Interpersonal Process Recall (IPR, Kagan, 1980; Kagan & Kagan,
1997). In addition, Milne’s (Milne & James, 2002; Milne & Westerman,
2001) application of Kolb’s (1984) “experiential learning” model to super-
vision also reflects aspects of this key finding. In Kolb’s model, learners
need to cycle through four modes of learning, including reflection, con-
ceptualization, planning, and practical experience, to achieve competence.
Neufeldt and colleagues (Neufeldt, 1999; Neufeldt, Karno, & Nelson, 1996)
have discussed in detail some strategies to encourage counselor reflection,
based on Schön’s (1983) ideas for educating reflective practitioners. Indeed,
Skovholt and Rønnestad (1992a, 1992b) found that continuous reflection
over the professional lifespan was a central process by which novice coun-
selors moved toward becoming expert counselors.
Third, metacognitive approaches to encourage active learning are vital,

and such meta-strategies must be specific to the subject area (Bransford et
al., 2000). The expert-novice literature again is instructive. Experts actively
monitor their work, noting what additional information is required,
whether new information is consistent or contradictory, and what analo-
gies may be helpful in solving a new problem. Milne’s (Milne & James,
2002; Milne & Westerman, 2001) discussions of Kolb’s (1984) experiential
learning cycle again seem informative. With the guidance of a supervisor,
counselors reflect on their actions so as to become more aware of and inten-
tional in the use of the knowledge base guiding their actions. Supervisors
need to give deliberate attention, then, to helping counselors develop such
internal dialogues. Modeling their own “thinking aloud” (see Borders &
Brown, 2005) in response to a new client or clinical issue is one method
for encouraging development of metacognitive skills. In particular, super-
visors should model a strategy for “modeling the process of generating
alternative approaches …, evaluating their merits in helping to attain a
goal, and monitoring progress toward that goal” (Bransford et al., 2000, p.
19). In addition, supervisors can structure group supervision to encourage
counselors to “think aloud” with each other (instead of telling the present-
ing counselor what they think is going on and what they would do), as a
way of providing alternative perspectives and explanations (see Borders,
1991). In fact, in thinking about designing group supervision as a learning
environment, Bransford et al. indicated that teachers [supervisors] need
to create a classroom community [supervision group] that encourages
both cooperation in problem-solving and argumentation among students
[counselors]. Such risk-taking and open discussion encourages cognitive
development fundamental to metacognitive skills.
Importantly, such key findings from the science of learning also need
to be incorporated into supervisor training programs, on two levels. First,
supervisors need to understand how these learning principles affect their
work as supervisors as well as how to apply this knowledge in building effec-
tive learning environments in individual and group supervision settings.
As illustrated earlier, some supervision writers have suggested approaches
that are in line with the research on learning, but rarely are supervision
approaches presented within that context. Without an understanding
of the foundations of learning, supervisors are limited in their ability to
modify, adapt, and apply these approaches to the unique needs of each
supervisee as well as the novel challenges they will face as supervisors.
Second, supervisor training programs themselves should be grounded in
the science of learning and the three key findings. First, supervisor trainers
need to continually assess supervisors’ preconceptions about counseling
and supervision, and create active learning strategies that facilitate super-
visors’ movement toward a more accurate and complete understanding
of the complex nature of the supervision enterprise. Second, supervisor

trainers need to focus on helping supervisors build frameworks, based on
“deep factual knowledge” of counseling and supervision (the “what”), that
provide explanations of “why” and “how” they make choices at the macro
level (e.g., conceptualization of the counselor) and the micro level (e.g.,
the moment-by-moment decision-making in each supervision session)
(see also Borders & Brown, 2005). Third, supervisor trainers need to facili-
tate the development of an active learning environment that encourages
open and collaborative discussion. Trainers can both model metacogni-
tive internal monitoring strategies and encourage supervisors to “think
aloud” their own strategies that help them think through a supervisory
situation, activate relevant factual knowledge, weigh options, predict out-
comes, make a plan, and monitor progress.
Conclusion
Descriptions of supervision training programs have evolved from listings
of content of topics to be covered (Principle 1), to descriptions of instruc-
tional approaches (Principle 2, including both didactic and experiential
components) and descriptions of supervisors’ developmental characteris-
tics (Principle 3), to more sophisticated explorations of key educational and
learning principles that can inform effective supervision training programs
(Principles 4 and 5). Hopefully, this chapter has provided one more link
in the evolution toward flexible, intentional, developmental, and empiri-
cally based training sequences that produce cognitively expert, behavior-
ally competent supervisors who have a positive and sustaining impact not
only on their supervisees, but also their supervisees’ clients. The practice of
supervision is truly an art, but an art that should have a solid foundation in
the science of supervision practice and the science of learning.
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Chapter 7
Religion, Spirituality, and
Clinical Supervision
J. Scott Young and Craig S. Cashwell
In the study of the profession to which he had looked forward all his
life he found irritation and vacuity as well as serene wisdom; he saw
no one clear path to Truth but a thousand paths to a thousand truths
far-off and doubtful.
Sinclair Lewis, Arrowsmith, 1924
The purpose of this chapter is first to provide readers with a clear under-
standing of how religion and spirituality are germane to the process of
counseling and, by extension, clinical supervision. Second, our purpose
is to prepare clinical supervisors to foster supervisee development when
working with issues of a religious or spiritual nature. Specifically, the reader
will learn that religious conceptualizations are common to the psycholog-
ical reality of most individuals and, therefore, are worthy of a balanced
consideration in counseling endeavors. Furthermore, to assist supervisors
in thinking through how best to assist their supervisees with these issues,
guidelines are provided upon which clinical supervisors can draw from to
conduct supervision sessions. To illuminate these principles, clinical super-
visors were interviewed and asked to describe their experiences providing
supervision when religion or spirituality was salient to the clinical context.
The reflections of these individuals are included to assist the reader in plac-
ing the ideas discussed into a real-world frame of reference.
151
Introduction
Spirituality and religion are important cultural aspects to most individuals
within the United States. Researchers have found that 96% of Americans
believe in a “Higher Power,” over 90% pray, 69% are members of a religious
community, and 43% have attended a service at their church, synagogue,
temple, or mosque within the past 7 days (Princeton Religion Research
Center, 2000). Although these numbers highlight the salience of religion
and spirituality in our culture, they omit those whose personal spiritual-
ity does not involve a Higher Power or a religious community, and those
whose personal spiritual practice involves practices other than prayer.
In short, it is apparent that the United States is replete with people seek-
ing some type of comfort, transcendence, peace, and interconnectedness
found in a spiritual life.
The counseling profession has responded to this awareness over the
past 15 years. This is evident in the proliferation of textbooks (Cashwell &
Young, 2005; Frame, 2002; Kelly, 1995; Miller, 2002) and articles on top-
ics related to the ethical and competent integration of spirituality into the
counseling process. Further, the Council for Accreditation of Counseling
and Related Education Programs (CACREP), the accrediting body for the
counseling profession, has included spirituality as an aspect of client cul-
ture that is to be addressed in counselor training in the past two versions of
accreditation standards (CACREP, 2001; CACREP, 2009). As further evi-
dence, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychological
Association (DSM-IV-TR; APA, 2000) has now included a V-code for spiri-
tual and religious problems, though the language of this V-code is far from
inclusive in terms of the host of spiritual crises, emergencies, and issues
that can arise in the therapeutic process. Taken together, these facts sug-
gest that counselors have an interest in the integration of body, mind, and
spirit, along with a desire to further understand how to work effectively
with clients to integrate the spiritual and psychological realms.
There are many challenges, however, that are inherent in this pro-
cess. Religiously and spiritually, the United States is notably pluralistic.
Although the largest religious group, consisting of just over 76% of the
population, self-identifies as Christian (Largest Religious Groups in the
United States, n.d.), it is important to be mindful that there is tremen-
dous within-group variance among religious traditions. That is, knowing
that someone is Christian or Jewish or Hindu or Buddhist affords only
cursory information about the religious and spiritual beliefs, practices,
experiences, rituals, and traditions of the individual. As further evidence
of the growing religious diversity in the United States, several religious
groups have seen dramatic increases in recent history. For example, from
1990 to 2000, New Age spirituality increased by 240%, Hinduism by 237%,
Religion, Spirituality, and Clinical Supervision • 153
Baha’i by 200%, Buddhism by 170%, Native American Religion by 119%,

and Islam by 109% (Largest Religious Groups in the United States, n.d.).
The second largest group in the U.S. identifies as nonreligious or secular,
comprising 13.2% of the overall population (Largest Religious Groups in
the United States, n.d.). In summary, then, not all clients will be interested
in a therapeutic approach that integrates spirituality, but most may be.
There has been a substantive shift in recent years of the integration of
spirituality and religion into the counseling process. In the early 1990s,
researchers (Kelly, 1994; Pate & Bondi, 1992) found that religion and spiri-
tuality were discussed in only a small minority of counselor preparation
programs. These groundbreaking scholars raised awareness within the
profession and encouraged the profession to consider issues related to
spiritual and religious development more fully.
More recently, however, counseling professionals report that the inte-
gration of spirituality into the counseling process is vital to recognizing the
spiritual aspects of the client’s culture, as well as how the client’s spiritual
life supports or hinders the client’s overall wellness and growth. For exam-
ple, one survey of ACA members (Young, Cashwell, & Wiggins-Frame,
2007) found that professional counselors strongly endorsed the existing
spirituality competencies to guide clinical practice. Further, although over
two-thirds of respondents agreed that the competencies were important,
just under 50% of respondents believed they were not capable of practicing
in accord with these competencies. The question, as noted by Briggs and
Rayle (2005), seems no longer to be “if” but “how” to competently and
ethically address client issues related to spirituality and religion.
Similarly, counselor preparation programs seem to recognize the
importance of spirituality in the counseling process. A survey of CACREP-
accredited programs (Young, Cashwell, & Wiggins-Frame, 2002) found
that counselor educators endorsed the spirituality competencies as impor-
tant. At the same time, and consistent with the responses of practicing
counselors, counselor educators indicated a strong need for curricular
guidelines and additional training to help them prepare counselors to inte-
grate spirituality and religion into counseling.
Taken together, all of this evidence portrays a clear need within the
counseling profession to more adequately prepare counselors to address
the spiritual aspects of clients as a component of psychological reality.
Although scholars have considered how special coursework on spirituality
(Cashwell & Young, 2004; Ingersoll, 1997) and the infusion of spirituality
into core courses (Briggs & Rayle, 2005; Burke et al., 1999) might support
this aspect of counselor development, the supervision process is an addi-
tional vital aspect of training counselors in which to integrate spirituality.
Despite this, the appropriate role of religion and spirituality as a topic for
clinical supervision has received little attention in the scholarly literature
compared to the proliferation of writings on spirituality in counseling

(Polanski, 2003). Atten and Mangis (2007) state, “The supervision litera-
ture needed to guide supervisors work with clients’ faith is scant at best”
(p. 291).
Conversations about the integration of spirituality and religion into
the counseling process are always challenging. Whenever a counselor
and client come together, there are always divergences in belief systems
which may be, at times, rigid and inflexible. This occurs even when the
two “wear” the same religious or spiritual label (e.g., Jewish, Christian).
How much more might we expect divergence, then, when the religious and
spiritual traditions of the two differ significantly. The point here, then, is
the complexity of spirituality and religion in dyadic relationships. When
you superimpose a clinical supervisor into this dynamic, the relationship
becomes a triadic relationship in which the supervisor’s beliefs, values, and
attitudes about religion and spirituality enter the process. For example,
consider the example of a religiously sensitive supervisee who was work-
ing with a religiously committed client but had a supervisor who held a
strong belief that religion and spirituality should not be incorporated into
“secular” counseling. For the sake of clarity, in discussing the principles
below, we focus first on insuring the welfare of the client and secondly on
promoting supervisee growth and development.
Guiding Principles
Supervision exists for the training of the counselor and for the protection
of the client (Bernard & Goodyear, 2004). Under the umbrella of this fun-
damental premise, the content of clinical supervision sessions evolves in
numerous directions with a myriad of content. Yet throughout much of the
history of the counseling field, the spiritual and religious life of a client was
considered either off limits (i.e., not appropriate to discuss as a therapeutic
topic) or irrelevant (i.e., does not exist so no need to explore) to the overall
psychological well-being of a client. Subsequently, mental health practitio-
ners were generally neither trained nor encouraged to look closely at the
spiritual lives of the individuals with whom they worked (Kelly, 1995).
In more recent years, with a move in the field toward wellness models of
human development which include spirituality as a central component of
optimal functioning (Myers & Sweeney, 2005) and with research evidence
that most individuals report holding some spiritual beliefs (Princeton
Religion Research Center, 2000), the field appears to have come out of its
shared denial about the need to take seriously the spiritual aspects of a
clients life. Related to this movement within professional counseling and
other mental health fields toward a more direct acknowledgment of the
spiritual aspect of normal human functioning, is the role that clinical
supervisors may play in assisting counselors-in-training to understand,

respect, and at times effectively utilize clients’ spiritual perspectives as a
component of their healing.
This is no small consideration, given that clinical supervisors, like
every other individual, have their own unique religious and spiritual
history, along with psychological issues that have formed through their
lives. Furthermore, the clinical training and theoretical perspective of
the supervisor goes a long way in influencing how he or she will inter-
pret any religious impulse in a client. These realities warrant a discus-
sion as to the decisions that clinical supervisors will make in relation
to explorations of clients religious ideas and the influence supervisors
will yield when working with supervisees around the spiritual aspects
of clients.
As aforementioned, spirituality as an issue related to clinical supervi-
sion has received a minimal amount of attention in the literature of coun-
seling and other mental health disciplines, and there is to date no clear
consensus as to what is best practice (Bishop, Avila-Juarbe & Thumme,
2003). Therefore, to facilitate this discussion and to bring some order to the
conversation, we have outlined a series of guiding principles related to reli-
gion and spirituality and clinical supervision practice. The principles were
developed from conversations that we have had between us with practicing
clinical supervisors and with other counselor educators. Our hope is that
these principles will assist in clarifying to supervisors how to proceed when
faced with a spiritually or religiously charged client and/or supervisee.
Principle 1: Protect the Unique Spiritual Perspective of the Client

and Recognize That Spirituality Is Highly Individualized
Religion and spirituality are among the most subjective of human experi-
ences, making it difficult to understand using simple concepts or banal
expressions. In fact, when we simply try to define spirituality, we discover
not its limits, but rather our limits in finding language that is adequate
(Kurtz & Ketcham, 1993). It is within this challenging context that clini-
cal supervisors are called upon to support supervisees in recognizing that
each person’s religious history and spiritual experiences, or lack thereof,
are accumulated from a lifetime of stories, practices, and, in many cases,
traumas that work together to inform the person’s beliefs about and expe-
riences of the spiritual realm. By framing the spiritual impulse as a com-
ponent of the personal autobiographical narrative which is filled with
individual projections, repressions, and identifications, the clinical super-
visor can assist the counselor in exploring the psycho-spiritual life of a cli-
ent, thus gaining a nuanced understanding of how the client thinks, feels,
and behaves.
Many counseling students and novice professional counselors express

the fear that they might stumble into a difficult conversation for which
they can provide no clear resolution if they talk with a client about her
or his spiritual life. Counselors-in-training also express the concern that
they might disagree with their client about religion and spiritual matters.
Further, novice practitioners are afraid they might have to confront a cli-
ent about some misinterpretation or distortion that exists in the client’s
thinking about God or religion. To all of these concerns we would state,
“So be it. This is as it should be.” Why would a counselor be willing to
confront clients about other areas of their thinking, feelings or behavior
and not be willing to confront them about a spiritual incongruence? In all
likelihood, this reluctance reveals much more about the supervisee than
about the client.
An integrated multicultural perspective necessarily includes religion as
a fundamental component of the individual uniqueness that shapes people’s
views of themselves and their world (Cashwell, 2009; Fukuyama & Sevig,
1999; Fukuyama, Siahpoush, & Sevig, 2005). Unfortunately, with a few
notable exceptions, religious diversity is rarely at the center of discussions
of multicultural counseling, suggesting a subtle bias among writers in this
area. Yet it is an assumption of ethical practice that counselors “will not
discriminate against a client based on … religion.” (American Counseling
Association, 2005). Given this foundational support of religious diversity
by our professional association, it is incumbent upon clinical supervisors
to ensure that the spiritual and religious perspectives of the clients under
their care are protected.
By modeling for counselors that a client’s spiritual views are both
important and valid, clinical supervisors are shaping counselors-in-train-
ing to think similarly. Often, counselors will celebrate the sexual, racial,
and ethnic uniqueness of clients while offering less fervent support for and
protection of their rights to hold strong religious views, especially if those
views differ from the views of the counselor.
In terms of the practice of clinical supervision, this principle suggests
that it is appropriate for a supervisor to directly address any attempts by a
counselor to influence the religious orientation of a client if the client has
not expressly requested this. Thus, the supervisor watches for evidence that
the counselor either strongly identifies with or reacts against the client’s
spiritual world view, as either extreme may be problematic. As Bernard
and Goodyear (2004) suggest, for counselors to hold a true multicultural
perspective they must possess or have experienced (a) a pluralistic phi-
losophy, (b) cultural knowledge, (c) consciousness raising, (d) experiential
training, (e) contact with minorities, and (f) practicum or internships with
minorities. All of these ideas apply to the spiritual and religious realities
of a client’s life. Therefore, it is incumbent upon the clinical supervisor to

support the client in holding a unique religious or spiritual outlook.
There were a number of reflections from clinical supervisors working in
both academic and clinical settings who we interviewed that are applicable
here. One supervisor said:
For example, what if a client says, “I am depressed because it is God’s
will” and the apparent consequence of that stance is that the client’s
relationships are being damaged? Although I do not believe it is the
will of a Higher Power that anyone be depressed and I expect that
many supervisees might agree, it is not our place to tell this client he
or she is wrong. I might encourage the supervisee to ask the client,
“What gifts has God given you?” to begin to reframe the situation,
provide at least somewhat of a solution-focus, and work with rather
than against the client’s belief system.
Another supervisor was asked how he has encouraged a supervisee work-
ing with a client struggling with a spiritual/religious issue in counseling.
His response reflects the importance he sees in working within the cli-
ent’s worldview:
… I would have them superimpose where they (supervisee) are with
that issue to see if there are any inherent conflicts and how they may
be able to minimize those conflicts. Also, based on their conceptual-
ization of the client, how does that inform how they can help the cli-
ent grow. … that is, I encourage self-exploration for the supervisee,
but also challenge the supervisee to conceptualize the client’s issue
from the client’s perspective.”
Another supervisor, who has worked as a clinical supervisor for over 10
years, attested that the consequences of failing to follow Principle 1 are:
Absolutely horrible. If the client is coming from a spiritual perspec-
tive and the counselor doesn’t get it or understand that, if that is not
their orientation, then they will feel like they are two ships passing
in the night …
Principle 2: Promote Counselor Self-Evaluation of Spiritual/Religious Bias

Counselors-in-training, like all individuals, have a unique religious history
that directly informs their views of religion as a whole and of various reli-
gious views that a client holds. As Polanski (2003) noted, one of the goals
of clinical supervision is to enhance the supervisee’s professional function-
ing, “including personal reflection and values clarification” (p. 131). Several
writers have noted that for a counselor to be effective and ethical while
addressing issues related to religion or spirituality, the counselor must be
aware of his or her own spiritual beliefs (Bishop, Avila-Juarbe, & Thumme,
2003; Polanski, 2003). Through meaningful discussions in the clinical
supervision hour, a counselor may recognize when he or she is reacting
(either positively or negatively) toward a client’s religious impulses. As the
supervisor assists the counselor in gaining clarity about his or her own
reactions, the counselor is in a much better position to respect the client’s
religious perspective and to utilize the client’s beliefs as a component of
treatment when appropriate.
For clinical supervisors, this principle suggests a willingness to directly
engage supervisees in conversations about the counselor’s religious his-
tory, beliefs, and values. This may create anxiety for some supervisors,
yet just as religion is a unique component of a client’s reality, it is equally
true of the supervisee. Anecdotal evidence suggests that clinical supervi-
sors frequently report the challenge of working with the highly religious
supervisees who believe it is their responsibility to convert clients to their
faith. Directly engaging supervisees in discussion about their spiritual
beliefs provides an opportunity to discuss the ethical violation of value
imposition. Similarity, counselors who are suspicious of clients’ religious
commitment can be challenged to open their mind to the reality that
individuals who are religiously committed consistently perform better
on measures of overall physical and psychological well-being (Cashwell,
2005).
One supervisor, speaking about helping supervisees work with clients
with belief systems that are different from their own, emphasized self-
awareness by saying, “How do you bridge that gap? I think they can resolve
that, but the counselor has to have self-awareness.”
Multiple supervisors made statements about the importance of recog-
nizing their boundaries as a supervisor. That is, supporting the supervisee
in examining her or his beliefs is acceptable to a point, particularly when
it is within the context of a particular client with whom the supervisee is
struggling. For example, one supervisor stated:
I would process with supervisees and hopefully help them to recog-
nize that their spiritual views were negatively impacting their ability
to form a significant relationship. Then, I would encourage them to
seek out their own counseling to help them clarify their own values
and some sense of why they believe what they believe.
Conversely, supervisors may mirror a bias held by many supervisees that
spirituality and religion can only be introduced into the counselor or
supervisory process if brought up by the “other” (i.e., client or supervisee).
One supervisor, herself a highly religious person, may have been speaking
to this when she said:
I don’t raise spiritual issues on my own. I am more comfortable if

they are raised by the client. If I notice a client processing religion,
then I encourage the supervisee not to diminish the client’s desire to
discuss religion.
There appear to be two subtle but clear biases in this approach. First,
many hold the bias that it is not possible to introduce topics of spiri-
tuality or religion in supervision or counseling without imposing per-
sonal values. If the invitations are culturally sensitive, however, it is
quite possible to create a milieu in which spirituality and religion can
be discussed openly and honestly, in a way such that personal values
and beliefs of each person in the relationship are valued, particularly
where they diverge. This may provide important modeling for the
supervisee. A second bias inherent in the supervisor statement above
is that spirituality and religion only have a “place” in the counseling
process if the topic is initiated by the client. This goes beyond the first
bias, however, by assuming that spirituality and religion only have a
place in the therapeutic milieu as manifest content of the client’s story.
That is, only if the client is overtly talking about his or her religious and
spiritual life should this be incorporated into the therapeutic context.
Although this is clearly one instance where religion and spirituality
might (and in this case, probably should) be included, there are others
as well. For example:
• Latent content within the client’s story (e.g., client’s presentation
has underlying existential issues of meaning and purpose);
• Spiritual practice as adjunct to counseling (e.g., a client might be
encouraged to begin a contemplative practice, such as meditation or
centering prayer, that is consistent with his or her belief system);
• The possibility of using psycho-spiritual interventions, such as
guided meditations or focusing (Gendlin, 1982; Hinterkopf, 1998),
that are consistent with the client’s belief system;
• The personhood of the counselor (e.g., discussing how the spiri-
tual beliefs and practices of the supervisee support his or her work
as a counselor and how to “recharge” after a difficult session to
prepare for the next client); and
• The counseling room as sacred space (e.g., as a counselor, how to
create a physical space and an internal space that will best support
the client’s healing work).
Principle 3: Encourage Supervisees to Assess Clients’ Spiritual

Lives and Any Relationship to Their Presenting Issues
Miller (1999) published a set of competencies developed by members of
the Association for Spiritual, Ethical, and Religious Values in Counseling
(ASERVIC) designed to guide counselors in effectively working with spiritual

and religious issues in counseling. One of the competencies states, “Counselors
can assess the relevance of spiritual and religious issues to the client’s coun-
seling concerns.” In the context of clinical supervision, supervisees may need
assistance in appropriately exploring the role of religion and spirituality in
the client’s life and how these may relate to presenting concerns.
In some instances, a supervisee might ask questions of a supervisor
about the integration of spirituality and religion into counseling work.
This provides an opportunity for an in-depth discussion of this integra-
tion and affords the supervisor an at least somewhat “open window” for
learning about the supervisee’s perspectives on religion and spirituality,
as well as learning about how the supervisee might think initially about
integrating spirituality and religion into his or her work as a counselor.
In our experience, though, these instances are rare and often are pref-
aced with “Well, I know you are interested in spirituality, so I want to ask
you about …” That is, in many cases, supervisees may only introduce the
topic if/when they know you as a supervisor are open and interested in the
topic. In the majority of cases, though, it is left up to the supervisor to open
this avenue of dialogue.
A supervisee’s perspectives on spirituality and religion, and the role of
spirituality and religion within the counseling process, can and, we believe,
should be assessed in initial supervision sessions. As a supervisor begins to
assess the developmental level, theoretical orientation, ego-strength, and
interpersonal style of a supervisee, assessment of the spiritual and reli-
gious domain can begin as well. We recommend a series of simple ques-
tions, offered with the same neutrality with which you assess other aspects
of the supervisee. This is not considered a rigid protocol of assessment. The
use of subsequent questions depends, to some extent, on the openness of
the supervisee to explore the spiritual and religious dimension.
1. How has your theoretical orientation evolved out of your personal
and professional experiences?
2. How do you think about the role of clients’ religious and spiritual
lives in their presentation to you as a counselor?
3. How have your own spiritual and religious experiences influenced
your perspectives?
4. How do you think you will assess client religiosity and spirituality?
5. How might you work with what you learn from this assessment of
client spirituality?
Initially, these questions are intended to give you some initial perspec-
tive on the supervisees’ personal experiences with religion and spiri-
tuality, how these experiences impact their perspectives on integrating
spirituality and religion in the counseling process, and how you might
begin to explore specific topics and issues further.
One supervisor, who described himself as a spiritually sensitive coun-
selor, discussed the often found paradox in the supervisory triad and how
this impacts his work with supervisees:
Well, first of all, a supervisee has to have openness to discussing
issues of religion and spirituality before he or she can do a good job
of assessment. What I mean by this is that I can give a supervisee
a set of assessment questions or hand [him or her] an assessment
instrument with directions to administer it in the next session. If the
supervisee does not buy into this as important, however, [his or her]
use of the tool I give them is likely to be so mechanistic that it will
not be effective and might, in fact, harm the therapeutic relation-
ship. So, it creates quite a paradox for me as a supervisor when I see
a supervisee who is hostile or resistant toward religion and spiritual-
ity working with a client where religion and spirituality seem to be
important.
From this statement, it seems imperative that there first be a commitment
from the supervisee that client religious and spiritual issues are important
and need to be assessed further. Even when there is supervisee commit-
ment, supervisees may be unfamiliar with how to conduct such an assess-
ment and need specific direction. A host of quantitative and qualitative
assessment recommendations are available in Harper and Gill (2005). One
specific assessment that can be introduced in individual, triadic, or group
supervision is discussed here. Kelly (1995) provided a conceptual context
for assessing religion and spirituality. It is based on two primary dimen-
sions; that of personal significance and problem/issue relevance. That is,
the assessment is based on the personal importance of religion and spiri-
tuality and the extent to which spirituality and/or religion are related to
either the exacerbation or amelioration of the problem. Kelly originally
described this nomenclature as a way to assess clients, with direct implica-
tions for clinical work. In using this approach in supervision, provide the
supervisee with the following handout*:
Assessing Client Spirituality and Religion
Adapted from Kelly (1995)
* Adapted from Kelly, E. (1995). Spirituality and religion in counseling and psychother-
apy: Diversity in theory and practice (pp. 136–142). Alexandria, Virginia: American
Counseling Association.
1. Religiously committed clients—clients who have a personal con-

viction regarding their personal religious beliefs. Because these
beliefs are internalized and conscious, they typically are a source
of significant influence on attitude, thoughts, and behaviors.
Because of the salience of these beliefs, this client likely will be
willing to discuss and examine their beliefs and how these beliefs
influence his or her presenting issues.
2. Religiously loyal clients—clients for whom the cultural aspects of
religion, as part of familial and ethnic loyalties, is most salient.
Often, traditions and rituals provide norms for beliefs, prac-
tices, attitudes, and values. These beliefs, however, are primar-
ily extrinsic and do not necessarily form the value base of the
individual. Such a client may need to discuss the culturally and
socially oriented behaviors of his or her religion and also con-
sider where her or her personal beliefs, values, and behaviors dif-
fer from these.
3. Spiritually committed clients—clients who have a strong sense
of their personal spirituality while not affiliated with organized
religion. There is a strong sense of something beyond the self, of
connectedness and openness. Such a client typically is open to
exploring personal beliefs and values and how these are related
to presenting issues and may, in fact, introduce these topics in the
counseling process.
4. Spiritually/religiously open clients—clients who do not have a spir-
itual or religious commitment or a loyalty to a determined reli-
gion, yet are open to exploring the spiritual/religious dimensions
in looking at their presenting issues and their development and
growth. Such clients are not apt to introduce spirituality/religion
within a counseling session, but if exposed to these ideas within a
non-proselytizing approach, they are likely to explore these issues.
5. Externally religious clients—clients who participate in organized
religion, but for whom the beliefs and attachments of that religion
carry little or no inner conviction related to their religious loy-
alty or religious commitment. For such a client, the integration of
spirituality/religion often has little or no benefit.
6. Spiritually/religiously tolerant or indifferent clients—clients who
are open generally to spirituality/religion and to the specific spiri-
tuality/religion of others, but who are personally indifferent. For
such clients, the introduction of spirituality/religion is not war-
ranted and may, in fact, be ethically problematic.
7. Nonspiritual/nonreligious clients—clients who consider spiritu-
ality/religion, both conceptually and personally, as unreal and
unnecessary, if not harmful to understanding reality. To introduce
spirituality/religion into the counseling process with such clients

may be harmful and unethical.
8. Religiously hostile clients—clients who are personally unreligious
and conceptually hostile, in attitude and action, to religions,
religious groups, and the influence of religion in society. Often,
further assessment of the source of the hostility is warranted, but
intended only to clarify the client’s perspective to support work on
emotional and behavioral challenges while respecting the client’s
hostility to religion.
After explaining this typology and discussing the general concepts, the
supervisor can facilitate a discussion about the types of clients that might
be most challenging to the supervisee and why. One point of emphasis
within the model is the likelihood that a client within a particular category
will be open to exploration of his or her spirituality/religion and the role it
plays in the exacerbation or amelioration of the problem. In our experience,
these may naturally lead to supervisees exploring where they fit within this
typology. In other cases, however, after discussing clients within this con-
text, the supervisor might encourage the supervisee to consider herself or
himself within this model, using process questions such as:
1. Where do you fit within Kelly’s typology?
2. What are the implications of this for your work as a counselor?
3. Given where you fit within this model, what types of clients might
be most challenging for you to work with?
Principle 4: Be Prepared to Educate Supervisees About

Models of Spiritual/Religious Development
There are a number of developmental models of spirituality. A full discus-
sion of these models is beyond the scope of this chapter (for additional
information on developmental models, see Allport, 1950; Fowler, 1981,
1991; Frame, 2002; Genia, 1995; Washburn, 2003; and Worthington, 1989).
The constant among these is that a person’s relationship with spirituality
and religion is both personal and developmental. Further, developmental
models provide a context for understanding differing perspectives with-
out “pathologizing.” That is, the spiritual and religious life is a develop-
mental construct that can evolve as the client’s thinking and experience
evolve. Within this context, counseling is an ideal venue for developmental
growth to occur. For our purposes, here, we offer a generic developmental
model of spiritual and religious development that can be used to concep-
tualize clients and supervisees.
Level 1 (literal and concrete). A Level 1 client or supervisee simply wants
to know what the rules are and to know the consequences of following or
disobeying the rules. That is, beliefs tend to be externalized and adherence
to the “rules” tends to be rigid. It is at this level that belief systems might
be considered dogmatic. Because beliefs tend to be rigid and character-
ized as “black or white”, there is little tolerance for differing beliefs or the
people who hold them. As such, Level 1 clients hold expectations that their
counselor will work within their belief system and will not make efforts to
challenge or change these beliefs (Belaire, Young, & Elder, 2005). By the
same token, a Level 1 supervisee will not expect the supervisor … .
Level 2 (rebellion and questioning). The Level 2 client or supervisee is
in a psychological space of either rebelling against earlier religious and
spiritual teachings and practices or is in a questioning phase. The key char-
acteristic of this developmental level is that the client is “unpacking” early
learning and examining it more closely. This may take highly disparate
forms, however. For some clients, this can take the form of exploration
of different wisdom tradition and often is a time of great openness to dif-
ferent spiritual/religious beliefs, practices, and experiences. Such a client
likely would be highly open to the integration of spirituality and religion
into the counseling process, as long as the approach was not exclusivist in
nature. For others, however, it can be a period of angry rebellion. Using the
typology of Kelly (1995) previously discussed, such clients might fit into
the category of “religiously hostile.” In such cases, it might be necessary
for the counselor to introduce the construct of spirituality as a distinct
construct from religion and be mindful of the fact that the client might
not be making the distinction, leading him or her to be hostile toward
both religion and spirituality. In such cases, the counselor is well-advised
to explore without judgment the client’s life experiences with religion and
spirituality. In most cases, however the integration of spirituality and reli-
gion is contraindicated and the supervisee should be discouraged from
working within a religious and spiritual framework with the client.
Level 3 (seeking). A Level 3 client is clear about some aspects of his or
her religious and spiritual life, but not others. Unlike the level one client,
the Level 3 client does not feel the need to proselytize beliefs. Commonly,
there is an “innerness” to these beliefs that helps the client feel comfortable
with these beliefs and not need to proselytize that others “should” believe
this way. At the same time, there remains a seeking around certain reli-
gious or spiritual beliefs and practices. The integration of spirituality and
religion into counseling with level three clients is quite natural and typi-
cally requires only the slightest initiative on the part of the counselor. A
constructivist framework, although useful with clients at all levels, is par-
ticularly effective here as Level 3 clients typically want someone to support
them in their exploration and seeking. Often, a Level 3 client will introduce
topics of spirituality and religion in discussing personal struggles. With
such clients, the supervisee might be encouraged to adopt a nondirective
approach to facilitate client exploration.
Level 4 (peace). The Level 4 client has gone through the developmental
process of internalizing religious and spiritual beliefs. While there may be
clarity about beliefs and practices, it is not a dogmatic belief and this client
is, by definition, comfortable with people who hold differing beliefs. For
this client, counseling might focus on how best to use the belief systems
and practices. A supervisee working with a Level 4 client might be encour-
aged, for example, to process with the client how religion and spirituality
can be a source of healing related to presenting issues.
Although the focus in explicating the above model is on clients, it is
important to recognize also that supervisors and supervisees can be con-
ceptualized within the same model and that this has implications for the
supervisory process. For example, one of us, who would characterize him-
self as a Level 3 supervisor who champions an appreciation for divergent
belief systems, was supervising a Level 2 supervisee who was rebelling
against organized religion and was religiously hostile. At the same time,
this supervisee professed a desire to work within a pluralist framework
and respect the client’s belief systems. When working with highly religious
clients, however, his disdain, though not overt, was clear to me as a super-
visor and probably to clients as well. This played out differently depend-
ing on the developmental level of the client. For example, Level 1 clients
would often get argumentative and “resistant.” In these instances, a Level 3
supervisor was working with a Level 2 supervisee who was working with a
Level 1 client. Although a thorough discussion of this supervisory process
is beyond the scope of this chapter, it is important to consider the develop-
mental level of all parties involved (supervisor, supervisee, and client) in
considering how best to support the supervisee in working with a particu-
lar client. Such a conceptualization of development level across supervisor,
supervisee, and client can facilitate appropriate and ethical integration of
spirituality and religion into the supervision process.
One supervisor highlighted how developmental level impacts the cli-
ent’s experiences of religion and spirituality and how this impacts the
supervisory process:
… I think of a person who is high in cognitive development. If you
look at the models and theories of development, people at low levels
of cognitive development have no clue about … [the spiritual life].
They want to know what the rules are and want to be sure they live by
the rules. As a supervisor, I might recognize that, but I cannot impose
that on the client nor should I encourage the supervisee to impose
that on the client. I’m not sure [the counselor] would even talk about
spirituality. The [counselor] would be talking about religion.
Principle 5: Consider the Client’s Psycho-Spiritual Viewpoint as

Potentially Part of the Problem and/or Part of the Solution
A client’s spiritual beliefs can be psychologically stabilizing or destabiliz-
ing. This should not be surprising to anyone who has much counseling
experience. Clients come to counseling because of the emotional, behav-
ioral, and cognitive incongruence with which they are struggling and reli-
gion and spirituality are one aspect of this experience. If clients believe
something about their lives based on a religious presupposition, and this
belief is causing anxiety, then it is a psychological phenomenon open for
discussion in counseling. Supervisees need assurance that their job is not
to fix or resolve the religious struggles of a client but rather to help the cli-
ent explore these struggles.
Exploration of client belief systems in counseling is, in part, a func-
tion of the previously described developmental level of the client. That is,
there are some clients who are so firmly entrenched in their personal belief
system that they will become psychologically reactive to any exploration
of these belief systems. One function of the supervisor is to help the super-
visee consider if and when to introduce an exploration of client beliefs into
the counseling process.
If, however, it seems appropriate to support the client in exploring spiri-
tual and religious belief systems, the following questions can be used to
explore aspects of the belief system that are helpful and those that are hin-
dering. Does the belief … :
• Build bridges or barriers between people?
• Strengthen or weaken a basic trust/relatedness to the universe?
• Stimulate or hamper the growth of inner freedom and personal
responsibility?
• Provide effective or faulty means of helping move from guilt
to forgiveness?
• Increase or hamper enjoyment?
• Encourage acceptance or denial of reality?
• Strengthen or weaken self-esteem?
It bears emphasizing here that the principle highlights that a client’s psy-
cho-spiritual perspectives should be conceived as potentially part of the
problem and/or solution. That is, the psycho-spiritual should be integrated
within the holistic framework of the person and should not be considered
solely as either the problem or the solution. One supervisor captured this
when he stated that:
I think that it is a challenge if I have someone who believes that all
issues can be solved spiritually, through prayer, meditation, or read-
ing spiritual things. It takes looking at biochemistry, behavior, at the
psychology of what is going on, as well as looking at the spiritual

part of things. I will challenge supervisees if they think all issues
can be solved with spirituality, because if they are operating in that
kind of context, then maybe they need to be a pastor versus being a
counselor.
Principle 6: Encourage the Supervisee to Seek Specialized Consultation

It is common for supervisees to present clients in supervision who come
from a faith tradition different from either the supervisee or supervisor or
have unique needs relative to spiritual development that extend beyond the
scope of competence for either the supervisee or the supervisor. In these
instances, it is important to encourage the supervisee to get outside con-
sultation and/or focused study. Faiver, O’Brien, and McNally (1998) coined
the term friendly clergy to delineate clergy members who have unique
authority in churches, temples, or mosques, but who also have training in
pastoral care and are cognizant of the interplay between mental health and
religion/spirituality. Such members of the clergy are nonjudgmental, car-
ing, and open to the psychotherapeutic process. They may prove invaluable
as consultants to supervisees and, in some instances, may also serve as a
referral source when the needs of the client cross the boundary from spiri-
tually sensitive counseling to spiritual counseling. One supervisor spoke
very clearly to this principle in saying:
I would have them go and speak to their … religious leader and
address those issues and encourage them to ask the person they are
talking to if they would give them other things to read and explore to
resolve some of the issues.
Principle 7: Allow the Supervisee to Struggle

When clients bring religious and spiritual issues to counseling, and partic-
ularly when these issues confront a supervisee with his or her own struggles
and development, there often is an internal struggle on the supervisee’s
part. For example, supervisees may present in supervision with some vari-
ant of “I believe in diversity, but how can I support a client whose funda-
mentalist beliefs seem so rigid and dogmatic?” The “easy road” here would
be for the supervisor to simply explain spirituality/religion within a devel-
opmental context and direct the supervisee. This becomes an example of
parallel process. The supervisee is not clear about how to support the client
in his or her struggle, and likewise, the supervisor attempts to take away
the supervisee’s struggle by being didactic and directive.
What the supervisee really needs in these instances, though, is a model
and a mirror. The supervisee will benefit from the experience of sitting
with a live model of what it means to stay within someone amidst their
struggle. By modeling this for the supervisee, he or she will become more
conscious of not taking the clients struggle away and, in fact, may see how
helpful it is to heighten the struggle to help the client gain emotional and
cognitive insight. Depending on the developmental level of the client, this
might take the form of:
• Reflecting content, feelings, and meaning to help the client see his
or her perspective more clearly
• Offering contrasting perspectives
• Helping the client to examine and own his or her beliefs
• Challenging the client to think about his or her beliefs in sophis-
ticated and critical ways
• Helping the client differentiate the relationship with a Higher
Power from a relationship to an institution
• Challenging the client when religious belief is used as an excuse
not to take responsibility for his or her life
• Supporting the client in drawing love, encouragement, accep-
tance, and support from the God of his or her understanding
• Supporting the client in feeling valued and prized by the God of
his or her understanding
• Supporting the client in feelings of assurance and peace that God
is working in his or her life
• Supporting the client in knowing he or she cannot earn God’s favor
• Supporting the client in accepting that he or she is not perfect
• Supporting the client in knowing that he or she is a work in prog-
ress and that the relationship with God changes over time
One supervisor captured this principal eloquently when she said:
… When my supervisee[s] struggle, I try and be supportive of them
and let them struggle. Just like with clients, you can’t expect growth
without first making a mess. Nobody gets to puberty without going
through an awkward stage first, and I think that is true of any kind of
change or development … you can’t do the other [principles] without
having the perspective that your supervisee will struggle. If you try
and protect your supervisee just like you try to protect your client,
none of these things will happen … if supervisees haven’t spent time
thinking about how spirituality and religion have a bearing on this
existence, then you are dead in the water, I think.
Questions for Consideration in Supervision

Often, supervisors work with supervisees who are providing services to a
client who is highly religiously or spiritually oriented, or who holds a belief
system that is quite different from the supervisees. If the supervisor does
not encourage the supervisee to discuss these issues, this may become an
unspoken aspect of the counseling and supervision relationships. To sup-
port an initial conversation in supervision about these issues, the follow-
ing questions may reveal potential issues that will impact the counseling
or supervision process.
1. Does the supervisee feel open and accepting of this client?
2. Can the supervisee allow him or herself to experience positive
attitudes toward this client?
3. What are the supervisee’s opinions and biases with regard to this
client’s religious or spiritual belief?
4. Does the supervisee harbor a desire to change the client’s religious
beliefs, practices, or thinking?
5. Can the supervisee identify an impulse within him or herself to
argue with or persuade the client into or out of a religious or spiri-
tual perspective?
6. How might the supervisee’s personal spiritual/religious history
impact his or her ability to extend a nonpossessive love toward
this client?
7. What would facilitate the supervisee in increasing his or her com-
passion for this client?
8. Is the supervisee very different from the client in his or her funda-
mental approach to life?
Conclusion
Means for effectively addressing spiritual and religious concerns that arise
within the counseling process have received widespread discussion in the
professional literature of recent years. The results of recent survey research
indicate there is a predilection among counselors and counselor educa-
tors to competently support the spiritual development of a client when
the individual is so inclined. Although there is some agreement that such
issues are important to consider as a component of counseling, how to do
so remains less clear. For counselors-in-training and novice practitioners
to build their clinical self-efficacy with these issues, effective supervision
must both support and challenge supervisees as they work with spiritual
domains of clients’ lives. We have focused in this chapter on the key prin-
ciples we believe necessary to maximize the effectiveness of supervision
with regard to these issues. Needless to say, the conversation will continue,
however at the least, careful reflection on these guidelines will support
supervisors in assisting the counselors and clients under their care.
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Chapter 8
The Transtheoretical Model of
Change in Clinical Supervision
John R. Culbreth and Charles F. Gressard
We start as new counselors, ready to help all those individuals and fami-
lies that come into our office. We are trained, supervised, graduated, and
ready to go. However, the beginning of our counseling careers are often
not so easy during those first steps. Take, for example, a new counselor
who has been working out of a cognitive behavioral framework since grad-
uate school. This framework will probably work with many clients, but,
chances are, the counselor will begin seeing the limitation of this frame-
work when confronted with other types of clients. Seeing this limitation,
the counselor may continue trying to assimilate all of his or her clients
into the cognitive developmental framework, or, after experiencing a feel-
ing of disequilibrium after failing in this effort, may have to accommodate
and expand his or her skill repertoire as well as perception that all clients
can be effectively helped from a cognitive behavioral framework. Now
this counselor has come to a significant point in his or her professional
development. He or she can hold fast with what he or she believes about
the adopted theoretical orientation, or consider moving into uncharted
theoretical territory that may appear dangerous and confusing. After
finally gaining some level of confidence and settling in to his or her work,
this new counselor is being challenged with moving in a different direc-
tion that is unknown. One way to take care of this is to staff the situation
with the supervisor. Surely, he or she will be able to provide guidance and
direction on this issue.
173
As practicing counselors, we tend to use the skill sets we have and try
to work with client issues within these skill sets until we realize that the
skill set we possess may be inadequate to many of the client issues that
we are encountering. When we experience the discomfort of the disequi-
librium that goes along with that experience, we then accommodate and
begin learning new skill sets. One of the primary vehicles for this accom-
modation is through clinical supervision. Thus, it is the clinical supervi-
sor’s function to promote the concept of on-going change in supervisees.
Similar to what we often tell our clients, change represents growth.
Whether supervisors are looking at an increase in skill levels, counselor
development, the ability it develops in counseling relationships, or cogni-
tive development, what seems consistent is that counselors need to change
in some way in order to increase their efficacy. This seems most evident
when looking at developmental stage models, in learning to build relation-
ships, increasing cognitive complexity, learning new skills. Most supervi-
sors and counselor educators can relate stories about how their supervisees
needed to make a cognitive shift, or change their thinking, before they
could really understand or apply the skills they were working on. No mat-
ter what the goal of supervision, it is important that supervisors be able to
see that success in supervision can almost always be defined by the extent
to which the supervisee makes changes in his or her behaviors.
So what do we know about how humans change? There are several basic
models that can help us understand how change occurs and how we can
facilitate that process. One of the most obvious places to look for models of
change is the realm of human development theories. For example, one of
the concepts that can be applied to the process of counselor development,
particularly skill development, is Piaget’s (1955) processes of assimilation
and accommodation. Although Piaget applied his concept to childhood,
they can be applied to adult learners as well. In Piaget’s model, we develop
schemas or constructs of how to perceive the world, and as long as the
schemas construct our perception of the world in a way that allows us to
understand the world, function effectively, and get our needs met, there
is little need for us to change the schemas. And, as long as we maintain
our schemas or constructs, we assimilate information from our environ-
ment into our schemas. In other words there is no need to change how we
view the world. If, however, we find that our schemas are not working well
for us, and there is information coming in that is incongruent with the
schemas, we face a state of disequilibrium that may force us to change our
schemas or, in Piaget’s terms, accommodate to what our environment is
requiring of us. Note that our cognitive process is such that we probably
aren’t going to change our schemas or constructs unless the environment
or circumstances require it. According to Piaget, we change schemas when
we need to. So, from the perspective of Piaget’s concepts of assimilation,
The Transtheoretical Model of Change in Clinical Supervision • 175
accommodation, and disequilibrium, it is not difficult to see the process

of counselor skill development as a change process that fits well with the
transtheoretical model of change.
As is evident in the above example, it is important to understand that human
growth and development is a change process, and that counselor growth and
development can easily be conceptualized in the same way. It follows, then,
that if counselor development is in fact a process of making changes, then the
transtheoretical model of change (Prochaska, DiClemente, & Norcross, 1992;
Prochaska & Norcross, 2001) is probably an important tool for understand-
ing how supervision can be used to help counselors become more effective
practitioners and how. In this chapter we will review the original transtheo-
retical model of change, provide an overview of counselor supervision using
the discrimination model (J. Bernard, 1997) and the integrated development
model (Stoltenberg, McNeill, & Delworth, 1998), and then apply the tran-
stheoretical model to the clinical supervision environment.
The Transtheoretical Model

Contrary to the simplified view of this model, that there is a simple, 5 stage
process of change that individuals go through in therapy, there are, in fact,
three overriding constructs that define the transtheoretical perspective of
change in individuals according to Prochaska and Norcross (2003). In an
effort to examine commonalities across psychological theories, Prochaska
and DiClemente determined that there was a common set of processes that
people use as they change, either on their own or with the help of a thera-
pist. Also, these change processes occur within a set of change stages, or
steps, toward change or elimination of unwanted behaviors. Finally, work-
ing through stages and processes of change is effective in managing single
problems, however, Prochaska and DiClemente proposed that there are
different levels of change that an individual can address. In other words,
each level of change speaks to the depth of change in the person that can
be made. Each of these constructs will be briefly discussed as a background
for adapting this model to the clinical supervision environment.
Change Processes
To begin discussing the change process, Prochaska et al. (1992) developed a
concise grouping of five primary change processes. Each of these processes
involves both an individual experiential level of change and an environmen-
tal level of change. Joseph, Breslin, and Skinner (1999) provide an excellent
overview of the transtheoretical model components, which we will use as
the basis of our discussion of the change processes.
Joseph, Breslin, and Skinner describe consciousness raising as an effort
to increase a client’s awareness of an issue, and has been a fundamental
tenet of change throughout the history of therapeutic intervention. Freud

referred to this as making the unconscious conscious. Feedback is an expe-
riential, or internal, form of consciousness raising that originates from the
individual’s own behavior or experience. Education, on the other hand, is a
form of consciousness raising that comes from a source external to the cli-
ent. Whether internally or externally generated, consciousness raising is an
effort to help the client “see” information that may result in a change in his
or her behaviors, affect, or interrelationship patterns (Joseph et al., 1999).
As a process of change, catharsis, typically takes the form of some sort
of corrective emotional experience. In essence, this is the purging of nega-
tive emotional states through an intense emotional reaction. Often these
emotional reactions have been contained or bottled up and not allowed
to surface. These perceived negative feelings seek some form of release,
often through alternative means such as somatic symptoms, inappropri-
ate or unhealthy relationship patterns, or other negative and unfulfilling
behaviors or feelings. Once clients experience the release of the original
emotional states, these negative by-products tend to dissipate. A second
aspect of catharsis comes from an interaction in the environment, called
dramatic relief. When clients have some type of experience where they
witness dramatic recreations of events that may be similar to their own
lives, this can result in an emotional catharsis. Many times this occurrence
is not a planned event, but can used in a therapeutic capacity by clients and
therapists (Joseph et al., 1999).
Choice, or free will, is another significant aspect of the change process.
When clients become more aware of the choices that they have available,
they make choices based on all the information provided or acquired, and
they understand and accept the anxiety associated with the responsibility
of choosing, then this is referred to as self-liberation. Self-liberation is the
experiential form of choosing. Social liberation is when more alternatives
become available to clients as a result of changes in the external world.
These options are often the result of social changes, or adjustments by soci-
ety, and usually come about through the work of social justice advocates
(Joseph et al., 1999).
Two forms of conditional stimuli can be involved in the change pro-
cess. The first, an experiential form, is called counterconditioning.
Counterconditioning is when clients modify or change the way that they
respond to stimuli in the environment. The environmental, or external,
form of managing stimuli is called stimulus control. This is where clients
change or modify the environment to reduce the likelihood of the stimu-
lus occurring, thus reducing the occurrence of negative responses to the
stimuli (Joseph et al., 1999).
On the opposite side of conditioning is contingency control, or manag-
ing the consequences of behaviors. Behaviors, emotions, and cognitions
are impacted by the consequences that they produce. From an experien-

tial perspective, changing how clients respond to consequences is called
re-evaluation. Promoting this behavior provides clients with greater feel-
ings of self-efficacy when they realize that they are no longer governed by
unwarranted negative feeling states such as guilt, shame, and inadequacy.
When clients change the environmental sources of consequences, they are
practicing contingency management. Again, this behavior also promotes
client self-efficacy (Joseph et al., 1999).
Stages of Change
In an effort to better understand the processes of change, that is, how cli-
ents utilize these processes in therapy, five stages to the change process
have been developed (Prochaska et al., 1992; Prochaska & Norcross, 2001).
Each stage represents a point along a continuum of therapeutic movement
for clients. One of the main advantages of this stage model has been an
adjustment to how clinicians view client denial and resistance.
When considering clients through this lens of change, denial and resis-
tance are viewed as normal behavior that is expected at certain points, espe-
cially the first stage, precontemplation (Connors, Donovan, & DiClemente,
2001). This stage is characterized by the client’s lack of awareness that there
is a problem that needs to be changed. Many clients present for treatment at
this stage as a result of pressure for significant family members or friends.
Precontemplation clients are often trying to appease these individuals and
their concerns. Many times these clients are defensive, resistant to sug-
gestions that their chemical use creates problems in their lives, passive in
treatment, and often avoiding changes in behavior.
Once clients begin to consider changing their behavior, they are con-
sidered to be in the contemplation stage (Connors et al., 2001). This stage
marks a significant shift in the thought process of clients. They have begun
to honestly examine their usage and are considering making changes.
These clients have begun a process of examining the pluses and minuses
of their continued use versus discontinuing their use behavior. They may
be distressed, trying to understand their behavior, and making attempts
to gain control of their behavior. There also may have been unsuccessful
attempts to control their use behavior in the past. Different from clients
in precontemplation, these clients have the ability to see the possibility of
their lives without chemical use. They may not know how to achieve this
yet, but it is a possibility in their worldview.
Following the contemplation stage is the preparation stage (Connors et
al., 2001). This stage is characterized by a commitment to the change pro-
cess. These clients have learned important lessons from earlier attempts to
change their behavior. These clients also have much less ambiguity about
making this significant change. They are typically able to see the outcome
they desire, understand that they are capable of achieving their goals, and
begin to feel comfortable that they can learn additional skills if necessary.
Indicative of their attitudinal change, these clients are engaged in the change
process and have a strong intent to follow through on their commitment
to change. Preparation stage clients also tend to have more environmental
and self reevaluation behaviors, and more self-liberation, countercondi-
tioning, and reinforcement management thoughts and attitudes.
The action stage begins when clients overtly change their behaviors and
their environment in order to address their chosen issues (Connors et al.,
2001). This stage is a behavioral manifestation of their commitment to the
change process. Clients at this stage may be excited, nervous, and may expe-
rience a wide range of emotions dependent upon their successes and their
failures in changing. Regardless of outcome, it is important that the client
remain focused on moving forward and not fall back into absolute think-
ing patterns and consider one setback a reason for discontinuing change.
Action stage clients are also more willing to follow suggestions from clini-
cians, including developing strategies and creating activities that support
their change efforts. A significant risk at this stage is the possibility of cli-
ents determining that they are finished with treatment and ready to move
on. Typically, this decision is premature and clients should be dissuaded
from this action. Action stage clients are still too new to their changed
behaviors and need a longer period of time to move into the next stage.
After a period of time in the action stage, clients will begin to consider
themselves in a maintenance phase or stage (Connors et al., 2001). This
stage is a result of successful efforts to change, and is characterized by cli-
ents working to sustain these changes and adapt strategies for new situa-
tions and events in their lives as they move forward. A significant focus
during this stage is anxiety concerning relapse or slipping back to old
behaviors. There may be anxiety associated with various life situations,
people, and environments that are cause for concern and increase the risk
of relapse. Clients in the maintenance stage will continue to experience
temptations to revert to their old behaviors; however, the frequency of
these will decrease. Overall, this stage is marked by the clients’ efforts to
continue doing what works, identifying risks and threats to their changes,
and working toward becoming comfortable with new behaviors.
Levels of Change
The aforementioned processes and stages of change work on problems at
five different levels of human functioning (Joseph et al., 1999). The first,
and most common level of change is that of symptom relief or situational
problems. This level is usually focused on a single, clearly defined problem.
The second level of change addresses maladaptive cognitions that may cre-
ate or exacerbate symptoms or situational issues. Current interpersonal
problems, the third level of change, is an examination of clients’ interac-

tions with others in their environment. This type of change takes a more
systemic view, similar to the fourth level of change, which focuses on fam-
ily systems conflicts. The final level of change is intrapersonal conflicts or
working on change within the individual.
These five levels of change are not considered separate from each other.
There are often strong connections between the levels in clients, with
changes made at one level resulting in changes at other levels. Also, these
levels represent a hierarchy of change depth, which may translate to longer
periods of time needed to successfully make the change based on the level
of change needed, as well as signifying the possibility of greater resistance
with deeper levels of change (Joseph et al., 1999).
Supervision as a Change Process Examining the transtheoretical model of

change brings up the question as to what we are looking to accomplish in
supervision. In order to apply the transtheoretical model to supervision, it
is helpful if we take a look at supervision as a change process. In order to
accomplish this task we need to first examine how we define supervision.
One of the most popular definitions is provided by Bernard and Goodyear
(2004), who define supervision as:
An intervention provided by a more senior member of a profession
to more junior member or members of that same profession. This
relationship is evaluative, extends over time, and has the simultane-
ous purposes of enhancing the professional functioning of the more
junior person(s), monitoring the quality of professional services
offered to the client, she, he, or they see, and serving as a gatekeeper
of those who are to enter the particular profession. (p. 8)
We can see in this definition that the goal of supervision is to enhance pro-
fessional functioning, monitor service delivery, and perform professional
gatekeeping. In order to accomplish these tasks it is implied in this defi-
nition that the supervisee must change in order grow professionally, that
the supervisee must make changes if the quality of professional services
offered to the client is insufficient, and that the supervisee must change
or leave the profession if the supervisor does not feel that the supervisee is
able to meet the personal and/or professional standards of the gatekeeping
supervisor. For all of these goals, it is easy to understand, then, that both
the supervisee and the supervisor must be able to work with the process of
change. From another point of view, it could be said that there would be no
point of even engaging in supervision if either or both of the participants
was not committed to engaging in a change process. From this perspective,
then, the process of supervision is equivalent to a process of change.
In order to take a look at how the practice of supervision is consistent

with a process of change, we can take a look at two prominent supervision
models and how the process of change is implied in these models. By tak-
ing a look at how important the process of change is to these models, we
can begin to see the applicability of the transtheoretical model to supervi-
sion, and we will also set the stage for integrating the concepts from these
models into a transtheoretical Model of supervision.
There are several models of supervision that have implied the view of
supervision as a change process. The most obvious one is Stoltenberg,
McNeill, and Delworth’s (1998) integrated development model (IDM).
This well known model of supervision and counselor development includes
three levels: Level 1 is the beginning level in which counselors are anxious
and self conscious, dependent on the supervisor, unsure of their skills, and
are focused on finding the right answer for the issues they face as a coun-
selor. Level II counselors fluctuate between the dependence of the Level I
counseling and a new-found autonomy; they may get discouraged by their
inability to have answers for all their clients, and they can express their
desire for autonomy by being rebellious with their supervisor. Level II
counselors are often described as being in the adolescence of their profes-
sional development. Level III counselors are more confident in their abili-
ties, are more flexible in their counseling approaches, are more mature and
consistent in their motivation and their ability to focus on the client rather
than themselves, and engage in more collaborative and collegial type of
supervision. The transtheoretical model can easily be applied to the IDM
by viewing the movement from one level to another as a process in which
counselors progress through the stages of change in order to move to the
next level. Although the process is probably not quite that simple, it is easy
to conceptualize how stages of change can fit within one of the more popu-
lar supervision models.
The other model is Bernard’s (1997) discrimination model. Although
Bernard does not use developmental stages to define supervision as a pro-
cess of change, she outlines three counseling skill areas in which growth
takes place; (interventions skills, conceptualization skills, and personal-
ization skills) and defines three roles (teacher, role, and counselor) that
supervisors can take to facilitate growth in the appropriate area and at
the appropriate time. From the perspective of this model, if you substitute
“change” for “growth,” you can see that this model can match well with
the transtheoretical model. By suggesting that supervisors need to make
choices about what role is the most appropriate for counselor growth in
a certain area at a certain time, the model implies that a change process
is taking place. For example, Bernard’s division of roles can be seen as
similar in concept to the change processes in the transtheoretical model.
Whereas consciousness raising, catharsis, choice, conditional stimuli, and
contingency control are important processes for making changes, Bernard’s

roles can be seen as ways to help these changes occur. Teaching can be seen
as perhaps the most appropriate role for facilitating conditional stimuli,
and contingency control and the counseling role as the most appropriate
for stimulating consciousness-raising and catharsis. Both of these models
can be used to help us understand how the transtheoretical model can be
applied to the supervision process. In the transtheoretical model described
below, we will use both the discrimination model and the IDM to explore
how supervisors can apply different supervisor roles to facilitate counselor
movement in the stages of change and how counselors’ developmental level
can affect how they react to supervision at the different stages.
Transtheoretical Model of Clinical Supervision In the following section

we will describe how the transtheoretical model can be applied to the
change process that occurs in supervision. We will use the stages as the
primary template for discussion, integrating aspects of the change pro-
cesses. We will finish with a discussion of how the levels of change apply
to supervisees.
The Precontemplation Supervisee Numerous aspects of this early stage

appear similar to characteristics of beginning supervisees, either at the
practicum or internship level of training. However, the supervisor viewing
his or her work through this transtheoretical lens should not limit this stage
to new professionals. Many of these characteristics could also describe a
supervisee that is struggling with some level of resistance to supervision,
or change, or a supervisee that has been working in the field for many years
while not having experienced formalized training in counseling.
The precontemplation stage supervisee may often not realize that there
is an issue or problem that needs to be addressed in his or her clinical
work. This lack of awareness can result in surprise, or even shock, when
the supervisor attempts to address the issue. At this point, the supervisee
may respond with the belief that there is not any need to consider doing
anything different. Several possible outcomes to this awareness-raising
effort by the supervisor may be counselor resistance to changing his or
her practice, resistance to trying new skills, resistance to utilizing differ-
ent approaches based on differences in client problems, or resistance to
accommodating variability in client type based on diversity (i.e., the one-
size-fits-all approach). From an interaction perspective, the supervisee
may become more defensive in posture to the supervisor, which may result
in avoiding supervision process discussions. The counselor might general-
ize this defensive posture to an overall lack of commitment to supervision.
Supervision can become viewed as merely an obligation to “endure” as he
or she works with clients.
At this stage it is important for the supervisor to create doubt in the

counselor’s self-assuredness about his or her skills and abilities while
maintaining a supportive and open atmosphere for discussion. In prepara-
tion for this, understanding some of the possible reactions due to a precon-
templation view from the supervisee will facilitate the supervisor’s attempt
to bring these issues into the discussion. In addition, understanding the
dynamics of the precontemplation stage allows the supervisor to prepare
more effective awareness and intervention strategies based on specific
supervisee personality characteristics. It is also important for the super-
visor to review past client outcomes with the supervisee to challenge his
or her belief system that successful change is assumed and occurs simply
through the clinical effort put forth. Or, conversely, the supervisor may
also challenge the supervisee’s belief that poor client outcome was merely
a function of a lack of readiness to change, or denial, in the client.
From the perspective of Bernard’s discrimination model (J. Bernard,
1997), the teaching and counselor role may be more effective at this stage
for supervisors than the consultant role. The consultant role works best
when the supervisor and the supervisee are in agreement on the goals and
process of supervision. This is clearly not the case in the precontemplative
stage. The teaching role, in which supervision methods are more instruc-
tive, could help precontemplative counselors see that they were using
approaches that were not as effective as other approaches. The counselor’s
inability at this stage to perceive that they were doing something wrong,
however, might undermine the teaching role. A combination of the teach-
ing role with a strong emphasis on the counselor role might be the best
approach for the precontemplative counselor. In this stage they have to
be helped to see that their approaches are not as effective as they could be
and to begin to see that a change in approach may be more useful. Because
resistance is often so strong in this stage, the counselor role would be con-
sistent with helping the counselors explore, in a supportive environment,
how they might not be as effective as they should be and that they might
consider some changes in their work as a counselor.
Using the IDM (Stoltenberg et al., 1998), the supervisor would probably
want to take the counselor’s developmental level into consideration before
determining which approach to take with supervisees who are in a pre-
contemplative stage. Counselors in Level 1 will often be anxious and con-
cerned about their performance. They are also looking for “right answers”
when it comes to developing their skills. At this level, they are probably
open to a more direct approach to raising their consciousness about one of
their deficits. Level 2 counselors will probably be more resistant to identi-
fying issues they need to examine. The defensiveness and avoidance men-
tioned above would be more typical reactions for counselors in this level
and would require a more careful and perhaps less direct approach than
dealing with counselors in Level I. Supervisees in Level 3 will be more

inclined to be open about the need for improvement in their clinical skills
and, having a higher level of confidence in their ability to work as counsel-
ors, will be able to take in observations from supervisors in a less defensive
and more open manner. The number of issues about which they are in the
precontemplative stage will be fewer than with Level 1 and Level 2 coun-
selors, so there will probably be less need for thinking about addressing the
precontemplative stage when working with Level 3 counselors.
The Contemplation Supervisee When supervisees move into the con-

templation stage, they now view their work from a different perspective,
not assuming that what they have done is automatically successful. They
become more aware that some of their past work may not have helped
their clients. However, there is still a significant amount of ambivalence
in supervisees toward changing how they work or view their clients. At
times, the supervisor may witness a level of concern or distress that results
in supervisees trying to exert more control over their clients. This behavior
is in direct response to the awareness that clients may not be changing.
Rather than accepting a limitation on their abilities, some supervisees may
redouble their control efforts. If allowed to progress in this vein too long,
the supervisor may have to intervene strongly to protect the client.
As supervisees work through this new awareness of their clinical limi-
tations, it is important for the supervisor to be a source of information
and guidance for supervisees. Supervisees will be considering new ways
of being as a counselor, and the supervisor can help in clarifying their
decision making processes. As this balancing thought process occurs, the
supervisor should work to foster professional self-efficacy in supervisees
and their decision making capacity. Without doing the work for supervi-
sees, the supervisor can provide guidance to supervisees and facilitate their
information gathering and screening as they work toward a decision. The
supervisor may have to increase statements of reassurance as supervisees
begin to try new approaches and techniques. The creation of an accepting
climate for experimentation and the “trying them on for fit” of new skills
will go a long way in strengthening the supervisory relationship, as well as
creating a strong sense of support for supervisees. Discussing and process-
ing feelings of insecurity, fear, and uncertainty will result in a greater will-
ingness to discuss other more difficult topics, both now and in the future.
From the perspective of Bernard’s discrimination model, the teacher
role is probably going to be the dominant supervision role for counselors
who are working through issues in the contemplative stage. Counselors in
this stage will also need a healthy dose of the counselor role to deal with
their feelings of insecurity, fear, and uncertainty, and they now need a little
more of the consultant role for their experimentation with new skills. The
IDM Level will probably determine how the supervisor combines these
roles. Counselors at Level 1 will typically need more of the teacher role;
counselors at Level 2 will probably need more of the counselor role and
counselors at Level III will probably need more consultant role.
The Preparation Supervisee As supervisees move into the preparation

stage, they begin to consider, or are already enacting, some form of change
in their counseling stance, view of diversity issues in counseling, or their
clinical intervention behaviors. Parallel to this move is an expansion of
their client worldview awareness, understanding that clients come to the
therapeutic process from a myriad of backgrounds, and bringing a simi-
lar number of personal experiences that directly impact the counseling
process. The result is a greater awareness of the complexity of the helping
process which is contrary to the original, simplified view of helping that
was held before. Often, this earlier simplified view is merely a way to man-
age the greater degree of stress and anxiety associated with the responsi-
bility of this new professional role. However, this coping skill is no longer
valid due to the work of the supervisor, resulting in the need for change.
Supervisees now begin to make efforts at changing their own understand-
ing of clients, in all of their complexities. As this begins to happen, super-
visees learn that they are not in control of the counseling process, and
that their clients’ problems are not theirs to “fix.” And, as this awareness
takes hold, supervisees will realize a reduction in ambiguity and feelings
of threat from their professional change.
It is important for supervisors working with a preparation stage super-
visee to help direct the counselor’s focus and plan for change. Supervisors
must continue to empower supervisee change with continuing informa-
tion, skills training, and focus on counselor awareness. Supervisors should
make efforts to support the sense of exploration and experimentation that
can develop during this stage. Remembering the earlier definition of super-
vision put forth by Bernard and Goodyear (2004) that included “monitor-
ing the quality of professional services offered to the client,” this stage also
calls for the supervisor to increase vigilance toward client care. For some
supervisees, this point in the change process may be quite tumultuous,
while for others it is rather easy. Observing and understanding individual
supervisees and how each adjusts to change will help the supervisor man-
age this period well.
In terms of supervisor role in the discrimination model, it should be fairly
clear that, as the counselor commitment to the change process increases,
and barring unforeseen difficulties in the supervisee, there is probably
less need at this stage for the counseling role with a continued empha-
sis on the teaching and consultant roles. Both of these roles will support
the counselor’s desire to explore and experiment. From the developmental
perspective, a Level 1 counselor will benefit from the increase in emphasis

on these two roles, but they may need more of the counselor role from
the supervisor because they may experience an increase in anxiety as they
anticipate the implementation of new approaches. They will need a lot of
reassurance at this point which, if not provided, could lead to a regression
to the defensiveness of the precontemplative stage. Level 2 counselors will
probably also experience some anxiety in the preparation stage, but will
mostly need some teaching and consultation. Level 3 counselors will need
mostly the consultant role from the supervisor, which is the modal role for
counselors at this level of professional development.
The Action Supervisee Once a supervisee moves into the action stage,
he or she begins to enact the changes in clinical work that have been dis-
cussed in supervision. These actions range from efforts to employ new
techniques or strategies, adoption of a new stance toward client diversity,
to expansion of client/other awareness. The supervisee becomes very moti-
vated to make these changes, often securing outside information, such as
research findings and other professional literature, to support these new
changes in skills, beliefs, and professional attitudes. The supervision pro-
cess has now become a much more integral part of the supervisee’s clini-
cal life; a necessary component of the change process. Supervisees will try
new suggestions from the supervisor, as well as use time in supervision to
develop their own approaches and techniques. It is as if the supervisee is
now trying on a new clinical wardrobe to check for a good fit, to see if these
new ways of thinking and working fit well for him or her.
As discussed in earlier stages, it is even more essential at the action
stage that the supervisor supports and empowers the supervisee as new
strategies are employed. At this stage, the supervisee has committed to
the change process and is moving forward. Reservation or reluctance to
change on the part of the supervisor may send a contradictory message
to the supervisee, suggesting that change may not be desired. While it is
important for the supervisor to always be aware of quality service delivery
to the client, it is also important to not quash this new-found clinical and
professional enthusiasm.
In addition to monitoring services as the supervisee implements these
new interventions or belief systems, it is also important that the super-
visor foster an atmosphere of objective outcome evaluation of the coun-
seling process. Making changes simply to change is not a viable clinical
approach. Changes should be based in large part on outcome variables that
support the change. The supervisee should be encouraged to develop data
collection methods to assess outcome. Sources for this informal evalua-
tion include in-session observations, client reports of change or improve-
ment, and outside verification of client changes from friends and family,
if available. This provides the supervisee with motivation to continue the

change process, as well as support for keeping a critical view of what is
effective and what is not.
The primary discrimination model role at this stage will probably be
the consultant role, although Level 1 counselors will still need some of the
teacher role to insure that their implementation of their new skills are con-
sistent with what was intended. Counselors at Levels 2 and 3 will primarily
need the feedback from the supervisor in a consultant role.
The Maintenance Supervisee Once change has been implemented and

the supervisee begins to collect evaluation data, he or she has moved into
the maintenance stage. This stage represents an on-going evaluation of the
changes that have been enacted. New steps or approaches are developed to
foster these changes. Also, supervisees will want to examine those clini-
cal situations that have not improved due to the changes adopted in an
effort to determine what outside factors may have impacted their work. It
is important to note that this is different from the early stance that lack of
change is due to the client “not wanting to get better.” Rather, at this point
the supervisee is expanding his or her clinical worldview to an under-
standing that some very good interventions may not work due to some cli-
ent characteristics, and it is important to know this so further changes or
adjustments can be made by the counselor that may better meet the needs
of that particular client.
Similar to clients taking two steps forward and one step back, it is
important for supervisors to convey to supervisees that change is a fluid
and recursive process. Supervisors should monitor supervisees as they
go through this trial-and-error period in order to support changes that
are made and to help supervisees understand that not all changes will
work each and every time. Until supervisees have completely integrated
the changes, there will be a tendency to revert to old patterns of working
and thinking that are familiar and comfortable, especially when presented
with a particularly difficult or new client situation. Supervisors should
understand that this regression to old patterns is not a form of resistance,
but rather a sliding back to a comfortable position or stance. On-going
assessment of successful change, and of challenging client situations or
new cases, will allow both supervisor and supervisee to address any “slips”
to old behavior or thinking as they arise. This will further support the
overall integration of these new changes that have been made to become
the natural or default position of the supervisee.
The discrimination model role for supervisors when counselors are at
the maintenance stage is mostly of a consultant. This would be true for
counselors at all three levels. Because of the possibility of regression, which
is probably more likely for Level 1 counselors, supervisors for counselors at
this level may take on some parts of the counselor role to provide support
and to possibly confront signs of regression.
As was hopefully evident in the discussion of these stages of change,
supervisee developmental level is not a clear indication of what stage of
change a supervisee may be in. Supervisees at any developmental stage can
be in any of the stages of change. A key issue for supervisors to consider
is how the counselor development level characteristics may or may not
impact how supervisory efforts to promote or affect change in the super-
visee will be implemented or received. Precontemplation is not the sole
domain of the beginning or early stage counselor. Experienced supervisees
may struggle with considering a new approach or technique, or may balk
at the idea that they are not as a effective with a new client type, similar to
beginning supervisees. Supervisors will need to work through the change
stages with these supervisees as well. In fact, it is especially important for
supervisors to remember this and not assume that their more experienced
supervisees won’t go through these stages. The result of this assumption
may well produce a conflict in the relationship, with the supervisor having
unreasonable expectations of the supervisee, or assuming that the supervi-
see is merely being resistant. As others have noted, another way to consider
client (or in this situation, supervisee) resistance is as an indicator that
the supervisor is missing something, making inaccurate assumptions, or
moving at a pace that is uncomfortable for the supervisee.
Supervisee Levels of Change A significant portion of the supervision pro-

cess can be classified as working at a situational or symptom relief level of
change. For example, supervisees look to the supervisor for guidance on
how to use a specific intervention or counseling technique. At this point,
the supervisor provides information from a teacher role, helping supervi-
sees understand not only how to use a technique, but also when to use that
technique. It may be that a specific supervisee has not tried a particular
approach with a specific client type and does not understand the dynam-
ics of how that technique might work. Or, just as possible, a supervisee is
not multiculturally competent with a specific type of client, and does not
understand the cultural implications of using a particular technique with
that client. The supervisor works with the supervisee to address his or her
immediate needs as expressed in supervision, as well as identifying addi-
tional specific needs to expand the counselor’s skill base.
At times during supervision, the supervisor may begin to hear from the
supervisee a belief system or perception that may call for an intervention
at a different level. While not necessarily considered a maladaptive cogni-
tion, as the second level of change is called (Joseph et al., 1999; Prochaska
& Norcross, 2003), this may present as some form of faulty logic, past belief
system, or incorrect perception of an issue or a client that may be hindering
the supervisees’ efforts. A particularly good example of this level of change

would be multicultural awareness in the supervisee. All counselors come
to their work with their past histories and “baggage,” if you will. Similar
to counselor training programs’ efforts to expand trainees’ multicultural
awareness, knowledge, and skills, the supervisor will have to address these
areas as well. When this happens, the supervisor is working on change
in supervisee cognitions, beliefs, feelings, and values. The supervisor will
help the supervisee view the situation, whatever it may be, from a differ-
ent perspective, or with a different lens color. At times, this may be a dif-
ficult period, similar to the turmoil that can occur as an individual moves
through the early stages of multicultural development. It may also be
something that the supervisor allows to change at a slower pace, depend-
ing on the level of difficulty in adjusting that the supervisee is having. It
is important for the supervisor to remember the stages of change that a
supervisee goes through during this process and to allow those stages to
occur as a natural function of counselor development. Additionally, the
supervisor will want to easily move into the counselor role to help the
supervisee explore this change process.
There will be supervision situations in which the supervisee is struggling
with how he or she is interacting with the client, or, in other words, an inter-
personal conflict. Maybe it is a challenging mismatch of client and coun-
selor characteristics, or maybe there are some counter transference issues
involved. Regardless, the implications for this situation are significant, with
a deterioration in the counseling relationship that may result in the client
ending treatment. It is important for the supervisor to address supervisee
issues at this level in part as a function of monitoring client care. Helping
the supervisee understand how to more positively manage the counseling
relationship, using any number of techniques (i.e., immediacy, genuineness),
is an important aspect of supervision. The supervisor needs to keep in mind
that there may be some level of resistance to this intervention as he or she
is made aware of interpersonal conflict. This resistance should be viewed as
an indication of the supervisee working at a precontemplation stage with
this new information. Hopefully, as the supervisor continues to discuss this
issue, the supervisee will become more open to the intervention and begin to
move through the change stages to address this problem.
Another level of change that may occur in supervision is systemic learn-
ing. Often supervisees, especially those new to the profession, are chal-
lenged with looking at client issues beyond the walls of the counseling
session. When working with individual clients, it is easy to forget that they
are involved in a number of larger systems outside the counseling relation-
ship. Supervisors should be prepared to remind supervisees of this and to
help them understand the systemic nature of families, work environments,
social networks, and society as a whole. Again, using a multicultural
example, supervisees may need to help a client not just adjust and make
individual changes, but they may also have to help clients decide about
whether to be involved in changes in their families and communities. And,
it is very important to remember that work at this level has a number of
consequences, both good and bad. A change may occur that is positive,
but there may unintended outcomes as well. The supervisor has to remain
focused on what is the best outcome for the client, helping supervisees bal-
ance between promoting larger scale change versus addressing the needs
of the client. A counter transference issue may develop and the supervisor
has to be able to clearly see and address this in supervision. Or, conversely,
a larger scale change may need to occur and the supervisee may not be able
to see it or be willing to address it, in which case the supervisor may need
to promote systemic action on the part of the supervisee.
And finally, there is the level of change that involves significant intraper-
sonal change in supervisees. As we work with clients, we are the tool of cli-
ent change. It is through the working alliance between counselor and client
that clients are able to make progress toward their goals of change. Thus, it
stands to reason that this client change process might result in knowledge
and awareness that cause intrapersonal change in supervisees. Or, issues in
the supervision process might begin to touch deeper, more personal areas
of counselors’ lives. When making changes at other levels in their profes-
sional lives, supervisees may begin to develop a level of dissonance in their
personal perceptions, beliefs, and attitudes, resulting in internal stress or
dissonance. When this begins to happen, supervisors have to be alert that
they do not move into conducting therapy with the supervisee. While this
awareness may be very positive, and at times difficult, for the supervisee,
a clear boundary needs to be maintained in order to preserve the profes-
sional nature of the supervisory relationship. Supervisors can certainly
acknowledge these gains and changes in supervisees, and help supervisees
integrate new stances or belief systems into their work. However, the clear
delineation between supervision and counseling must be maintained. If at
any point the supervisor feels that the supervision work is moving, or has
moved, into counseling, then a referral must be made for the counselor to
work on these issues with a personal counselor of their own. This is not to
say that the topic cannot be a part of the supervision conversation. We are
merely suggesting that supervisors keep a strong professional boundary in
the supervisory relationship, allowing all parties to remain as objective and
professional as possible.
Conclusion
This chapter presented the transtheoretical model of change as a way of
viewing the process of counselor growth in the supervision process. This
perspective fits well with current models of supervision and provides

supervisors with a new perspective on the supervision process. This per-
spective can also help supervisors work more effectively with the resistance
that inevitably accompanies the personal and professional development of
counselors. Lastly, viewing supervision as a change process allows supervi-
sors to more effectively apply the variety of current supervision methods
and roles.
References
Bernard, J. (1997). The discrimination model. In C. E. Watkins (Ed.), Handbook of
psychotherapy supervision (pp. 310–327). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
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Connors, G. J., Donovan, D. M., & DiClemente, C. C. (2001). Substance abuse treat-
ment and the stages of change: Selecting and planning interventions. New York:
Guilford Press.
Joseph, J., Breslin, C., & Skinner, H. (Eds.). (1999). Critical perspectives on the
Transtheoretical Model and stages of change. New York: Guilford Press.
Piaget, J. (1955). The Child’s Construction of Reality. London: Routledge and
Kegan Paul.
Prochaska, J. O., DiClemente, C. C., & Norcross, J. C. (1992). In search of how
people change: Applications to addictive behaviors. American Psychologist,
47(9), 1102–1114.
Prochaska, J. O., & Norcross, J. C. (2001). Stages of change. Psychotherapy, 38(4),
443–449.
Prochaska, J. O., & Norcross, J. C. (2003). Systems of psychotherapy: A transtheoreti-
cal analysis (5th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Thompson/Brooks Cole.
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Integrated Developmental Model for supervising counselors and therapists. San
Chapter 9
Applications of Narrative
Therapy in Supervision
Debbie Crawford Sturm
Throughout the literature related to supervision, and specifically the

development of supervisor identity, the notion of embracing intentionality
emerges repeatedly (Borders & Brown, 2005; Bernard & Goodyear, 2004;
Clarke, 1991). In other words, as supervisors begin to develop their own
identity, the selection of theoretical frameworks, models, and techniques
becomes a deliberate process, an extension of who that supervisor wants
to become and how he or she wants to be perceived in the supervision
relationship. It communicates the supervisor’s underlying belief about how
people relate to their experience, how they grow, and how they change.
Supervisors, through their selection of a theoretical framework, are called
to examine their beliefs on how supervisees grow and develop profession-
ally, how their identity as counselor and supervisee is formed, and issues of
power and agency. They become intentionally invested in developing their
identity as supervisors.
Similarly, new therapists, including those in practicum or internship
experiences as well as new graduates, weave their way through a process
of developing their identities as counselors and as part of a supervisory
relationship. And while supervisors play an integral role in their devel-
opment process, Carlson and Erickson (2001) believe that for new thera-
pists to gain confidence in their abilities they need to experience personal
agency in their work and to experience themselves as having an active
role in shaping their lives as therapists. These two factors lead to greater
191
self-awareness. And while this is just one of many reflections on counselor

identity development, the notions of intentionality and personal agency lay
a partial foundation for the exploration in this chapter.
Specifically, this chapter presents a discussion of narrative therapy and
its application in supervision. This chapter also introduces a four-step
model blending narrative therapy with interpersonal process recall (IPR),
enabling supervisors to intentionally guide supervisees through a narra-
tive approach to this specific in-session supervision technique (Cashwell,
2001; Clarke, 1997). It is designed to facilitate creative thinking about the
process involved in IPR and how engaging supervisees’ narratives about
self, their role as counselor, and their experiences and beliefs about helping
impact their interaction with their clients and their developing identities
as professional counselors. It is offered primarily to begin guiding supervi-
sor intentionality and facilitate counselor identity development.
About Narrative Therapy

Narrative therapy, a comparatively new phenomenon in counseling, was
originally developed in 1989 by Michael White and David Epston, hailing
from Australia and New Zealand, respectively, as a form of family ther-
apy (Besley, 2002). A narrative approach to therapy places an emphasis on
language and meaning, deriving its roots in cognitive therapy, but with a
postmodern blending of existential meaning. Its very nature and intent
is to explore the examined and unexamined truths that govern individu-
als and allow an opportunity to alter the order and importance of those
truths in order to construct a different reality (Besley, 2002). Simply put,
by examining the whole story of interactions with the people and systems
within which a person lives, the individual is then able to reauthor their
story into one that leads to better overall health and functioning.
Narrative therapy is also characterized by the value placed on lived
experiences. Monk (1996) described the concept of lived experience as one
in which events of the past combine with those in the present and run
alongside a person’s predicted future experience to create that person’s
story. By looking at the whole of the lived experience, any one of those
three domains can experience change, thereby altering the entire narra-
tive. Furthermore, experiences that do not fit within the current narrative
are “pruned” by the individual (p. 45). The narrative experience is not only
a process of identifying those parts needing pruning, it is also a process of
looking at exceptions to the story, or those parts that need to be nurtured.
Additionally, a key component of a narrative approach is the belief
that meaning stems from and is created, or cocreated, through dialogue
(Richert, 2003). This is not a finite process. The self is both a process of
constantly flowing meaning creation and an ever-evolving narrative—a
Applications of Narrative Therapy in Supervision • 193
collection of situation-specific vignettes (p. 193) that can be kept, nour-

ished, discounted, or discarded. And, in terms of supervision, the super-
visory relationship, whether it be individual or group supervision, serves
as the initial lab within which this occurs with the ultimate hope that
supervisees will become proficient in asking themselves curiosity-based
questions as the interactions continue. Supervisees, through a curious
stance, are invited to explore their “preferred professional self-description”
(p. 421) and to deconstruct the meaning of their description. Carlson and
Erickson (2001) believe a narrative approach to supervision values the
personal nature of a new therapist’s hopes, motivations, and desires to be
a therapist as well as personal nature of self-knowledge, skills, and lived
experience. How new therapists incorporate these into the stories of their
lives, personally and professionally, shapes their professional identity and
confidence in the therapy relationship.
Benefits of a Narrative Approach to Supervision

A narrative approach to supervision offers a number of benefits including,
but certainly not limited to, its approach to power and agency, its emphasis
on lived experience and applicability to a wide range of cultural conditions,
techniques such as externalizing the problem that allow supervisees to
examine areas of weakness in a safe way, and the process of curious ques-
tioning, allowing a safe, accepting line of examination. One of the strengths
of narrative therapy is that it offers an approach to exploring not only the
self in therapy, but narrative therapists also place high value on cultural
contexts, power, and knowledge (Besley, 2002; Monk, 1996). McLeod (1996)
expanded on that thought by adding that narrative therapy’s foundation
lies in the notion that people live in cultures and thereby construct their
identities from their experience of symbols, meanings, and expectations
of that culture. People are seen, then, as being “situated amid a constantly
changing web of connections and stories” (Speedy, 2000, p. 366).
A narrative approach provides sensitivity to all forms of oppressions
expressed in terms of the dominant narratives in society by first acknowl-
edging that what happens in greater society also plays itself out in the thera-
peutic and supervisory relationship. By remaining curious about reactions
and interactions, narrative supervisors are able to frame examination of
sensitive cultural issues as a safe, normal, and natural exploration of lived
experiences. Additionally, Semmler and Williams (2000) stated that a nar-
rative approach has additional multicultural strengths, in that it provides
a curious and optimistic view of clients, or supervisees, and their ability to
handle their problems. In adopting a curiosity-based approach, the super-
visor may also model a relationship that can be quite impactful for super-
visees who are wounded by internalized racism.
Power is a key issue addressed by narrative supervisors, particularly the

relationship construct of power and knowledge (Speedy, 2000). Power is
viewed as an always present factor that can be positive and productive, not
just responsive or negative. Moreover, power is a socio-political-cultural
construct that is negotiated daily in people’s lives and is an inescapable
component of any relationship or system (Besley, 2002). Narrative super-
visors negotiate the power differential by assuming, as mentioned previ-
ously, a coauthoring or collaborative role based on a curious stance toward
supervisees, empowering supervisees as experts and regarding their views
as primary. In supervision, the implicit “expert” power in the supervi-
sory relationship lies within the supervisee, as an “expert” of his or her
own experience. The supervisor is far from passive; however, just as with
a narrative therapist, the supervisor not only listens and questions with an
active curiosity, his or her responses help cocreate the story of the super-
visee (Speedy, 2000). This curious, nonknowing stance also helps super-
visees uncover inconsistencies, assumptions, and contradictions in their
stories. Curiosity, according to Perry and Doan (1994) is an attitude of “not
knowing much but always … willing to find out” (p. 122). By maintaining
a nonknowing attitude with supervisees, a supervisor is able to remain
curious (thereby asking more effective questions), to remain nonjudgmen-
tal, and to allow supervisees to be more active, authoritative participants
in therapy.
White has coined the phrase “the person is not the problem, the problem
is the problem” (Monk, 1996, p. 53) referring to the practice of external-
ization in narrative therapy. Externalization is a process in which a clear
separation between the problem and the person occurs. Once a person has
been able to separate from the problem, a new alternative to viewing things
can emerge. Externalization also deconstructs cultural paradigms and, by
separating problems from people, honors sources of strength and resil-
iency as defined by the person and his or her cultural experience (Semmler
& Williams, 2000). Externalizing the problem also allows the supervisor
and supervisee to help deconstruct the narrative, inviting the supervisee
to coauthor one that is more fulfilling, powerful, and hopeful (Herman,
1998). This process shifts the balance of power in the supervision relation-
ship from supervisor-as-expert to supervisor as a coauthor and supervisee
as the expert in his or her own development.
Speedy (2000) described the nature of the counseling profession as a nar-
rative in and of itself, embodying a tradition of “privileging ‘expert’ knowl-
edge and of ways of ‘constructing’ individuals’ ‘selves’ and ‘society’” (p. 363).
Narrative supervisors are more likely to see themselves as part of a consulta-
tive team or committee, working alongside supervisees, rather than as a privi-
leged, knowing expert. Supervisors, therefore, utilizing a narrative approach
are engaging in a type of consultative or collaborative relationship.
A few studies exist illustrating the parallel thinking and application of

narrative therapy and supervision techniques. According to Speedy (2000),
using narrative approaches in supervision would shed “a critical light on
the stories we tell ourselves about counseling supervision and on the cul-
tural traditions of these ‘common-sense’ professional practices” (p. 419).
Supervisees, through the curious stance of their supervisor, are invited
to explore their “preferred professional self-description” (p. 421) and to
deconstruct the meaning of their description. Questions such as “What
does that express about you?” “Is there a story behind that?” “What is it?”
“If there were no brand names in counseling, how would you describe
yourself?” can be used by the supervisor to elicit exploration on the part of
the supervisee (Speedy, 2000).
Carlson and Erickson (2001) believe a narrative approach to supervi-
sion values the personal nature of a new therapist’s hopes, motivations,
and desires to be a therapist as well as personal nature of self-knowledge,
skills and lived experience. How new therapists incorporate these into the
stories of their lives personally and professionally shapes their professional
identity and confidence in the therapy relationship. Narrative supervisors
often embrace metaphors as a technique. Carlson and Erickson (2001)
discussed utilizing a “right of passage” metaphor, encouraging the goal of
supervision to become a right of passage from novice to veteran. The super-
visor works collaboratively with the supervisee to define and navigate that
passage. And rather than creating a dependency on “expert knowledge,”
supervisees evolve to a point where they recognize the special knowledge
they have resurrected or generated.
Supervision Using IPR

Levitt and Rennie (2004) referred to IPR “intention accessing technique”
as a way of guiding supervisees through the process of unlocking the fac-
tors influencing their actions, motivations, and identities in the counseling
relationship. The parallels between a narrative approach to supervision and
IPR’s practical applications are many. Richert (2003) states the nature of the
therapeutic relationship in narrative therapy must be empathic, collabora-
tive (therapist and client as equals), and active (mutual activity). Likewise,
IPR encourages supervisors to take an open, accepting, and nonevaluative
role through a process of active exploration with supervisees (Borders &
Brown, 2005). In both cases, the therapist must be active in asking ques-
tions, making reflections, and suggesting exercises that will enhance cli-
ent awareness. Additionally, narrative therapists seek “creative, curious,
persistent questions” (Besley, 2002, p. 128) to learn about meanings in a
person’s world and socio–political–cultural assumptions. As mentioned
previously, this method holds clients, or in this case, supervisees as the
expert of their own experience. Bernard and Goodyear (2004) address the
same relationship foundation about IPR, stating that individuals are the
best authority on their own experience, both with regard to the dynamics
and the interpretation. In each case, the supervisor is seen as a facilitator,
a collaborator, an inquirer and a coauthor. As with narrative approaches,
IPR naturally leads to the “creation of a dialogue” (Gardner & Turner,
2002, p. 459).
The notion of therapist-elicited questioning is somewhat counter-cul-
tural in the field of counseling (Speedy, 2000), yet the questioning aspect
of narrative approaches, while sharing similar parallels to IPR, allows for
the introduction of questions that are less reflective than in IPR and more
curious. Reflecting again on Monk (1996), curiosity-based questioning
offers a way to guard against supervisor expertness and challenge super-
visees to go deeper into their experience. While this is not a criticism of
IPR, utilizing the narrative-based curiosity focus may in fact add an addi-
tional safeguard to the balance of power and its evolution in the supervi-
sion relationship.
Again, narrative therapy itself does not specifically address the root
causes of problems experienced by the individual; however, the concept
of silencing or enforced silence (McLeod, 1996) may be worth remember-
ing in the supervisory relationship. Supervisees may feel, as a result of
real or perceived power differentials with clients, the organizations with
whom they work, academic expectations, that their true voice should
not be expressed. Exploring this as a root of some of their concerns or
self-described problems is a possibility. As the supervisor creates ques-
tions intended to explore issues of power differential or potential silenc-
ing, supervisees learn that the supervision environment is a safe place to
explore perceived power differentials in the counseling relationship or at
their place of employment or clinical placement.
White and Epston (1990) contend that people’s problems occur when
their life stories do not align with their lived experiences. Likewise, the
reflection process in IPR is designed to help new therapists explore con-
fusion, dissonance, or contradictions in their beliefs about their role and
identity of counselor, the execution of techniques, their presence in the
counseling relationship, and the ambiguity of applying technique and the-
ory to practice. This lived experience is highly valued and paramount to
helping supervisees understand their developmental process.
Another aspect of the narrative approach that fits well is the notion that
narrative therapists, whose history derives from family therapy, place a
therapeutic value on the presence of an audience in therapy. IPR, simi-
larly, utilizes the present supervisor–supervisee interaction as a vehicle by
which to view the there-and-then interaction of the supervisee and cli-
ent, thereby creating an audience effect. By viewing, stopping, and starting
audio- and videotapes, the supervisor and supervisee create an audience

for the interaction on the tape. This is equally applicable to group supervi-
sion and practicum and internship experiences. Perspectives elicited from
multiple viewers are highly valued, explored, and integrated through each
of these approaches.
According to Botella and Herrero (2000), the answer to the question
“Who am I?” shapes a person’s identity at any given moment (p. 410); there-
fore, the on-going conversation, or the process of creating and cocreating
an individual’s self-narrative, creates his or her identity. Supervision, as
with psychotherapy itself, is a collaborative dialogue, an intentional pro-
cess designed to transform the developing identity of a therapist (Botella
& Herrero, 2000). Intentionally creating meaningful, curious, and reflec-
tive conversations is key to facilitating this transformation. Biever (1995)
discussed facilitating conversations in therapy and offered several recom-
mendations. Pertinent to this discussion on the supervision relationship,
his recommendations include maintaining a not-knowing stance in which
the person is assumed to be the expert in their own life; working with the
person, not the label; and offering commonplace rather than pathological
explanations of difficulties.
Reflecting on a narrative approach to supervision and its similarities
to IPR, it appears that several factors emerge suggesting that the marriage
of the two would provide for a compatible supervisory relationship. First,
both aim to explore intentionality of the counselor, supervisee, and super-
visor through an active and collaborative dialogue. Both embrace creative,
curious, and persistent questions. Neither is significantly focused on iden-
tifying the cause of problems, but examines the root of beliefs that may
impede the process and seek to change them to create a more effective
interaction. Both accommodate and value an audience and utilize all par-
ticipants and coauthors in the creation of the narrative. And finally, both
narrative approaches and IPR techniques emphasize the lived experience
of the participants, stressing the here and now but openly talking about the
then and there, with eyes always on the future.
A Suggested Model of Narrative IPR Supervision

The overarching purpose of blending a narrative approach to supervision
with the IPR technique is to help supervisees connect with the story of self
that has brought them to the field of counseling and authentically blend
that story into the developing narrative of their identity as a counselor.
Virtually every counselor in training can describe their motivation for
becoming a counselor and the journey that brought them into the room
with their first client. But understanding how those personal desires and
motivations relate to the counseling process and the process of becoming
a counselor takes patient, curious, and reflective discourse to understand.

And an environment that accepts that each supervisee’s story and dis-
course will follow its own unique course.
Carlson and Erickson (2001) outlined three steps a supervisor can
utilize in guiding a supervisee through a curious questioning process
designed to honor supervisees’ personal stories and integrate them into
their professional identity development. As each of those steps are out-
lined in the following section, some questions constructed by Parry and
Doan (1994) are also provided as examples of how to implement these
steps in practice. Questions generated by Carlson and Erickson (2001)
are included as well as some generated by this author. Again, as we marry
a narrative approach to an IPR process, keep in mind these questions
have also been selected to fit into the starting-and-stopping audio/video
tape format.
The first step in this three-step process is called privileging the personal
desires and motivations of the new therapist (Parry & Doan, 1994, p. 209).
This step is designed to give new therapists an opportunity to share their
sincere desires and motivations for entering the field. While using IPR, it
allows the new therapist to reflect on how a particular response or inter-
action aligns with his or her notion as a developing helper. This step is
also useful in the relationship-building phase of the supervisor–super-
visee interaction. With so many of the questions centering on the story
that brought the supervisee to this point, this step can yield great insight
into the hopes, desires, and motivations of the supervisee, as well as allow
the supervisor an opportunity to model a curious, accepting stance in the
questioning process.
Questions that can be posed as part of relationship building help super-
visees tap into the hopes, influences, and beliefs about self that brought
them to the field of counseling. Supervisors should ask these with a genu-
ine curiosity about the person with whom they are now forming a rela-
tionship, modeling the acceptance and genuineness the supervisor intends
to be present throughout the supervisory experience. During this phase,
inquiry can include:
• What experiences from your life invited you into this field?
(Carlson & Erickson, 2001).
• Could you share your sincere desires and hopes for becoming a
therapist? (Carlson & Erickson, 2001).
• What have you been told about yourself and your ability to help
others with their problems?
• What do you believe about yourself as a helping person?
During the reviewing, starting, and stopping of video and audio tapes,
questions will involve how the supervisees’ visions or hopes of themselves
as therapists align with the experience of therapy and the relationship with
the client. Examples include:
• As you think about that interaction with your client, how did your
response align with who you want to be as a therapist?
• As you think about that interaction, how does that fit with your
vision of yourself as a therapist?
• How does the process we have seen in this tape fit with your desire
to help?
• In what ways is your vision of being a helper exemplified or not
exemplified in this portion of the tape?
• If your client were here right now, what would you like to tell him
or her about your attempt to help at that moment?
The second step in this process is referred to as privileging personal
knowledge (Parry & Doan, 1994, p. 212). This step is based on the belief
that new therapists have come into the field with a set of beliefs about
their knowledge and skills for helping others. More specifically and per-
haps even more importantly, they come to the field with a set of beliefs
about their ability to use that knowledge and skill to actually execute the
skills they will learn in order to help people. They have ideas about what
has helped them personally in the past—ways in which they have helped
others—and, by the time they reach clinical experiences, an idea how
they would like to use theories and skills to be a successful helper.
For many supervisees, the desire to help and the eagerness to see the
results of their efforts is high. Often their preconceived notions of what
helping will look like or their early attempts to utilize their skills can lead
them to question their effectiveness as helpers. Helping supervisees value
their beliefs and experiences of helping while still exploring their new
role as helper is critical to development of a healthy counselor identity.
By reflecting on portions of videotapes, the new therapist is encouraged
to reflect on the application of their skills, the impressions they present
as a helper, their client’s response to them as a therapist, and how that
aligns with their beliefs, knowledge, and skills. Examples of questions to
ask include:
• What does your own experience of being helped tell you about
how to help this person?
• In what ways do you think your client is experiencing your help-
ing qualities?
• Imagine climbing into your client’s seat. What would you notice
about your attempts to help your client at this point? How would
you as client describe you as counselor?
• Let’s work on externalizing the problem in this interaction.

Can you identify the issue here? Put it out there and name it.
What are the influences (people, conditions) of this problem
for you?
• If your reaction in that moment was a warning that you had lost your
curiosity about the client, how would this interaction change?
This second step also provides an opportunity to utilize the narrative
technique of identifying unique outcomes, both current and historical.
According to White and Epston (1990), it takes only one unique outcome
to help change the relationship or interaction pattern. It becomes impor-
tant for the supervisor to catch the supervisee doing something positive,
demonstrating a new or changed approach to the client, or adjusting their
approach within session. Questions that address identifying unique out-
comes may include:
• I can see you were trying to do something different with your cli-
ent at that moment. Can you give me an example of something
you have done in the past—a specific intervention—that you think
may be useful at this time?
• How did you do that? How did you know what to say to that client?
• You had not done that previously with this client. What cues or
beliefs about helping were triggered in you at that moment? What
differences did you note in the interaction?
• What ways of relating to others have you found most helpful? In
what ways does your interaction with this person illustrate that?
• In the past you have said , how did you manage not to
say it to the client this time?
The third step in this process is called establishing moral preferences (Parry
& Doan, 1994, p. 214). This step allows supervisees to engage in a per-
sonal exploration of their way of being with others and how their way of
being affects their client. Supervisees are able to view or hear their interac-
tion with the client and reflect on whether or not their belief about how to
be is congruent with their responses and clinical choices. This is also an
opportunity to focus on the intentionality of the supervisee. While the first
two steps focus on the supervisees’ desires and motivations surrounding
being a helper and their beliefs about how to help and their effectiveness in
moments of helping, this third step integrates the two and brings supervi-
sees to integration of self as counselor. Questions to address this include:
• What are your hopes for how your clients experience themselves
when they are with you?
• What is your vision for how you want to be with others in your
role as therapist?
• What qualities would you like to have guide you in your relation-
ship with your client?
• How are you making sense of your client’s life? Are you hearing
what they are telling you or are you making a different sense of
it than they are? What do you need to understand about them—
experiences and views—that will help you see them through their
eyes? What factors do you need to understand about yourself?
While this list is far from comprehensive, it is designed to facilitate cre-
ative thinking about the process involved in IPR and how utilizing super-
visees’ narratives about self, their role as counselors, and their experiences
and beliefs about helping impact their interaction with clients and their
developing identities as professional counselors. It is offered primarily to
begin guiding supervisor intentionality. The use of a narrative approach to
IPR is applicable not only with individual supervision, but also with group
supervision, such as that in internship and practicum experiences. In the
case of group supervision situations, however, it is suggested that during
early phase or relationship-building periods, the supervisor take the lead
in generating the questions and use a consistent line of questioning with
each of the group members until trust and cohesion begins to develop.
As the relationship begins to evolve, supervisors will notice the curiosity
and intentionality that they model during the questioning process forms a
template for continued group process.
The Fourth Step of the Narrative IPR Model of Supervision

As mentioned previously, the three steps outlined in the narrative applica-
tion of IPR are not fully comprehensive. They are only part of the story
of supervisee identity development. Perhaps one of the most important
aspects of using a narrative approach to supervision is not the final prod-
uct, the altered narrative, but instead the process and experience just prior
to the new narrative taking hold. Much like in the counseling relationship,
many things happen within a supervisory relationship that go unnoticed.
Pauses, hesitations, changing topics, and quick acceptance of feedback
with little processing are things common to supervisees. But somewhere in
that interaction lies the story, the growing edge. As we invite supervisees
to reflect on their experience with the client and with self, it seems equally
important to invite them to examine their experience within supervision
by adding a reflective, IPR-based component to this model, inviting super-
visees to acknowledge experiences in the supervision process itself and
revisit them to create alternative endings.
This fourth step is based primarily on research studies conducted and
discussed by Levitt and Rennie (2004) using taped sessions with clients
and IPR. The use of these taped sessions and IPR with the clients involved
in the session revealed some interesting patterns. Rennie (1994) found that
clients engaged in two types of storytelling: authentic and inauthentic. An
authentic use of storytelling involved the client’s use of stories, not for the
purpose of detracting from the problem, but because they really wanted to
address the problem by using the stories as a means of getting there. An
inauthentic use of storytelling in session emerged as a way for clients to
avoid directly dealing with problems. Clients managed their level of dis-
closure, even at the expense of distortion, to protect necessary beliefs or
levels of comfort. Through the use of IPR, clients were aware of how they
used the story, and were able to reflect not only on the problem but also on
the difficulty with dealing directly with the problem.
Similar to Rennie (1994), Levitt (2001a, 2001b) conducted IPR interviews
with clients but focused instead on the use of productive and obstruc-
tive silences or pauses. Three types of productive pauses were identified:
emotional (where clients attend to incipient and strong feeling); expres-
sive (clients seek labels or symbols to represent their experience within the
dialogue); and reflective (moments when connections and interpretations
are made). Obstructive pauses, on the other hand, were consciously willed
at times, particularly when the topic was perceived as dangerous to the cli-
ent. Obstructive pauses prevent a deepening of awareness. At times avoid-
ance was reported to occur automatically, seemingly without deliberation.
Another type of pause includes interactional pauses. These occurred when
the client switched from exploring personal issues to think about the expe-
rience with the therapist, whether he or she was confused about the thera-
pist’s instructions, worried about the therapist’s experience or reactions, or
protecting the therapeutic alliance.
Reflecting on the conclusions of Levitt and Rennie (2004), a fourth step
in the Narrative IPR Model of Supervision is suggested. This step is called
privileging self in supervision and involves audio or video tape review of
supervision sessions in order to help supervisors and supervisees examine
the role of story telling, pauses, and silences in the supervision interac-
tion. In doing so, the goal is to enhance awareness of the interactional pro-
cess and facilitate awareness of communication patterns that enhance or
obstruct growth on the part of the supervisee and supervisor. Questions
that may be asked include:
• What were you experiencing during that moment of silence?
What were you able to learn about yourself or that interaction that
allowed you to continue in the way you did?
• When you mentioned the topic of ___, you changed the subject to
tell a story about another client. (Stop the tape just before the story
begins.) What were you thinking at that moment? Or what do you
wish you had said? (Stopping the tape after the story.) What was
the purpose of the story?
• When your peer gave you that feedback, you said thank you and
quickly moved to a second question. (Stop the tape before the sec-
ond question.) What were you experiencing in that moment?
• You seem to take a significant pause when you are asked a question
by your peers. Talk about what that experience is like for you and
how we can understand what you are experiencing in moments
of inquiry.
It has been shown that clients not only will generate meaningful narratives,
but also create powerful narratives of avoidance when directly addressing
issues that may prove too threatening for themselves or the therapeutic
alliance. The same phenomenon is likely in the supervisor–supervisee
relationship. By engaging in this fourth step of narrative IPR supervision,
both supervisor and supervisee open themselves to the meaning of story
telling, pauses, and silences by becoming audience members to their own
supervision process. This allows for a natural externalization of the pro-
cess and a curiosity about the dynamic. Ultimately, this process may allow
for an even more effective supervision relationship. And as with all the
other steps discussed, this approach to supervision seems to present some
curiously interesting possibilities for application in practicum and intern-
ship group supervision settings.
Conclusion
Utilizing narrative therapy offers an array of opportunities for develop-
ing supervisors, particularly those who are seeking a more collaborative
relationship with their supervisees and may prefer a more equal balance of
power. In addition, its multicultural implications are significant. Narrative
therapy, as introduced by White and Epson (1990), drew upon the work
of Foucault who observed that, with the growth of capitalism, the human
experience has become more and more defined by cultural definitions. That
same notion of culture defining development is paralleled in the devel-
opment of a therapist whose culture is defined in terms of professional,
educational, theoretical or organizational expectations. And intertwined
with all the cultural definitions, each supervisee brings to the table a set of
personal hopes, motivations, and aspirations.
A substantial portion of this discussion on narrative therapy and IPR
focused on the application of questioning. Monk (1996) cautioned that
there is a tendency in narrative therapy to focus too heavily on asking the
right questions resulting in potential failure to give enough energy to the
therapeutic relationship. Thereby, the questions above should be seen as
a tool for fostering the relationship, with the relationship always being at
the forefront. Additionally, when using a narrative form of IPR in group
supervision, such as a practicum or internship course, it can be beneficial to
encourage students in the group to generate questions for the IPR process.
Given the value of the lived experience in a narrative approach, peers of
the supervisee may create questions that can closely touch the experience
of the supervisee. And allowing students to become more integral parts
of the process, thereby increasing their agency, helps foster the strength
of their perceived role and identity in the supervision process. In the end,
supervisors will create a stronger supervision team.
Very little research has been conducted on using a narrative approach to
supervision. No empirical studies have been conducted at the time of this
writing. And none have explored the notion of putting a narrative lens on
an established supervision process. This is an area that offers much poten-
tial for future research and an opportunity to coauthor the development
of future counseling professionals. Additionally, the work conducted by
Levitt (2001a, 2001b) and Rennie (1994) provides interesting applications
for counselor education, particularly for creative and meaningful new ways
of structuring supervision during the clinical phase of counselor training.
Providing students an opportunity to reflect on the role of silence, pauses,
and their unique manner of storying creates not only a more powerful
supervision process, but a greater awareness of how these aspects play out
in the counselor and client relationship.
Herman (1998), who reported on his personal experience of being
supervised by a supervisor employing a narrative approach, expressed
hopefulness in the progress of his own narrative as it continued to develop
through supervision. He simply stated, “I know the author well” (p. 104). It
is exactly that sense of agency and ownership that the process of employ-
ing a narrative approach to supervision suggests is possible. And the net
result is a supervisee who truly owns the process of becoming a therapist.
References
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Chapter 10
On Becoming an Emotionally
Intelligent Counseling Supervisor
Joseph B. Cooper and Kok-Mun Ng
Emotions have long been the province of counseling and psychotherapy.

From Freud through Perls to the current models of attachment theory
(Pistole & Watkins, 1995) and emotionally focused therapy (Johnson,
2004), emotional exploration and processing skills have been central to
these psychotherapeutic models. However, the case is quit different when
it comes to counseling supervision which has been primarily perceived as
a supportive, educative, and learning collaboration between two or more
individuals (Bernard & Goodyear, 2004). Though the covert and overt
emotional experiences of the supervisory dyad have been perceived to be
important in the formation of the supervisory working alliance (Bordin,
1983) and anxiety has been singled out to be a common emotional experi-
ence among supervisees (James, Allen, & Collerton, 2004; Ronnestad &
Skovholt, 2003), only few supervision models factor in a significant role of
emotion (e.g., Holloway, 1995; Ronnestad & Skovholt, 2003; Schuman &
Fulop, 1989).
Emotions represent a complex system of cognitive and behavioral
responses that serve to orient individuals to the specific issues that are
important and in need of attention, and aid them in the grounding of new
learning. They also serve to promote the development and maintenance of
the empathic bond between participants in a relationship (Siegel, 2007).
As such, we believe emotional awareness and regulation play a key role in
counseling supervision by providing supervisors and supervisees access to
207
adaptive information they can use to navigate through the often difficult
terrain of the supervisory process. It is our belief that effective counseling
supervisors are emotionally intelligent individuals who use their emotional
intelligence to create a supervision environment that fosters supervisee
personal and professional growth that ultimately benefits clients. In this
chapter we will (a) review the literature on the roles and functions of emo-
tions in general and counseling supervision in particular, (b) examine the
current research on emotional intelligence and explicate its implications
for counseling supervision, and (c) delineate some characteristics of an
emotionally intelligent supervisor. We will also propose research direc-
tions for increasing greater understanding of emotional intelligence in the
theory and practice of counseling supervision.
Emotions: Definition and Functions

What are emotions and why do we have them? Do they serve a purpose,
or are they evolutionary relics that we simply have not been able to shed?
It is important to address these questions about the purpose and function
of emotion, because by doing so, we believe this will highlight the crucial
role emotions play in human relationships as well as to encourage thought-
ful reflection about how emotional intelligence is critical to enhancing the
quality of supervision. Broadly, emotions can be regarded as behavior con-
trolled by distinct brain systems shaped by natural selection and seen as
constructed from cues, whether the cues are interpersonal, environmental,
or intrapsychic (Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2002). From a neurobiolog-
ical perspective, the emotional system is hypothesized to be a mechanism
for computing the affective significance of stimuli (LeDoux, 1989). From a
psychological perspective, emotions are related to information processing
mechanisms for self-regulation (Matthews et al., 2002) and are subjective
experiences embedded in the outcome of appraisal, or the awareness of
situational meaning structure (Frijda, 1988).
Emotion researchers are generally in accord on the functions of emo-
tions, assigning them to four broad, and sometimes overlapping, areas of
purpose: (a) Emotions serve an adaptive and survival function, (b) emo-
tions provide the organism with a value system for the appraisal of mean-
ing, (c) emotions perform an organizing and integrating function, and (d)
emotions carry out a social-commutative function. The following will pro-
vide a brief overview of each of these functions.
Drawing on the theories of Darwin, proponents of evolutionary psychol-
ogy view emotions as the product of natural selection whose purpose is to
ensure the survival of the species (Gross, 1999). How do emotions contrib-
ute to our adaption and survival? Siegel (1999) proposes that emotions are
On Becoming an Emotionally Intelligent Counseling Supervisor • 209
adaptive because they represent a value system for the appraisal of mean-
ing, which allows the organism to determine if external or internal stimuli
are useful, neutral, or harmful. In turn, this emotional processing prepares
the brain and the rest of the body for action. Emotions tell us to do some-
thing. Siegel contends that emotions serve an adaptive and survival func-
tion by alerting one to stimulus that can be potentially dangerous, and
encouraging proximity to stimuli that are deemed to be safe.
Johnson (2004) and Compi (1999) also regard emotions as adaptive.
However, they further understand emotions as a higher level informa-
tion processing system that integrates physiological responses, meaning
schemes, and action tendencies to provide feedback about the envi-
ronment and the personal significance of events. Emotions provide all
incoming stimuli with meaning and motivational direction, and func-
tion to create state-dependent memory regarding such stimuli. Within
the brain, emotions link various systems together to form a state of mind.
Indeed, Damasio (1999) has proposed that feeling is the original pathway
by which human consciousness came into being. As humans encounter
objects in the environment, these experiences are encoded in the form of
feelings that represent the effect the object has on the human body state.
From this, humans accord meaning and value to external objects, which
is then translated into specific responses aimed at keeping us alive and
healthy.
Another function of emotions is to aid in social communication. This
social-functional model understands the expression of emotion as a form
of social communication. From this perspective, emotions signal and ori-
ent one to socially relevant information that is considered to be of poten-
tial use for understanding how to engage successfully in interactions with
others (Keltner & Kring, 1998). Emotions convey important information
about people’s thoughts, intentions, and social encounters. Because of this,
paying close attention to other’s emotion allows a person to perceive and
experience elements of another person’s mind (Siegel, 1999). This is not a
new concept. The ability to experience and relate to another individual’s
emotional and cognitive state has also been referred to as mirroring (Kohut,
1971), reflective function (Knox, 2003), and empathy (Rogers, 1951), to
name a few. Salovey and Mayer (1990) have proposed that empathy may
be a central characteristic of emotional intelligence, because emotional
appraisal and expression appear to be related to empathy. Obviously, this
function of emotion has important implications for counseling supervi-
sors and their capacity to develop a cohesive supervisory working alliance
with their supervisees (Carifio & Hess, 1987).
Emotions in Counseling and Supervision

Emotions in Counseling
Emotions and emotion-related processes lie at the heart of counseling and
psychotherapy. Though counseling theories and models tend to emphasize
different aspects of emotional functioning, counselors and therapists have
long concerned themselves with working with emotional experiences of
their clients (Greenberg & Safran, 1989). The role of emotion in counseling
and psychotherapy has been recognized as vital to the process of therapeu-
tic change (Greenberg & Pascual-Leone, 2006).
The ability to accurately perceive clients’ emotions, especially those
that provide adaptive information, is of particular importance because
therapeutic empathy requires counselors to be able to recognize both
the quality and intensity of clients’ emotional experience (Machado,
Beutler, & Green, 1999). Also, counselors’ ability to facilitate the iden-
tification of emotions and emotional awareness within clients enhances
client learning and contributes to client change (Greenberg & Pascual-
Leone, 2006). Greenberg and Safran (1989) suggested that for the
purpose of intervention, there are at least four broad categories of emo-
tional expressions which need to be distinguished: (a) adaptive primary
emotion, (b) secondary emotion, (c) instrumental emotion, and (d)
maladaptive primary emotion. The emphasis given to emotion identi-
fication and processing skills and other related techniques (e.g., reflec-
tion of feeling, personalization of feeling, and immediacy) in counselor
training that are considered fundamental components of the thera-
peutic interview (Young, 2005) further underscores the importance of
emotion in counseling.
Counselors’ emotions and emotional well-being have been recognized
as critical factors in the formation of the therapeutic alliance that has been
deemed as one of the primary tools in counseling (Reilly, 2000). Researchers
have found that counselor trainees experienced falling silent and emo-
tionally withdrawing from the session in reaction to strong client affect
as well as to their own strong affect (Melton, Nofzinger-Collins, Wynne,
& Susman, 2005). Melton et al. recommended that counseling trainees
be taught emotion management skills in order to prevent their emotional
reactions from impeding their performance. On the one hand, counselors’
emotional reactions can impede the counseling process; on the other hand,
these emotions serve to provide functional information to the counseling
process. Authors have argued that therapists’ emotional responses in ses-
sion provide relevant information, and better therapy will result if thera-
pists remain sensitive to this information and utilize it in the process of
planning and implementing therapy (Kimerling, Zeiss, & Zeiss, 2000).
Emotion in Supervision
Though there is extensive writing and research on the role of emotion in
the counseling process, the relevance of emotion to the supervisory process
has received much less attention (Follette & Batten, 2000). In this section
we review the existing literature on emotion and counseling supervision.
Though there are many theories and models of supervision in counsel-
ing and related disciplines, “most tend to focus on methods rather than
on the process of supervision” (Roberts, Winek, & Mulgrew, 1999, p. 291).
With the exception of models based on experiential psychotherapies, exist-
ing supervision models do not include emotion-related variables as major
theoretical components and practice focus. Even with the experiential
supervision models, the focus is on the part of the therapist with respect to
client change rather than emotion expressed within supervision (Follette
& Batten, 2000; Greenberg & Safran, 1988).
In Gestalt therapy supervision, emotions can aid the supervisor in
determining interventions and aid the trainee in understanding the cli-
ent’s dynamics. With awareness and present-centeredness, supervisors can
use their own emotional reactions as the basis for appropriately chosen and
effective interventions to help trainees learn how to recognize, understand,
and express emotion. This, in turn, aids them to make genuine contact
with clients in a manner that facilitates therapeutic work (Yonteff, 1997).
Wetchler (1998; 1999) adapted the principles of Emotionally Focused
Therapy to the supervisory context. In this model, emotions in supervision
are used to help identify repetitive therapist/client sequences and improve
attachment with the trainee’s client. Wetchler contends that therapists may
become stuck in therapy by exhibiting secondary emotions through anger
or frustration with a client. In this model, supervision can aid trainees
in identifying and accessing their primary emotions toward their clients,
which in turn will increase their bonding level, and subsequently their
ability to hypothesize and intervene more effectively.
Cognitive-behavioral therapists have recently begun to discuss the role
of emotion in the supervision context. Reilly (2000) stated that the role of
cognitive therapy supervisors includes helping “trainees learn to identify
their own automatic thoughts and emotions and teach them how to use this
information productively in therapy” (p. 343). With the development of
new approaches to treatment within the paradigm of cognitive-behavioral
therapies that concern with acceptance, validation, and behavioral change
(e.g., Functional Analytical Psychotherapy, Acceptance and Commitment
Therapy, and Dialectical Behavioral Therapy) and have emotions occupy-
ing a central focus, Follette and Batten (2000) asserted that “training pro-
cess should also address the student therapist’s development with regard
to emotion in therapy” (p. 306). Follette and Batten further argued that
supervisors’ willingness to be emotionally present and express their emo-

tions in response to their students’ struggle and pain as vulnerable healer
can have a much more powerful influence on their students than lengthy,
intellectualized discussions of the role of emotion in supervision.
Several studies have explored the emotional experiences of trainees
within supervision. Schmidt (1979) examined the most common emotive
reactions trainees experience towards their clients; anger, boredom, guilt,
and anxiety. These emotional reactions could be a red flag indicating to
supervisors that their trainees may be having difficulty with their clients.
The function of supervisors is to help their trainees identify these emotive
reactions, which, in Schmidt’s model, are used to highlight the associated
self-statements that interfere with the trainees’ ability to do effective inter-
ventions. Supervisees’ negative emotional reactions may also be related to
supervisors’ behavior. Gray, Ladany, Walker, and Ancis (2001) reported
that supervisees attributed counterproductive events in supervision (i.e.,
hindering, unhelpful, or harmful events in relation to supervisees’ growth
as therapists) to their supervisors’ dismissing their thoughts and feelings.
These negative events weakened the supervisory working alliance.
In line with Ronnestad and Skovholt’s (2003) study, James, Allen, and
Collerton (2004) discovered the most frequent emotion experienced dur-
ing supervision sessions by trainees was anxiety. James et al. suggested
that movement from lower to higher levels of trainee competence often
creates a degree of discomfort/and or anxiety. James et al. further recom-
mended that supervisors graduate the learning steps, such that the level
of anxiety is never so high as to become overwhelming, yet it increases in
sufficient measure to foster learning.
Wester, Vogel, and Archer (2004) found that male supervisees with
higher restricted emotionality responded to their lack of power within
the supervisory relationship by using a turning-against-self psychologi-
cal defense, and they reported lower levels of counseling self-efficacy.
Supervisors are advised to be knowledgeable about gender role issues and
understand how they impact male supervisees’ emotional well-being and
responses in supervision. Supervisors are further advised to be cognizant
of countertransference feelings related to gender role issues in order to
avoid letting these feelings impact their ability to understand the gender
role-related experiences of their supervisees.
The supervision literature is beginning to discuss and document the role
of emotion in supervision. Supervisees’ emotional experiences in supervi-
sion impact their experiences and learning. Emotions play a very important
role in supervision as they relate to supervisees’ learning and growth and
providing effective treatment to clients. These emotions include, but are not
limited to (a) clients’ emotions being discussed in supervision, (b) super-
visees’ emotional responses to their clients and the therapeutic process,
(c) supervisees’ emotional responses to their supervisors and the supervi-

sory process, and (d) supervisors’ emotional responses to their supervisees
and the supervisory process. Given such vital and extensive role emotions
play in counseling and supervision, the absence of a theoretical framework
in the counseling supervision literature to aid supervisors in understand-
ing, managing, and utilizing emotions is surprising. We believe that the
theory of emotional intelligence provides the heuristic to address the need.
Emotional Intelligence and Supervision

Emotional intelligence (EI) may be viewed as a collection of emo-
tional abilities that constitutes a form of intelligence that is different
from either cognitive intelligence or IQ (Bechara, Tranel, & Damasio,
2000). Though EI has only received limited attention in the counsel-
ing literature, it has gained much interest from researchers and prac-
titioners across disciplines since it was formally introduced in 1990 by
Salovey and Mayer. The concept was popularized and received national
attention in the mid 90s when Goleman (1995) published a book titled
Emotional Intelligence. Since then, subsequent authors have also pro-
posed their own models of EI, resulting in a number of different and
sometimes conflicting conceptualizations of the construct (Tett, Fox, &
Wang, 2005). However, for the purpose of this chapter, we will follow the
definition put forth by Mayer and Salovey (1997) who first formulated a
theory-based model of EI.
Essentially, Mayer and Salovey (1997) believed that emotions could be
integrated into reasoning, and that the ability to do this facilitated adapta-
tion and efficacy. They first defined EI as a set of interrelated skills used
to monitor one’s own and other’s feelings and emotions, to discriminate
among them, and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and
actions. They later revised their definition of EI by proposing the regula-
tion of emotion as an additional skill, thus creating the current four-factor
model of EI: perceiving emotions, utilizing emotions, understanding emo-
tions, and managing emotions. According to these authors, EI represents:
The ability to perceive accurately, appraise, and express emotion; the
ability to access and/or generate feelings when they facilitate thought;
the ability to understand emotions and emotional knowledge; and
the ability to regulate emotions to promote emotional and intellec-
tual growth. (p. 10)
It is important to note that the four branches of EI are organized in a hier-
archical manner, with perception of emotions at the bottom and regula-
tion of emotions at the top. The order of the branches represents the extent
to which the ability is integrated within an individual’s overall personality.
Within each branch there is a developmental progression of skills from the

more basic to the more sophisticated (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2004).
In the first branch, EI represents the ability to accurately identify emo-
tions in self and others. To be emotionally intelligent requires the ability
to perceive the various ebb and flow of emotions one experiences on a
daily basis and to accurately name those emotions. Although counselors
are trained to perceive and work with clients’ emotional states, they may
find it difficult at times to correctly identify their own as well as their
clients’ emotional states. Individuals with higher EI are expected to be
better at identifying emotions in self and in others. To be emotionally
intelligent means to be emotionally self and other aware. Such aware-
ness relates to empathy. In counseling training, trainees are taught to
listen and follow verbal and nonverbal emotional cues of clients, and
accurately identify and reflect them back to clients in attempt to aid
clients in gaining awareness and processing the emotional information.
Reflection of feeling is an example of a counseling skill related to this
EI branch.
The second branch of EI is the ability to assimilate emotions in thought.
This EI skill includes, (a) the ability to generate emotions that facilitate
judgment, memory, and decision making, (b) the ability to use emotions
to prioritize thinking or redirect attention to important events, and (c) the
ability to utilize different emotions to encourage different ways one can
approach problem solving. In essence, this branch represents the ability
to use emotions to enhance our intelligence and help us make important
decisions. For instance, a supervisor may perceive his supervisee as expe-
riencing anxiety about a certain client, and this awareness of the supervi-
see’s emotional reaction offers the supervisor important information on
how to proceed in a way to maximize the supervisee’s learning experience.
With this awareness, the supervisor might decide that it would be best to
focus on creating a safe environment by asking the supervisee to pause
and take in few deep breaths and reflect on his anxiety before moving on
to discussing specific interventions or conceptualization skills. This inter-
vention would likely help to reduce the supervisee’s anxiety level so that
it will not interfere with his or her learning. Compare this to a supervisee
who is feeling excited about his or her work with a client. All things being
equal, emotionally intelligent supervisors would probably intervene much
differently with the anxious supervisee than they would with the excited
supervisee. Immediacy, compliments, and the miracle questions are coun-
seling skills that exemplify this EI domain.
Being in tune with one’s emotion does not imply blindly following one’s
emotional reactions, or “gut” feelings. However, we want to stress that to
be emotionally intelligent means integrating both thinking and feeling to
help make informed decisions. Thoughtful reflection on emotional cues
aids us in determining if these feelings and their associated desires reflect

our values of what is healthy and worthwhile.
The third branch, understanding and analyzing emotions, represents (a)
the ability to differentiate and label complex feelings and emotions; (b) the
ability to understand the causes of emotions; and (c) the ability to under-
stand the relationships among emotions. In addition to accurately identi-
fying emotions, this branch concerns the ability to correctly discriminate
between the various shades of emotions. For instance, as my supervisee
discusses a difficult case with me, is she experiencing anger or mild frustra-
tion? Is she feeling hopeless about this case, or is she feeling worried about
the outcome? Or, is she experiencing all these emotions? How do I under-
stand what may be causing these feelings? To be an emotionally intelligent
supervisor requires one to pick up on the fine nuances of emotions and to
correctly discriminate between them. We don’t want to confuse rage with
irritation or grief with despair, for instance. By doing so, we can model
to our supervisees this ability to differentiate emotions, and they in turn
can begin to use this skill in their own work with clients. Personalizing
meaning and problem, reframing, interpretation, and advanced empathy
are counseling skills reflecting ability in this EI domain.
Finally, the fourth branch of EI is managing emotions. This essentially
includes the ability to stay open to our emotional experience and to regu-
late and alter the affective reactions of self and others. To pause and reflect
upon our emotional experiences without blindly acting them out is one
of the defining traits of being human. From infancy we learn to regulate
our emotions. Babies will engage in thumb sucking behaviors in order to
self-soothe, and adults, for example, will take deep breaths to help calm
themselves in the face of anxiety (Greenberg, 2002). Yet, it is important to
stress that this EI skill does not mean emotional suppression. We cannot
control when and what emotions will arise, but we can control and regulate
how we respond to those emotions (Malan & Coughlin Della Selva, 2006).
Supervisors may not be able to control the experience of angry feelings in
response to a supervisee, but they can regulate how they respond to those
feelings. They may count to 10, use coping self-talk, or verbally express to
the supervisee their feelings and reaction. Supervisors with higher levels
of EI are able to access their inner resources and utilize appropriate tech-
niques to regulate their emotions for the betterment of the supervisory
relationship. Relaxation and mindfulness are skills that exemplify those
in this EI domain.
The fourth EI branch also includes the ability to regulate emotion in oth-
ers. Siegel (1999) has proposed that our understanding of emotions should
take into account a more interpersonally oriented explanation of the gen-
esis of emotion. According to Siegel, we need to begin thinking of emotion
not so much as existing only within the individual, but that emotions are
also created in a relationship between people. Siegel writes that “Emotion

also reflects the essential way in which the mind emerges from the interface
between neurophysiological processes and interpersonal relationships” (p.
131). Thus, in relationship, we can help regulate the emotions of others,
which of course has long been the affair of psychotherapeutic work. And
we unconsciously engage in such emotion-regulating activities with oth-
ers on a regular basis. We may place a hand on a friend’s shoulder to ges-
ture concern as he or she discusses a difficult day; we may soften our voice
and speak in soothing tones to a coworker who is upset; we may alter our
body position toward someone who is angry, providing him or her with a
safer “space” that is less threatening; and we may verbally reassure some-
one experiencing shame and guilt. Reflect back to our prior example of
the supervisee who was experiencing anxiety about a client. The supervi-
sor who recognized the supervisee’s anxiety used EI skills to help regulate
the anxiety by offering supportive and affirming empathic responses. Also
note that this example illustrates the typical hierarchical sequence of the
four branches of EI. The supervisor used the first branch of EI to accurately
identify that the supervisee was indeed experiencing anxiety. With this
identification of emotion, the supervisor was able to use the second branch
of EI to facilitate making a judgment concerning how to proceed with the
supervisee. In the third branch, the supervisor used EI skills to aid in bet-
ter understanding the possible cause and consequence of the anxiety, and
based on this information, was able to use EI skills in the final branch to
help regulate the supervisee’s anxiety to manageable levels.
Trait Versus Ability EI

As we noted earlier, since the publication of Salovey and Mayer’s (1990) ini-
tial paper on EI, there have been several differing conceptualizations of EI in
the literature (e.g., Bar-On, 2000; Goleman, 1995). Tett et al. (2005) divided
these differing conceptualizations into two general categories: (a) ability EI
and (b) trait EI. As an ability, EI represents a set of cognitive skills assessed
via maximal performance measures in recognizing emotional informa-
tion and using this information to carry out abstract reasoning and direct
response strategies. Trait EI, or emotional self-efficacy, is a personality trait
that encompasses emotion-related self-perceptions and dispositions, and
is measured by self-report inventories (Petrides & Furnham, 2001). Trait
EI refers to “a constellation of behavioral dispositions and self-perceptions
concerning one’s ability to recognize, process, and utilize emotion-laden
information” (Petrides, Furnham, & Frederickson, 2004, p. 278). In other
words, trait EI measures the extent to which one believes EI skills exist;
whereas ability EI actually measures how well one uses those EI skills.
It is important to make this distinction between ability and trait EI,
because many of the EI studies in the literature have only assessed for trait
EI, or individuals’ perception of their proficiency in using EI. Although

more research needs to be done on ability EI, what has been done has
found trait EI to be predictive of such constructs as counselor empathy and
the strength and quality of professional and interpersonal relationships
(Brackett, Warner, & Bosco, 2005; Lopez et al., 2004; Schutte et al., 2001).
Thus, a person’s belief that he or she does have strong EI skills, or emo-
tional self-efficacy will bear a positive impact on the quality and strength
of that person’s interpersonal relationships. This has important implica-
tions for the supervisory relationship.
Emotional Intelligence in Personal and Professional Relationships

Because empirical and theoretical literature on the role and function
of EI in counseling supervision is limited, findings on the impact of
EI in other types of relationships provide important points of refer-
ence for counseling supervisors to understand the potential utility of
EI in counseling supervision. A number of studies have explored the
effects of EI on both personal and professional relationships; and over-
all, these studies have found EI to be predictive of both the quality and
strength of those relationships (Brackett, Mayer, & Warner, 2004; Lopez
et al., 2004; Wong & Law, 2002). For example, in a series of studies that
explored the influence of EI on interpersonal relationships, Schutte et
al. (2001) found trait EI to be positively associated with such qualities as
empathic concern, the ability to self-monitor, and marital satisfaction.
Participants with higher EI scores desired more inclusion and more
affection in their relationships, showed more cooperative responses
toward their partners, and gave the highest satisfaction rating to their
partners who were adept at recognizing and managing emotions in self
and others.
Similar to the research findings on EI and interpersonal relationships,
investigations into the influence of EI on professional relationships (e.g.,
manager/subordinate relationships) have also found a positive association.
Several studies have found self-report EI to be predictive of conflict reso-
lution skills among supervisors and staff, subordinate job performance,
management effectiveness, and overall team cohesiveness (Jordan & Troth,
2002; Rahim et al., 2002; Rapisarda, 2002). Jordan and Troth (2002) found
that employees’ EI, specifically the ability to deal with emotions and the
discussion and control of emotions, was positively related to the use of a
collaborative conflict resolution style. Similarly, Rahim et al. (2002) found
that the EI of the supervisors, specifically their self-awareness, self-regula-
tion, empathy, and social skills, were positively associated with their subor-
dinates’ use of problem-solving strategies. These studies indicated that EI,
specifically the management of emotions and self-awareness factors, can
enhance the effective use of problem-solving and conflict resolution skills
within professional relationships, and that managers’ EI can have a posi-

tive impact on their subordinates’ ability to effectively solve problems.
EI in Counseling Research
To date, limited research exists on EI and counseling and related fields.
Existing findings support the relationship between EI and counseling
skills self-efficacy. Martin, Easton, Wilson Takemoto, and Sullivan (2004)
found that EI scores predicted counselor self-efficacy and differentiated
noncounselors from both counseling students and professional counsel-
ors. In Phase II of their study, Easton, Martin, and Wilson (2008) reported
findings that corroborated those in Phase I. They further found that two EI
factors (i.e., identifying own emotions and identifying other’s emotions) cor-
related significantly with most of the scales in the counseling self-efficacy
measure. In a recent study that examined the relationship between coun-
seling students’ empathy and their level of EI, researchers found that EI
explained a significant proportion of the variance in counselor empathy
(Miville, Carlozzi, Gushue, Schara, & Ueda, 2006).
Because of the important role emotion plays in relationships, as well as
the significance of the supervisory working alliance in contributing toward
supervision effectiveness and satisfaction (Wheeler, 2002), Cooper and Ng
(2008) investigated the relationships between supervisor and supervisee
trait EI and perceived supervisory working alliance among 64 master’s-
level, community-setting, internship-supervisory dyads. They found that
supervisees and supervisors with higher levels of trait EI tended to report
higher levels of the supervisory working alliance. Their findings further
revealed that the predictive strength of supervisor trait EI on the working
alliance was much stronger for supervisors than for supervisees. Perhaps,
more advanced practitioners (viz., supervisors) are (a) more self-aware of
their emotional efficacy and are able to use their emotional skills to facili-
tate the development and maintenance of the working alliance, and/or (b)
supervisors were able to use their advanced training and experience in
supervision to help them foster working alliance with their supervisees,
thus, leading to a stronger working alliance. Though preliminary, these
findings suggest EI plays an important role in the development and main-
tenance of the working alliance in supervision.
Application of EI to the Supervisory Process

Identification of Emotions in Self and Others
As discussed earlier in the chapter, one of the core components of EI is
the identification of emotion in self and other. Counseling supervisors
can use this skill to: (a) identify their own internal emotional responses
to our supervisees, and (b) to help supervisees identify the emotions they
experience in relationship to either their clients or their experience of the
supervision process. What can supervisors gain by becoming aware of
their emotional responses towards their supervisees? First, their emotional
responses potentially provide them with important information regarding
the state of their working alliance with their supervisees. Second, through
parallel process, supervisors could be experiencing some of the feelings
their supervisees experience toward their clients or their supervision ses-
sions. Either way, paying attention to emotions can provide insights into
important areas that may need further exploration and clarification. The
following case example illustrates the process.
Supervisor: I have noticed a recurring feeling I keep experiencing throughout
our session together today, and would like to share it with you, and
I also would be interested in your take on this. (Use of relational
immediacy in collaborative invitation and alliance building.)
Trainee: Sure, what is it?
Supervisor: As you were talking about this case, I noticed feeling distant and
disconnected; it is subtle, but there. (Identifying the emotions.)
Trainee: Mmm … you mean with me right now?
Supervisor: Well, yes with you, but also with the client’s case you have been
sharing as well.
Trainee: That is interesting, because I feel that way with this client some-
times in our sessions. Honestly, I get bored. She goes on and on,
and I don’t know what to do with her anymore.
Supervisor: So you are experiencing some of the same feelings with your
client that we are now experiencing in our session together. I
think it is important to look at this, because we don’t want to
continue this pattern; here or with your client. What do you
think this feeling is trying to tell you? (Exploring how emotions
provide important information about relationships.)
Trainee: Well, really, to be honest, it means that we are not connecting at
all with each other—I mean with my client, and I guess with
you today, too.
Supervisor: Right, I agree with you. What do you think this disconnect
with your client is about?
Trainee: I guess in some ways it is how we avoid exploring what is hard to
talk about … . I think sometimes with my client we avoid deal-
ing with the real issues, and so I just let her go on and on. But
it’s not helpful.
In this vignette, the supervisor, by paying close attention to her feelings
(bored and disconnected) within the supervision session, was able to use
this EI skill to form an intervention with her supervisee. However, when
using this EI skill, it is important for the supervisor to first reflect upon the
identified emotion and make an effort to understand the possible meaning
of the emotion before intervening with supervisees. Supervisors need to
make sure that the emotion does not stem from their blind spots or unre-
solved issues, and that it truly reflects the dynamic of the supervisory rela-
tionship. Care should be taken when addressing the topic with supervisees
to avoid rupturing the supervisory working alliance.
Using EI to Facilitate the Emotional Bond

One of the supervisor’s primary tasks in early supervision is to establish
a strong supervisory relationship with supervisees (Patton and Kivlighan,
1997). Bordin (1983) operationalized the supervisory relationship as the
mutual agreement of the goals and tasks of supervision as well as the emo-
tional bond (i.e., the mutual feeling of liking, caring, and trusting) between
the supervisor and the supervisee. The case example below illustrates how
EI skills can be used to strengthen the emotional bond with a supervisee
who is displaying a number of “resistant” behaviors: missing supervision
sessions, coming late to sessions, and arguing with the supervisor over
interventions and theory.
Supervisor: I’d like to do something different today and focus on our rela-
tionship for some of the session. Is that ok with you?
Trainee: Sure.
Supervisor: I was thinking that in order to help me be most helpful to you,
I would really like some feedback about how you have experi-
enced our work together so far.
Trainee: Mmm … it’s been ok, pretty good, I guess. (Trainee gives vague
response and frowns.)
Supervisor: You think it’s “pretty good.” I noticed when you said “pretty
good,” you frowned. Can you recall what your feeling was just
then? (Use immediacy and confrontation skills to focus on non-
verbal and associated feeling.)
Trainee: Mmm … a little irritation I guess.
Supervisor: Ok. Could you tell me more about that feeling?
Trainee: Well, it’s just … sometimes I feel like you expect me to be perfect, and
I get frustrated when you tell me what I ought to do with a client
… like I can’t make any mistakes or don’t have ideas of my own.
(Trainee does not name any specific feelings, but offers thoughts
associated with feelings of irritation about supervision.)
Supervisor: So you’re feeling pressured from me to be a perfect counselor,
and also feeling dismissed when I give you ideas to try or offer
intervention suggestions. I understand, and personally have felt
some tension, both within me and between us. (Personalizing
supervisee’s emotional experience. Self disclosing and naming

the implied feelings.)
Trainee: Oh, yeah, I agree … and you have definitely irritated me a few
times! (Supervisee smiles.)
Supervisor: (Choosing to strengthen the alliance.) You feel irritated when
you experience me pressuring you to perform and dismissing
you. I want to assure you that it’s never my intent to cause to
dismiss you. So my question now is: What would you like to be
different about how we work together?
Here the supervisor explored the supervisee’s feelings toward him (the
supervisor) and his approach to the supervisee within supervision sessions.
Once some of the feelings were identified and expressed, the supervisor
used this emotional awareness to explore the nature of their misalliance
and how they both could begin to repair the rupture in their relationship.
Using EI Skills to Understand, Analyze, Assimilate,

and Regulate Emotion in Self
In the following example, the supervisee is having difficulty with a client
who has been fairly inactive in therapy and has been missing some sessions
as well. The supervisor begins to help the supervisee explore her feelings
about the client (identification, understanding, and regulation of emotions)
and then begins to look at how these feelings may be affecting the ther-
apy relationship with her client. Finally, the supervisor uses the EI skill of
assimilating emotions into thought to help the trainee begin to identify how
she might intervene in new and different ways.
Supervisee: (Discussing her client.) I don’t know, she seems to close up on
me and has not done any of the homework I’ve given her, and she
has missed the last session. I don’t know what to do about it.
Supervisor: Right. Help me understand the feeling you have toward your
client.
Supervisee: I feel like she needs to appreciate all the effort I am putting into
helping her! (Supervisee confuses a thought for her feelings.)
Supervisor: Yes, you want her to appreciate your efforts to help, and when
you say this to yourself—”she does not appreciate all the hard
work I am doing—What do you feel toward her? (Supervisor
reframed her initial statement as a thought, and continued mild
pressure for her to identify the feelings.)
Supervisee: (pause) Mmm … good question … . I am not sure what I am
feeling right now …
Supervisor: Ok, let’s try this. If you pay attention right now to your body—
what do you notice physically as you think about your client and
this issue you are having with her? (Helping trainee to develop
awareness of how feelings have a physical counterpart, which

aids in the identification and regulation of emotion.)
Supervisee: I feel tense, uptight.
Supervisor: If you were to give it a name, how might you name the emotion
that is related to this physical experience?
Supervisee: Mm … I’d say nervousness and irritation. And, well … to be
honest, I am also frustrated with her. It makes me angry that I
feel like I am working harder than she is. I feel like I am wasting
my time with her. (Here our trainee continues to differentiate
her feelings, specifically anger and frustration from her anxiety,
which aids in the regulation of emotion. She also seems to blame
her client for causing her emotional reactions.)
Supervisor: Exactly, so in addition to the anxiety, you are also feeling quite
angry toward your client. You don’t want to work harder than
she does. Let’s take a moment to explore how these feelings have
been affecting your work with her and how you can use these
emotional responses to help you understand yourself and your
client. (Affirming supervisee, naming specific feelings, and col-
laborative invitation to explore.)
Supervisee: (Pause) I would say I have been more curt and impatient, and
tend to problem-solve with her. Give her suggestions and home-
work, stuff like that. I have noticed that when giving her advice
she tends to shut down on me. Mm … I think she’s probably not
ready for my suggestions.
Supervisor: Right. What else might be happening?
Supervisee: Mm … wow, I think I’ve jumped the gun. What she needs from
me is not advice.
Supervisor: Here are a couple things I’d like to suggest you to work on this
week. First, consider what you can do when you notice your-
self feeling tense, uptight, and irritated with your client. Second,
consider what might be happening to your client? Is she really
not ready to hear your suggestions or problem-solving? Then,
think about what needs to happen so your relationship with
your client can be different.
In this vignette, the supervisor helped the trainee to become aware of her
feelings about her client and used this to explore how these feelings were
in turn affecting her work. Through this process a number of important EI
skills were used: The identification of emotions (anxiety and anger), under-
standing, analyzing, and regulation of emotion (differentiating shades of
emotions, specifically anxiety from anger), and finally the supervisor
began to use the skill of assimilating emotions into thought by encouraging
her to explore how these feelings have affected her work with this client,
and how she can use this awareness to examine how she might intervene
differently next time.
An Emotionally Intelligent Supervisor

Overall, research findings support the important role emotions play in super-
vision and counseling. In counseling, emotions bond the client and counselor
in a therapeutic alliance. The counselor’s ability to facilitate the identification
of emotions and emotional awareness within the client enhances learning
and contributes to client change (Carter, 2003; Heesacker & Bradley, 1997).
Based on findings regarding EI in both professional and personal relation-
ships, counseling supervisors can begin to conceptualize how they can use
EI to accomplish two broad goals with their supervisees. First, they can help
their supervisees identify and develop a greater awareness of emotions and
emotional cues both within themselves and in their clients. With this aware-
ness, supervisors can help their trainees use this information to enhance the
quality of the services they render to their clients. Second, supervisors can
use EI to aid in their own work with their supervisees; for instance, fostering
the development of a sound supervisory working alliance, managing and
repairing ruptures in the alliance as they occur, and assisting in determin-
ing the types of interventions to use to promote the development of supervi-
sees’ clinical skills and professional dispositions.
Based on current theoretical understanding and empirical research
on emotions and EI in human relationship functioning in general, and
in counseling, psychotherapy, and counseling training in particular, we
posit that the theory of EI provides a heuristic to conceptualize the role
and functions of emotions, as well as to organize and utilize the emo-
tional experiences of the therapeutic triad (i.e., supervisors, supervisees,
and clients) to promote growth and healing for members of the triad. As
such, based on Mayer and Salovey’s (1990) EI model, we offer the follow-
ing hypotheses on the relationships between EI and supervision as start-
ing points to begin the discourse in the counseling supervision literature.
Supervisors with higher levels of EI have:
1. Higher levels of knowledge about the role and functions of emo-
tions in human functioning (e.g., thoughts and behavior) in gen-
eral, and in the context of supervision in particular.
2. Higher levels of skill in identifying emotions in themselves, their
supervisees, and their supervisees’ clients.
3. Greater ability to generate necessary emotions to facilitate their
thought processes and behavior, as well as those of their super-
visees, in order to achieve higher levels of supervisory working
alliance and better supervision outcomes.
4. Higher levels of skill in utilizing emotional information in the

context of supervision to promote supervisees learning about
themselves as well as how to foster effective therapeutic working
alliances with their clients.
5. More skill at managing their own and their supervisees’ emotions
in the context of supervision, thereby bringing about better super-
vision outcomes.
6. Greater levels of psychological well-being.
7. More skill at teaching and role-modeling to their supervisees how
to assist their clients gain EI skills in order to achieve greater emo-
tionally well-being.
In conclusion, what we have attempted in this chapter is to begin a conver-
sation on emotions and EI in relation to counseling supervision because
such discussion has been curiously missing in the counseling supervision
literature. The field is wide open, though leadership and supervision lit-
erature in other disciplines have begun examining the role of EI in their
work in recent decades. We recommend that supervision theorists and
researchers further explore the role of emotion and the theory of EI in
supervision. Future research should investigate personal characteristics
and supervision skills of supervisors who have high levels of EI. Studies
should also explore if interactive effect between supervisor and supervi-
see EI exists in relation to supervisory processes and outcomes. Future
work should examine if what we have delineated above regarding EI in
the context of supervision can be supported empirically. Studies should
also investigate how cultural and diversity factors interact with EI in the
context of supervision. Because extant EI studies in counseling on trait
EI relied on self-report measures, future studies should also determine if
ability EI is a better predictor of supervisory processes and outcomes than
trait EI.
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Index
A Centra courseware, 79; see also

Technology use
Art and creative therapy use in clinical Change, transtheoretical model
supervision action supervisee, 185–186
Bibliotherapy, see Bibliotherapy catharsis, 176
overview, 87 choice, 176
psychodrama, see Psychodrama
conditional stimuli, 176
puppetry, see Puppetry
consciousness raising, 175–176
purpose of, 87–88
contemplation supervisee, 183–184
sandtray-worldplay, see Sandtray-
contingency control, 176–177
worldplay
counterconditioning, 176
discrimination model, 180–181,
B 183–184, 186–187
Bandura, A., 140 integrated development model, 180,
Bias, counselor, 157–159 182
Bibliotherapy levels of, 178–179, 187–189
framework (actual book series), maintenance supervisee, 186–187
106–108 overview, 173–174
Graham model overview, 104–105 Piaget’s model, 174–175
materials needed, 106 precontemplation supervisee,
modality, 105 181–183
overview, 104 preparation supervisee, 184–185
reactions to, 109–110 process of, 175–176
Bug-in-the-ear (BITE), 65; see also stages of, 177–178
Technology use supervision as change process,
179–181
Clinical supervision
C
change, model of, see Change,
Catharsis, 176 transtheoretical model
229
230 • Index
development models of, 140–141, research on, 218

143–144 supervision, emotions in, 211–213
discrimination models, 140 trait versus ability, 216–217
multicultural, see Multicultural Emotions; see also Emotional
supervision intelligence in supervision
triadic, see Triadic supervision awareness of, 207–208
Cognitive-behavioral therapy, 211–212 definition, 207, 208
Confidentiality, 56, 77–78 function of, 208–209
Continuum of Supervisor Multicultural gender, relationship between, 212
Competence, 7–10 identifying, 218–220
Counselors-in-training identity managing, 215
development, 98–99 regulating, 221–223
Counterconditioning, 176 social communication via, 209
Culture; see also Multicultural Empathy, 27–28
supervision EPSI, see Evaluation Process within
definition, 2 Supervision Inventory (EPSI)
self-awareness of, 2 Epston, David, 192
Ethics
D Confidentiality, see Confidentiality
contract, outlined in a written, 38–39
Darwin, Charles, 208–209
informed consent, see Informed
Developmental models of counselor
consent
supervision, 140–141, 143–144
teaching via technology, 72
Discrimination model of supervisor
technology use, related to, 77–78, 82
training, 140
termination, 56–57
Diversity
triadic supervision, regarding, 56–57
multicultural supervision, see
Evaluation Process within Supervision
Multicultural supervision
supervisory competencies, impact Inventory (EPSI), 20
on, 1 Evaluations, supervisee
United States, within, 1 criteria, 20
evaluation, 23–24
evaluative exchange, 32
E feedback, 21–22, 23, 24, 26–28
E-supervision, 78–79; see also formative, 21, 22
Technology use job description, written, 40
Ego development, 98 mentoring aspect, 33
Emotional intelligence in supervision; narrative reviews, 31–32
see also Emotions nervousness regarding, 19–20
bond, emotional, 220–221 notes, maintaining, 29–30
counseling, emotions in, 210 self-efficacy, impact on, 24
defining, 213 soliciting feedback from, 28–29
gender of supervisee, role of, 212 summative, 21, 22–23
goals, 223–224 surprises, avoiding, 27, 33
hierarchy of EI, 213–216 written supervision contract, 25–26,
identifying emotions in supervision 34–37, 38–39, 40–42
process, 218–220
management skills, emotional, 210 F
overview, 207–208
personal relationships, 217 Focused Risk Management Supervision
professional relationships, 217–218 System (FoRMSS), 29
Index • 231
FoRMSS, see Focused Risk Management M

Supervision System (FoRMSS)
Free will, 176 Moral preferences, 200–201
Multicultural supervision
activities for developing competency,
G 12–15
activity, competence in, 10
Gestalt therapy, 111
competence, challenges to, 6–7
Goleman, Daniel, 213; see also
conceptualization, competence in, 8
Emotional intelligence in
counseling competencies, 2–3
supervision definition, 1–2
Graham, Mary Amanda, 88, 104 evaluation, competence in, 9–10
intervention/skills, competence in, 8
H models of, 3–6
multiplicities of cultural identities, 2
Heuristic Model of Nonoppressive open dialogue, importance of, 2
Interpersonal Development personal development, competence
(HMNID), 5–6 in, 8
HMNID, see Heuristic Model of process, competence in, 9
Nonoppressive Interpersonal professional organizations and
Development (HMNID) approach to, 3
recommendations for competency,
10–12
I
religion and spirituality aspect,
Identity development of counselors-in- 156–157
training, 98–99 training, 7
Informed consent, 56, 59 value systems, 7
Intentionality, 191
Interpersonal conflict, 188 N
Interpersonal process recall (IPR), 192
creative thinking, 201 Narrative therapy
model, suggested, 197–201 history of, 192–193
narrative approach, relationship identity, establishing, 197
overview, 191–192
between, 196–197
right of passage metaphor, 195
questioning, application of, 203–204
sensitivity of approach, 193–195
relationship building, 198
silencing technique, 196
supervision utilizing, 192–197
videotape review, 201–203
Interpersonal Process Recall with the P
Discrimination Model, 4 Personality characteristics of good
supervisors, 137–138
K Piaget, Jean, 174–175
Practicums, 51, 132
Kalff, Dora, 112 Psychodrama
affective seating chart, 101–102, 103
L best practices, 102–103
materials needed, 100
Landro Play Analyzer, 68 modality, 101
Lewis, Sinclair, 151 overview, 98–99
Lowenfield, Margaret, 111 role talk, 99
232 • Index
setting, 100 S
sociometric exercises, 99
stages of, 100 Sandtray-worldplay
supervisor training, 103 child’s play, importance of, 111
Psychotherapy Supervisor Development cultural background, 111
Scale (PSDS), 138 group, real-life example of use by,
Puppetry 118–119
challenges, 97 history of, 111–112
emotional roles of puppets, 89, 91, 92 individual, real-life example of use
modality, 92 by, 117–118
overview, 88 materials, 113–114
processing in supervision, 92–94, overview, 110–111
92–97 process, 112–113
setting, 89 processing in supervision, 114–117
supervisor/supervisee brainstorming, stage development, 119–122
96 supervisees, use by, 122–123
types of puppets, 89 transference issues, 112, 115–117
usefulness, 97, 98 SAS, see Systems Approach to
Supervision (SAS)
Scholl, Mark, 88, 98
R Schubach DeDomenico, Gisela, 112
Racial identity development (RID) Self-efficacy, 140
model, 4–5; see also Shrode, Caroline, 104
Multicultural supervision Smith-Adcock, Sondra, 88, 98
Rapisarda, Clarrice, 88 Socratic method, 144
Reflection papers, 13 Spirituality, see Religion and spirituality
Religion and spirituality Supervisee Performance Assessment
assessing in clients, 161–163 Instrument, 20
bias, counselor, 157–159 Supervision, triadic, see Triadic
clergy, involving, 167 supervision
clinical supervision, use in, 154–155 Supervisor Complexity Model, 137
competencies, 159–160 Supervisor training programs
coursework needed to prepare accreditation, 131
counselors, 153–154 core content areas, 128
cultural aspect of, 152 curriculum guide, 129–130
hostility toward, in clients, 164 developmental approach, 136–140
individuality of, 155–157 Heid strand model, 138–140
integration into counseling, 153 intentionality, 141–142
models of, 163–165 learning theory, 142–146
parallel process, 167–168 overview, 127
pastoral care, 167 standards, 129
pluralism, 152–153 types of instruction, 130–135
psycho-spiritual viewpoints, variety of models, employing,
harmful, 166–167 140–142
role in counseling, 151 Supervisors
secular counseling, versus, 154 definition, 46
supervisee training, 159–163, degrees, academic, 46–47
167–168 differences among (training,
RID model, see Racial identity backgrounds, etc.), 47
development (RID) model evaluations of supervisees, see
Rogers, Carol, 63 Evaluations, supervisee
Index • 233
experience needed, 47 Training, supervisor, see Supervisor

feedback, obtaining from training programs
supervisees, 28–29, 32 Triadic supervision
gatekeeper role, 24 accreditation standards, 45, 48
job description, written, 40 administrative practices, best, 57–58
mentor role, 33 anxiety issues of supervisees, 48–49
multicultural issues, see benefits of, 54–55
Multicultural supervision clinical practices, best, 58–61
Systems Approach to Supervision (SAS), conflicts, 52
3–4 crisis cases, 49–50
cross-racial or cross-cultural, 1; see
T also Multicultural supervision
definition, 46
Technology use ethical considerations, 52, 56
adoption policies for supervision, Forming stage, 54
80–82 logistical issues, 54
asynchronous, 64, 66
management issues, 49–50
bug-in-the-ear (BITE), 65
overview, 45–46
Centra courseware, 79
process, 48
clinical supervision, in, 68–69, 71–73
professional standards, 52
Columbus State University, by, 69–70,
program considerations, 50–51
71–75
relational elements, 47–48
digital audio recording, 66
relational issues, 53–54
digital video recording, 66–68, 69–70
e-mail, 64, 78–79 supervisee defensiveness, 60
e-supervision, 78–79 supervisee development, 53
ethical issues, 77, 82 supervisor considerations, 51–52
future trends, 82–83 supervisor/supervisee ratio, 51–52
Landro Play Analyzer, 68 systemic counseling models, 49
LISTSERV, 64, 76 theories of, 48–49
monitor text, 65 time constraints, 50
preparation, 81 time management, 59
purchase costs, 81 training, supervisor, 58
real-time phone calls, 63–64, 65 Tucker, Catherine, 88, 110
social networking, 83
synchronous, 64 V
teaching tool, 69
training (technology), 81 Videoconferencing, 64, 75–78
updating, 82 Videotaping supervision sessions
videoconferencing, see digital recordings, 66–68
Videoconferencing history of, 63, 74–75
videotaping, see Videotaping IPR, usefulness during, 201–203
supervision sessions value of, 63
Virginia Tech Faculty Development VISION model, 4
Institute, by, 75–78
virtual presence, 83 W
Web 2.0, 83
Web-based instruction, 73–74 Wells, H.G., 111
Web-based supervisor training, White, Michael, 192
79–80 Wittmann, Elaine, 88, 110

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New York London

Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper

International Standard Book Number: 978-0-415-99130-8 (Hardback)

Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

1 Multicultural Supervision Competence 1

2 No Surprises: Practices for Conducting

4 Innovative Uses of Technology in Clinical Supervision 63

5 Using Expressive Arts in Counseling Supervision 87

6 Principles of Best Practices for Clinical Supervisor

7 Religion, Spirituality, and Clinical Supervision 151

8 The Transtheoretical Model of Change in

9 Applications of Narrative Therapy in Supervision 191

10 On Becoming an Emotionally Intelligent

dealing with a current challenging supervisory situation in a different and

well trained supervisors capable of delivering oversight to either counselor

answer to exactly how supervision contributes to the process for clients

John R. Culbreth, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor in the Counseling

Lori L. Brown, Ph.D., is currently a Professional School Counselor and

Michael L. Baltimore, Ph.D., earned his doctorate in Counselor Education

L. DiAnne Borders, Ph.D., is Burlington Industries Excellence Professor

Craig S. Cashwell, Ph.D., LPC, NCC, ACS, is a professor in the Depart­

the Board of Directors for the Council for Accreditation of Counseling

Catherine Y. Chang, Ph.D., is an associate professor at Georgia State

Joseph B. Cooper, Ph.D., is an assistant professor of psychology in the

Lea R. Flowers, Ph.D., LPC, NCC, is an assistant professor in the

Hildy G. Getz, Ph.D., is Associate Professor Emeritus of counselor edu-

S. Lenoir Gillam, Ph.D., is a professor in the Department of Counseling,

Mary Amanda Graham, Ph.D., is an assistant professor in the Counseling

Charles F. Gressard, Ph.D., is an associate professor in the Counselor

Marty Jencius, Ph.D., is an associate professor in the Counseling and

Brandy L. Kelly, Ph.D., is a full-time practitioner in Ohio. She provides,

Kok-Mun Ng, Ph.D., LPC, NCC, is an associate professor in the Depart­

Cynthia J. Osborn, Ph.D., is an associate professor in the Counseling

Clarrice Rapisarda, Ph.D., is an assistant professor in the Department of

Mark B. Scholl, Ph.D., is an assistant professor in the Department of

Sondra Smith-Adcock, Ph.D., is an associate professor in Counselor

Debbie Crawford Sturm, Ph.D., is a Clinical Assistant Professor at the

Catherine Tucker, Ph.D., is an assistant professor of counseling at Indiana

J. Scott Young, Ph.D., is a professor and chair of the Department of

Elaine Wittmann is a Licensed Professional Counselor, an Approved

Importance of Multicultural Supervision

are engaged in a triadic relationship that involves the intermingling of

need for professional counselors to seek awareness of their own assump-

Models for Multicultural Supervision

establishing a professional relationship, and focusing on both content and

and integrative awareness. Applying these RID models to the supervisor

Challenges to Multicultural Supervision Competence

found that participants in her study reported a range of frequencies. Some

Multicultural Supervision Competence

who were engaged in a multicultural supervisory relationship. The themes

2. Supervisors are encouraged to assist their supervisees in self-

they are putting on their “power hat” in supervision. For example,

The Name Story (Edchange Multicultural Pavilion)

Self and Other Exercise (Baird, 2005)

1. My gender is , and this is how it might influence

8. My sexual orientation is .

discussed the challenges to and provided some recommendations and sug-

D’Andrea, M., & Daniels, J. (1997). Multicultural counseling supervision: Central

Locke, D. C. (1990). A not so provincial view of multicultural counseling. Counselor

“I will be evaluating your work as a counselor” may not only be difficult

supervision … . Because we are always communicating, an evaluative mes-

enhance supervisee professional development. We provide examples from

Craig S. Cashwell, Ph.D., LPC, NCC, ACS, is a professor in the Depart

Kok-Mun Ng, Ph.D., LPC, NCC, is an associate professor in the Depart