Transactions of the IMF

The International Journal of Surface Engineering and Coatings

ISSN: 0020-2967 (Print) 1745-9192 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ytim20

Electroless Deposition of Metals

Charlie Kerr, Des Barker & Frank Walsh

To cite this article: Charlie Kerr, Des Barker & Frank Walsh (2001) Electroless Deposition of
Metals, Transactions of the IMF, 79:1, 41-46, DOI: 10.1080/00202967.2001.11871359

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00202967.2001.11871359

Published online: 08 May 2017.

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 Education Topics Number 8
Charlie Kerr, Des Barker &
Frank Walsh*
Applied Electrochemistry Group, Centre for
Chemistry, University of Portsmouth, White
Swan Road, Portsmouth POl 2DT, U.K.
'From I Jan 2001 Prof Walsh is at Dept.
Chemical Engineering, Bath University,
Claverton Down. Bath, BA2 7AY. UK.
Downloaded by [Universite Laval] at 01:57 03 August 2017
C. Kerr, D. Barker & F. Walsh, Trans. IMF, 2001,
79(1), 41
Trans IMF, 2001, 79(1)
Electroless Deposition of
Metals
This time, we look at the electroless plating of
metals. The topics considered will be (a) the
characteristics of electro less processes, (b)
typical bath compositions tor nickel and copper,
(c) deposit properties and applications, (d) the
effect of process variables on the deposit
properties and (e) advantages and limitations of
the electroless deposition technique.
Ql What are the main differences between
electroplating (electrolytic), immersion,
and electroless plating solutions?'-2
A. Essentially. the main difference between
the 3 types of plating solution is the
anodic reaction that supports the cathodic
one of metal deposition.
(I) In electroplating baths, the anode is
separate and dissolves into solution
(oxidation):
e.g. Ni- 2e- ~ Ni 2•
The metal plates out onto the cathode.
ideally at I 00% efficiency and at the
same rate:
An alternative anodic reaction (and
source of electrons) is the evolution of
oxygen, as a by-product ofthe oxidation
of Hp. In acid solution:
(2) In immersion plating solutions, simple
displacement results as the substrate
material dissolves (oxidation), while the
metal ions from the surrounding
electrolyte are plated (reduction) onto the
surface of the dissolving substrate. For
example, copper can immersion plate
onto carbon steel work-pieces:
Fe- 2e- ~ Fe2+ (anodic process)
Cu 2• + 2e- ~ Cu (cathodic process)
Fe+ Cu2• ~ Fe 2++ Cu (overall reaction
taking place on a single surface)
The reaction stops once the reducing
metal has covered the entire surface of
the substrate.
(3) In electro less processes the anodic reaction
is the oxidation of a reducing species, R
to a product and 0. This reaction supplies
the electrons required for the reduction of
metal ions from solution and onto the sur-
face. Both the oxidation and reduction
reactions occur at the same time, at the
same rate and on the same substrate but at
different sites (i.e., anodic and cathodic
sites, described in Q4 ). Once the substrate
has been covered, plating does not cease
because the plated deposit, itself: provides
a suitable catalytic surface for the con-
tinual growth of the deposit.
R- 2e- ~ 0 (anodic process)
Ni 2+ + 2e- ~ Ni (cathodic process)
NF+ + R ~ Ni + 0 (overall reaction
taking place on a single surface)
Q2 Which metals can be plated from
electro less plating solution ?2
A. Several commercial electroless plating
solutions are available on the market
which plate a variety of metals. The main
plating processes include: nickel. copper,
cobalt, palladium. silver. tin and gold.
Q3 What is electroless nickel and why use
it? 2-l
A. Electroless nickel (EN) plating is a process
that produces a nickel deposit on a variety
of substrates using a controlled chemical
reaction as a source of electrons from
specially formulated plating solutions.
Electroless nickel plating provides
corrosion and wear resistance. Other
characteristics of EN include enhanced
mechanical and thermal loading.
improved electrical and solderability
properties which are especially useful in
the ever-growing electronic industry. EN
coatings can also be applied to a number
of alternative materials. e.g .. plastics.
glass and ceramic. demonstrating the
versatility of the coating.
Typical applications of electroless
nickel deposition?'-3
Motor Industry
Heat sinks, drive shafts, gearwheels and
decorative components
Aerospace Industry
Hydraulic components, motor bearings.
couplings and decorative parts
Chemical Industry
Pipes and pipework. pressure cylinders.
filters and storage containers
Electronics
Memory discs, electronic components.
resistors. switchgear and EMI shielding
41
 Oil and Gas Industry sodium borohydride) as the reducing Table I. Formulation 1: a Low-Phosphorus EN
Valves, exhaust stacks, pipe casings and agent, up to 4% boron is occluded within Plating Bath
conveyor components the nickel deposit. Other unwanted by-
Bath property Value
products/residues can also be found
Food Industry and Meat Processing within the deposit, e.g., sulphur from the Nickel sulphate 25 g dm-3
Cutting knives, meat hooks, conveyor chains breakdown of stabiliser thiourea. Sodium hypophosphite 30 g dm-3
and rollers Sodium glycolate 30 g dm-'
Q6 What is a typical electroless nickel bath Sodium acetate 20 g dm-3
Textile Industry formulation, and what are its principle Lead 2 ppm
Needles, filament guides and extrusion nozzles operating conditions?H Thiourea 3 ppm
A. There are several commercial EN bath pH 5
Q4 What is the process of deposition? 2 formulations available in today's market. Temperature 9o·c
A. A simple answer to this question is Our examples shall be restricted to acid Plating rate 20 ~m h- 1
shown in Figure I. EN plating baths. Formulation (I) is of a Phosphorus content of the deposit 6-8%P
In the case of electroless nickel typical low phosphorus bath while
deposition, nickel ions in solution are formulations (2-3) are examples of a
reduced at the surface of the work-piece medium and a high phosphorus plating Table II. Formulation 2: a Medium-
to nickel metal: solution respectively. Principal operating Phosphorus EN Plating Bath
conditions of pH and temperature are
Bath property Value
Ni 2++ 2e- -7 Ni E' = -0.25 V vs. SHE included in Tables 1-111.
Nickel sulphate 20 g dm-3
The electrons needed for the nickel ion Q7 Do operating conditions affect the Sodium hypophosphite 24 g dm-'
reduction are provided by the oxidation nature of the deposit and what is the Malic acid 16 g dm-'
of the reducing agent, (hypophosphite is morphology of a typical electroless Succinic acid 18 g dm-'
oxidised to ortho-phosphite): nickel deposit?2-5 Lead I ppm
A. Any changes to bath temperature and/or pH 5.2
Hl02- + Hp -7 Hl0 3- + 2W + 2e- pH will alter the amount of phosphorus Temperature 95"C
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E' = -0.50 V vs. SHE co-deposited and the plating rate of the Plating rate 22 ~m h- 1
bath itself. The choice of bath Phosphorus content of the deposit 8-9%P
Once the metal has covered the surface, components (e.g., complexing agent,
the coating itself acts as a suitable stabiliser, exaltant and wetting agent) is
catalysis, allowing the propagation of the also important as they can become Table III. Formulation 3: a High-Phosphorus
deposit to continue. incorporated and subsequently alter EN Plating Bath
To produce coatings that self-catalyse the deposit characteristics.
Bath property Value
electroless deposition, it is necessary to use Metallographic studies reveal that EN
a reducing agent having a standard redox deposits are composed of a dense and Nickel sulphate 30 g dm-3
potential, E', which is more electronegative homogeneous structure which is often Sodium hypophosphite 36 g dm-'
than that of the metal undergoing laminated with individual layers31 • 88% Lactic acid 15 cm 3 dm-'
deposition reaction. In the case of According to Graham et a/, 28 there is also Malic acid 15 g dm-3
electroless nickel, sodium hypophosphite is a difference in structure between deposits Citric acid 10 g dm-'
suitable as it has an, E', of -0.50 V plated from alkaline and acid EN baths. Succinic acid 5 g dm-'
compared with that of nickel -0.25 V. Those containing less phosphorus and Propionic acid 5 cm 3 dm-3
deposited from alkaline baths tend to have Mo0 3 5 ppm
Q5 Does an EN plating solution produce a greater number of these laminations pH 4.8
deposits of pure nickel?3 compared to those plated from acidic Temperature 90"C
A. A simple answer is, no. Traces of the media. These laminations are attributed to Plating rate 10 ~m h- 1
reducing agent are always co-deposited periodic changes in the phosphorus content. Phosphorus content of the deposit IO-II%P
in the deposit. Typical commercial acid The deposit can also be
EN plating solutions produce alloys microcrystalline or amorphous; again this
containing between 6-12% phosphorus is attributed to the amount of phosphorus the formation of nickel phosphides, e.g.,
(this very much depends on operating found in the plated deposit. On heat Nil. The grain sizes range from 1.5-11
conditions and the type of formulation treatment at temperatures between 200 nm after the formation of these
used, see also Q6 & Q7). When using and 250•C, the structure alters and phosphides, and precipitation hardening
dimethylamine borohydride, DMAB (or becomes wholly crystalline because of within the deposit has occurred.

Q8 How many different types of electroless

nickel baths are commercially
available? 3
A. As shown in Questions 5, 6 & 7, there are
a variety of formulations available. They
can either be acid or alkaline with the
range of deposits plated from these baths
containing between 6-12% phosphorus.
In general, electroless nickel plating
NiDeposit
solutions can be classified by any of the
following characteristics, a) the reducing
agent used, b) bath pH, c) deposition
CATHODE ANODE temperature, d) plating rate and e)
(reduction) (oxidation) phosphorus content. A list of some of the
types of EN plating solutions is given below:
SUBSTRATE
I) Acid EN - Hypophosphite - Low
phosphorus - High Temperature
Figure 1. Electroless nickel deposition. (95•C)

42 Trans IMF. 2001, 79(1)

 2) Acid EN - Hypophosphite - instability. Because of this instability, In acid conditions, metal ions have a
Medium phosphorus - High stabilisers must be added to the solution. tendency to form metal precipitates, such
Temperature (95"C) as nickel phosphites. To overcome any
3) Acid EN - Hypophosphite - High Reducing agent. 5·9 Sodium precipitate formation, complexants are
phosphorus - High Temperature hypophosphite is almost exclusively used added to the bath. the choice and
(95°C) as the reducing agent in acid electroless concentration of which depend not only
4) Alkaline EN - Hypophosphite - nickel baths. The concentration of on metal ion concentration but also on
High Temperature (95°C) hypophosphite is determined by the level the chemical structure, functionality of
5) Alkaline EN - Hypophosphite - of NiS0 4 used. Typically a Ni to the type of chelate. Complexants within
Low Temperature (40°C) hypophosphite ratio of 0.25-0.6 is an electro less nickel plating solution play
6) Alkaline EN- Borohydride- High adopted (corresponding to approximately a dual role, that of complexant and of
Temperature (95°C) 30-40 g dm-3 hypophosphite). Keeping buffering agent. If buffers were not added
7) Alkaline EN - Borohydride - Low this ratio within strict limits is important to the bath, the pH would fall (become
Temperature (50°C) when trying to maintain optimum plating more acidic) with increased
8) Alkaline EN - Hydrazine - High rates. hypophosphite oxidation because
Temperature (95°C) hydrogen ions are a by-product of the
9) Alkaline EN - Hydrazine - Low Stabilisers. 6- 8 The presence of dust process. As a consequence of a decrease
Temperature (60°C) particles, dropout of nickel or unwanted in bath pH, the plating rate falls until
precipitation, resulting from the deposition becomes unacceptably slow.
Q9 What are the types of plating bath breakdown of bath components, may lead The most commonly used complexants in
components that make up a typical to spontaneous decomposition of the bath electroless nickel formulations are the
electroless nickel plating solution and during plating. The plating solution must organic acids glycollic, lactic. maleic and
what role do they play? be stabilised. Heavy metals, such as lead, citric or their sodium salts.
A. In order to produce the unique properties cadmium or thallium, will act as
attributed to electroless nickel deposits, stabilisers by shielding, for example, the Exaltants (accelerators). 6- 7 Stable-
the bath formulation must overcome dropout of nickel and inhibit further plating conditions are only achieved by
various problems associated with this growth of the particle. Other common choosing the correct type and
type of plating process. bath stabilisers include molybdate, iodate concentration of complexant and
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These problems vary from, (a) and unsaturated organic acids. stabiliser. However, stabilising the plating
precipitation of nickel salts in the bath, solution results in a slowing down of the
(b) alteration of pH, (c) instability of the Complexants. 6- 7 There are three principle deposition rate. Additions of chemicals
plating solution, (d) suppression of the roles performed by complexing agents in that enhance the plating rate are often
plating rate and (e) adherence of gas controlling electroless nickel plating required to attain acceptable plating rates.
bubbles. solutions: These are termed exaltants or
accelerators. Examples of accelerator
Components that make up a typical I) Prevention of nickel salts additives are the organic acids, succinic.
electroless nickel plating bath.}-4 precipitating, e.g., formation of malonic, and propionic.
basic salts or phosphates.
Source of metal ions. 2 Nickel sulphate 2) Buffering action (i.e .. prevents Other additives.''-7 The continuous
(NiSO) is the most commonly used solution pH from decreasing too generation of hydrogen bubbles on work
nickel salt at a concentration of -30 g quickly). surfaces produces streaking and pitting
dm-3 • A high level of NiS0 4 produces 3) Reduction of "free" nickel unless the parts are mechanically moved
faster plating rates with a degree of bath concentration. during plating. A small amount (<0.1%)
of an organic wetting agent increases the
wettability of surfaces to be plated
thereby facilitating the release of
Table IV. Typical Formulations for Electroless Copper Plating Solutions
hydrogen from the surface.
Bath Component Value Value
QJO Give an example(s) of a typical
Copper Sulphate (CuS04 .6H,0) 7 g dm-' 10 g dm-'
electroless copper bath formulation 10
Tartrate (KNaC 4 Hp,,4H,0) 4 g dm-'
A. The formulations for electroless copper
Citrate (Na,c,,Hp,.2H,O 25 g dm-'
baths, as shown in Table IV. use two types
Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) 8 g dm-'
of reducing agent (formaldehyde 11 and
Fonnaldehyde (HCHO) 10 em' dm-'
hypophosphite 12 ). Refer also to Qll for
Hypophosphite (NaH,PO,) 35 g dm-'
other typical electroless copper plating bath
Nickel Sulphate (NiS04.6H,0) 1.6 g dm-'
components and main operating conditions.
Boric Acid (H 1B0 1) 35 g dm-'
pH 10 10
Temperature 18-25"C 70"C
Qtt What are the types of plating
components that make up a typical
electroless copper plating bath, and
what are its principle operating
Table V. Contaminants/Poisons That May Affect the Quality of Deposit and/or Electroless Nickel
conditions?
Plating Rate
A. Components that make up a typical
Contaminant/ Group Limiting Symptom electroless copper plating bath
Poison I or II concentration /ppm
Source of metal ions. 2 Copper sulphate
Pb, Cd >5 No or stepwise deposition
(CuSO) is the most commonly used
Pb <I Bath instability leading to decomposition
source of copper. Bath concentration as
Cu >15 Dark deposit
Cu 2• ions is approximately 2.0 g dm-3 in
sz- I <10 No deposition &/or dark deposits
formaldehyde baths. Other sources of
Fe II >150 Low deposition rate
copper used in electro less systems include.
AI II >300 Low deposition rate &/or dark deposits
copper acetate. copper carbonate. copper
Zn II >300 Low deposition rate
formate and copper nitrate.

Trans IMF, 2001, 79(1) 43

 Table VI. Summary of Typical Electroless Nickel Deposit Properties
Property
Hardness* (as plated)
Ni-11%P
Ni-6%P
Hardness* (heat treated, 2 h@ 750•C)
Ni-ll%P
Ni-6%P
Tensile strength (as plated)
Ni-5%P
Ni-8.5%P
Tensile strength
(heat treated, 2 h@750•C)
Ni-5%P
Ni-8.5%P
Elongation
Young's modulus yield strength
Internal stress
Density
Ni-3%P
Ni-7.5%P
Ni-II%P
Melting Point, Ni-11 %P
Note: Deposit alloy compositions are reported in wt. % (all values are for 'as-plated' deposits, unless
Downloaded by [Universite Laval] at 01:57 03 August 2017
stated)
Reducing agent. 1° Formaldehyde
(HCHO) is the most widely used
reducing agent in electroless copper
formulations. The concentration of the
reducing agent is approximately 10 g dm-3 .
Formaldehyde is still the most commonly
used reducing agent in plating shops
today, despite health and safety concerns
over "fumes" that are given off during
operation. Alternative choices may
include formate, DMAB or
hypophosphite.
Stabilisers. The presence of dust
particles, copper fallout or unwanted
precipitations necessitate the need for
bath stabilisation. Stabilisers commonly
used in electroless copper solutions
include thiodiglycolic acid, MBT,
thiourea, cyanide ion, vanadium
pentoxide and ferrocyanide ion.
Comp/exants. 13 The most commonly used
complexants in electroless copper
formulations are Rochelle salt, EDTA,
ammonium hydroxide, pyridium-3-
sulphonic acid, tartrate ions and quadrol.
Principle operating conditions. 14
Electroless copper baths are maintained
at pH 9.0-13.0 (controlled by additions
of HCl, H 2 S0 4 or NaOH, KOH) at a
temperature ranging from 26 to 70°C.
Optimum plating rates average between
2.0-5.0 IJ.m h- 1•
QJ2 Why use nickel and copper sulphate as
the source of metal ions?
A. Nickel and copper sulphate are the
primary metal ion sources for the
electro less plating of nickel and copper.
The chemical compound(s) used in these
plating solutions must be economical,
abundant and have a high solubility
(typical bath concentrations range
44
Value
530 VPN
570 VPN
950 VPN
950 VPN
400 MPa
700 MPa
800 MPa
250 MPa
0.1-1.5%
1.2-2 x I0- 1 MPa
30 MPa compressive to 145 MPa tensile.
(These values are dependent on % wt P)
8.52 gem-'
7.92 gem-'
7.75 g cm-1
88l"C
between 25-30 g dm-3 for nickel and I 0-
20 g dm-3 for copper) to be suitable
choices. Nickel sulphate and copper
sulphate fit all these criteria.
Ql3 Are there any chemical substances that
poison electroless plating solutions? 15
A. From Table V and by examples given in
Q5, it is clear that some of the bath
poisons/contaminants, introduced in the
bath by drag-out from a previous
operation, can also act as bath stabilisers.
When this is the case, it is an example of
excessive bath stabilisation which can
then poison or slow down the plating rate
to unacceptable levels.
Metallic contamination of the plating
bath falls into one of two categories:
The first group becomes incorporated
into the deposit e.g., lead, while the
second, e.g., zinc, does not. However, both
types of contamination do appreciably
slow down the deposition rate.
QJ4 What are typical physical properties of
electroless nickel-plated deposits? 16
A. The main properties of these types of
coatings are associated with their high
resistance to wear. Some of the main
physical properties of electro less nickel
coatings are highlighted in Table VI.
Ql5 What are the main advantages of
electroless nickel coatings? 1--1· 17- 19
A. There are several distinct advantages of
EN coatings over the more conventional,
Watts nickel electroplated deposits. The
main advantages of EN deposits include;
uniformity, hardness and corrosion
resistance:
Uniformity. As there are no low or high
current densities associated with this
process, all surfaces are plated to the
same thickness (uniform) as long as the
electrolyte is accessible to the areas being
plated. For example, irregular shaped
work pieces can be a serious problem if
they are to be electroplated.
Hardness. Hardness of heat-treated
electroless nickel deposits, especially
those plated from high phosphorus
formulations, is equal or greater than that
of chromium deposits. Finding an
alternative to chromium has many
environmental implications and has been
a primary reason for growth of EN
coatings in many industrial sectors. The
as plated hardness is more than adequate
for many wear applications.
Co"osion resistance. Nickel-phosphorus
alloys (>I O%P) will resist corrosion
better than their electrodeposited
counterparts, as long as the coatings are
pore free (electroless nickel deposits >20
microns thick can be assumed to be pore
free). In the case of pore-free deposits,
EN coatings provide excellent barriers to
corrosion in many environments, leading
to a wide range of applications.
QJ6 What are the limitations to the
electroless nickel process? 3
A. Electroless nickel deposits cost
approximately three times as much as
deposits plated from a Watts nickel
electroplating bath. The deposits
themselves can be brittle due to internal
high tensile stresses (especially when
plated from aged solutions), which makes
it difficult to machine or form parts after
plating. These stresses can be relieved to
some extent by heat treatment.
Electroless nickel-plating solutions
also require a higher degree of
maintenance when compared to
electrolytic plating solutions. For
example, it is important to establish
schedules for tank cleaning to remove
dust or nickel plate-out; the plating
solutions require regular analysis and
replenishment.
Other problems associated with
electroless nickel baths include:
(a) A limited life expectancy (due to the
build up of by-products), expensive
renewal and disposal (effluent).
(b) Solutions are operated at elevated
temperatures (in the range of 90-
950C).
(c) Baths will not tolerate large
amounts of impurities, e.g ..
transferred from previous operations
or by introduction from the
immediate surroundings.
Q J7 What is the rate of electroless
deposition and how does this compare
to other plating processes?
A. Typically, electroless nickel baths plate at
a rate between 10-20 microns per hour
with the rates from electroless copper
ranging between 2-8 microns per hour.
The plating rates determined from the
high phosphorus electroless nickel bath
and the electroless copper plating
Trans IMF, 2001, 79(1)
 Table VII. Typical Pre-treatment Processes used in Electroless nickel and Copper Plating Some metals are not catalytic towards
nickel and require surface activation prior
Preparation of mild steel surfaces Preparation of ABS polymer surfaces
to EN deposition. Such substrates include
for electroless nickel deposition for electroless copper deposition
aluminium. copper and its alloys. Non-
rype Temperature/°C Time/min Type Temperature/°C Time/min metallic surfaces can also be activated to
accept EN deposits; these include
Soak Clean 50-60 5-7 Soak Clean 60-70 2-4
ceramic (such as glass). ABS polymers
Hot rinse 40-50 1-2 Rinse Ambient 1-2
and epoxy laminates.
50% HCl - pickle 20-25 0.5-1 Copper Etch 50-54 2-4
Rinse Ambient 1-2 Rinse Ambient 1-2
Q20 What type of surface can electro less
Rinse Ambient 1-2 Pre-Dip 15-20 1-3
copper be applied to and how is the
Hot Rinse 40-50 1-2 Catalyst 16-38 3-7
surface made active? 14.2 7
50% HCI - pickle 20-25 0.5-1 Rinse Ambient 1-2
A. Electroless copper plating is widely
Rinse Ambient 1-2 Rinse Ambient 1-2
employed in the printed circuit and
Rinse Ambient 1-2 Accelerator 20-32 3-9
electronic industry where it is used to
Electroless Nickel 90-92 various Rinse Ambient 1-2
plate a conductive film down through
Rinse Ambient 1-2 Electroless Copper 25-29 29-30
holes of printed circuit boards. It can also
Dry Rinse Ambient 1-2
be plated directly onto electronic devices
Acid Rinse 15-25 1-2
for electromagnetic shielding (EMS)
Rinse Ambient 1-2
purposes (see also Table VII).
Dry
Activation, after suitable pre-treatment
(cleaning and etching of the plastic or
laminate surface) of the surface, is carried
solution were 17 and 7 microns per hour, surface includes machine oils, semi- out in a solution containing acidic tin/
respectively, as shown in Figure 2. These solids such as polishing media, solids palladium. The purpose of this activation
rates fit the guidelines given earlier. They from grit blasting or drilling processes. step is to fill the tiny surface cavities
are much lower, however, than the rates Apart from soils that become added to remaining after etching with a tin/
palladium complex. In proprietary
Downloaded by [Universite Laval] at 01:57 03 August 2017

achieved from some electrolytic plating
baths operating at moderate current
densities (e.g .. 50-I 00 microns per hour).
QI8 How important is substrate
preparation/activation? 22-23
A. Electroless plating 20 differs from other
coating applications in that the substrate
initiates the autocatalytic reduction
processes. The presence of, for example.
dirt, soil residues remaining from
previous manufacturing steps, or
corrosion products will hinder (or
prevent) the nucleation and growth of the
electro less deposit and result in a porous
coating. The formation of pores will in
tum lead to a reduction in the corrosion
and wear performance of the coated work
piece.
The use of correct pre-treatment
processes 21 is vital if all contaminants
(soils/residues) are to be removed. The
type of soil that could be present on the
25 -•- Rate of Electroless Nickel
E~
Rat• a
:::1.
rn
~
the surface as part of the fabrication and
storage processes. one must include those
already present within the substrate. e.g.,
cracks, foreign body inclusions (i.e ..
those introduced by cold rollingj24 •
The main contributory factor that
influences the production of a totally
active surface is the efficiency of the
cleaning surface. Therefore. substrate
preparation is extremely important for the
success of a uniform, pore free and
adherent electroless film 25 •
Q 19 What kind of surfaces can electroless
nickel be applied to? 26
A. Electroless nickel will plate directly onto
catalytically active materials such as:
iron: nickel; cobalt: silver and gold.
Nickel will plate directly onto surfaces of
zinc and cadmium but the base metal will
dissolve into the EN plating solution and.
if allowed to build up in sufficient
quantities. may poison the bath.
,... Ni
/,...
E'""'"'"' """"'/..-
activator baths, the activator consists of
either colloidal or non-colloidal
palladium. Once the surface is covered
with the tin/palladium complex, the parts
are immersed into an acid pickle solution
to break up the complex leaving the
surface covered in a film of palladium
metal. The activated surface is then ready
for plating with electroless copper or
nickel.
ESSENTIAL READING
I. W. Reidel, "Electroless Nickel Plating".
Finishing Publications Ltd .. Stevenage.
England, (1991 ).
2. G. G. Gawrilov. "Chemical (Electroless)
Nickel Plating", Portcullis Press Ltd ..
Redhill, Surrey, England. ( 1979).
3. D. A. Luke. Ch. 12- Electroless Plating.
in J. A. Scarlet (Ed.). ''The Multilayer
Printed Circuit Board Handbook··.
Electrochemical Publications Ltd .. Ayr.
Scotland, ( 1995).
4. The Canning Handbook. "Surface
Finishing Technology", Current Edition.
E. and F. N. Spon Ltd .• London. England.
(1999).
5. L. J. Durney. "Electroplating
Engineering Handbook". American
Electroplaters and Surface Finishers

_././
15 Society, Orlando. Florida, USA. ( 1999).
.:.!.
0 6. G. 0. Mallory, J. B. Hajdu, "Electroless
~ Plating: Fundamentals and
-
-~
10
•..... -········--·······"' Applications", American Electroplaters

~ 5
•····· .. _. ::
... ........•-~-~----·-······
0 0~~~--~~--~----~L---~--OOL---~--~00--~--~100
7.
and Surface Finishers Society. Orlando.
Florida, USA, ( 1990).
F. A. Lowenheim, "Electroplating -
Fundamentals of Surface Finishing".
McGraw-Hill, New York, USA (1978).
Time/ min

Figure 2. Rates of deposition of metal from electroless nickel and electroless copper plating solutions. REFERENCES
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