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Prithwiraj Purkait
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Professor
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Department of Electrical Engineering
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St. Thomas’ College of Engineering & Technology
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Kolkata
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Former Head, Department of Electrical Engineering,

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Haldia Institute of Technology

Haldia, West Bengal
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Indrayudh Bandyopadhyay
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Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
St. Thomas’ College of Engineering & Technology
Kolkata
© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.
Electrical_Prelims.indd 1 5/15/2017 5:19:30 PM

3
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above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above.
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You must not circulate this work in any other form
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and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.
ISBN-13: 978-0-19-947263-5
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Features of
Figures and Tables
The chapters comprise enough illustrations
and tables supporting content for students to
understand the concepts in a better way.
396 Electrical Machines
7.2.3 Comparison between a Single Three-phase Unit and a Bank of Three

Single-phase Units
At this point we are ready to compare the relative merits and demerits (as seen in Tables 7.1 and 7.2) of whether
to use three single-phase transformers connected in a bank, or to use a single three-phase transformer.
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Solved Examples
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Various solved examples are added to each

Three single-phase transformers connected in a
chapter for readers to have a thorough under-
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bank will require three independent cores, having

at least six limbs. In three single-phase units the
Table 7.2 Disadvantages of a bank of three single-phase units over
flux a single
are three-phase unit
Feature
standing of the concepts.
Single three-phase transformer
paths independent as the transformers are
physically separate. This is not the case in a single,
Three single-phase transformers bank
same
The
phase
units
A
only
core
great
three
is
purpose
unit
type
in advantage
terms
limbs.
rather
three-phase
roughly
of
than
Alarge
three-phase
ofthree
requires
using
transformer
saving
separate
a single,
only
in
unit
core
one
used
single-phase
will
three-
material.
third of three-phase unit because the same iron is being
require
for the
Amount used
material of core the core material required if three single-phase utilized by all the three-phases for flow of flux.
units are connected in a bank.
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(Contd)
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Chapter_07.indd 396 5/4/2017 5:02:09 PM
Photographs of Machines
The book comes with photographs of some
important machines segregated across the
chapters throughout for students to have an
idea of what is going on inside the machine.

the Book
CHAPTER-END EXERCISES
Multiple-choice Questions
1. For a P-pole machine, the relation between electri- 6. The main advantage of distributing the winding in
Boxed Items
cal and mechanical degrees is given by slots is to
2 P (a) Reduce harmonics in the generated
(a) elec = mech (c) mech = elec voltage
(b)Characteristics
Make the winding mechanicallyof DC Machines 209
(b) elec =
4
mech (d) elec =
P
mech
Operating
stronger
and Applications
(c) Reduce the amount of copper required

The book contains various boxed items with crisp
N1=N0*Eb1/Eb0; % Calculate motor speed(d)under
2. For eliminating nth harmonic from the EMF gener-
ateddisp([‘Motor
in the phase of aspeed three-phaseunder alternator,
loadedthe condition
Reduce loaded
7. Electromagnetic
size of the
= ‘, num2str(N1)
condition
machine
torque is ‘ present
RPM’]); in a rotating
headings in each chapter, providing additional infor-
chording angle should be
(a) full-pitch (c)
2
full-pitch
machine when
(a) The rotor has salient pole structure mation related to the ongoing discussion and making
Upon execution, the output is:n (b) When the air gap is uniform
(b) full-pitch (d) full-pitch

(c) When either the rotor or the stator coil is
excited
the text interesting for the readers.
>> ME4_3
Motor speed under loaded condition = 2295.4692 (d) When RPM both the stator and rotor coils are
3. The developed electromagnetic force and/or torque
MATLAB Examples
excited
in electromechanical energy conversion system act
8. For linear electromagnetic circuit, which one of
in a direction tends to
(a) increase the stored energy at constant flux SUMMARYthe following statements is true?
MATLAB examples are provided at the end

(b) decrease the stored energy at constant flux
• Magnetic poles in the stator are made of permanent (b)• Stored
(c) decrease the co-energy at constant MMF
(a) Stored energy is zero
Series energy
generators have
is less rising
than external characteristics.
co-energy
magnets in (c)• Stored energy is equal to co-energy
thesmall
storedDC machines and electromagnets External characteristics of compound genera-
of each chapter for students to have a clear
(d) decrease
in larger ones.
energy at constant
4. To eliminate fifth harmonic voltage from the phase
• Machines having electromagnets can either be sepa-
MMF
(d) Stored energyon
tors depend
whether
is more than of
the level co-energy
compounding, that is,
9. Addition ofit0.3is cumulatively
to 4.5% ofcompound silicon to or differentially
iron
understanding of mathematical modeling of
voltage of a generator, the winding of the machine
rately excited, which is costly but flexible, or can be _________ compound.the electrical resistivity of iron
should be short pitched by an electrical angle of
self-excited. (a)• Increases
General applications of (c) DC generators range from com-
Does not change
(a) 60° (c) 45°
(b) 36° Electrical Machines.
• Self-excited machines can either be shunt (field paral- (b) Decreases
5. A three-phase AC or machine
(d) 18°
lel to armature) type, or series type (field in parallel
statortypewinding has a
10. Mica
mon lighting to battery(d)
• DC
charging,
Reverseswelding supply, etc.
is agenerators can be connected in parallel to share
to armature), compound (combination of (a) Magnetic
a load. Parallel
material operation improves system reliability,
s
coil series
span of and156 electrical degrees. Its coil span
shunt). system efficiency,
(b) Conducting materialand reduces initial installation,
factor is:
• OCC of a DC generator looks exactly like the mag- (c) Insulating transportation,
material and cost of stand-by.
es
(a) 0.914 (c) 0.978
netization curve of a magnetic material. (d)• Semiconductor
For shunt- andmaterial separately-excited motors, the N-Ia
(b) 0.94 (d) 0.208
• For building up of a self-excited shunt generator, it is and N-T curves are drooping in nature, whereas the
necessary that the field current is in a proper direction T-Ia curve is rising.
so that it aids the residual magnetic field present in • N-T curve of a series motor resembles the nature of a
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the field system. The field resistance is lowerAnalysis than andrectangular
Performance of Three-phase
hyperbola, which Induction 571
Motorsuitable
makes it most
the critical field resistance and the running speed is for traction purposes.
Descriptive
more than the Questions
critical speed. • Applications
value ofandslip ofhigh.
inversely
is DC proportional
motor ranges fromwhen
to slip pumps,
the
•1.External
Develop
induction
developed
in characteristics
the rotor the
motor.
can
circuit.
equivalent
beShow ofthat
representedpure-shunt
circuit aorthree-phase
thebymechanical
of
a pure separately-
resistance
power blowers,
b) Showfans,
poly-phase that lathes,
slip atmachine
induction which tools, traction,
motormaximum
occurs torquehoists,
is directly pro-
of a
2.excited generators
a) Starting from the areapproximate
drooping inequivalent
nature which cir- cranes, conveyors,
portional shears,
to the rotor crushers, punching presses,
resistance
y
indicates reduction
cuit of a three-phase
expression
three-phase for in
induction terminal
maximum induction
motor. voltage
torquemotor, with
developed increase
deriveinthea to industrial process lines in paper mills, steel rolling
inmotor?
b)output
which
torque
Findiscurrent.
at
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the
valuetimeof
forof
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starting
rotor circuit
the maximum
induction
resistance mills, etc.
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speed-torque
how
age Draw
and
thisrotor
curve
that
and curve
the
circuit
indicate
will
ratio
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vary
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an
of
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with
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motor.
parts
supplyIndicate
ofvolt-
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sit
torque Tm is independent of r2.
5. symbols
Derive a used
maximum relationship
torqueandinexplain
anbetween
induction
the assumptions
starting
motor.torque
Definemade.
and
the
CHAPTER-END EXERCISES 6. the
Explain
at full
phasor
motor
load.
clearly
operates
diagram
Howthe will
steps
under
of the
an to
induction
phasor
blocked
be followed
diagram
rotor
motorfor
condition?
operating
change
drawing if
7. mathematical
How would
losses
loading in
it?anDescribe
you
induction
relations.
findwith
outmotor
schematic
the different
without
diagrams
full
actually
load
and
er
8. induction
Explain the
maximum motor
torque
procedure
from
and maximum
its
forcircle
obtaining
diagram.
power the
factor
valuesof an
of
Chapter_02.indd 82 9. varied
Draw
input
of an current,
and
induction
from explain
no-load
torque,
motor
thetonature
power
full
whenload.
of
factor,
the
variations
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and efficiency
ofload
5/4/2017 stator
is PM
4:05:16
10. remedial
Explain the
three-phase measures.
phenomena
induction motors of cogging
and suggest
and crawling
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Chapter-end Exercises
iv
T at any slip of a
Abundant chapter-end exercises including
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three-phase induction motor to its maximum torque

Tm can be expressed as
T
=
2 Multiple-choice Questions with answers,
Chapter_04.indd 209 5/4/2017 4:34:37 PM
Critical Thinking Questions, Descriptive

Tm S Sm
+
S S
d
4. a)
where Sm = Slip at maximum torque
proportional
For an induction
to slipmotor,
when explain
the slip how
has athe
very
torque
small
is
Questions, and Numerical Questions with
or
answers are provided for readers to test their

knowledge and their understanding of the
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concepts.
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Numericalage,Questions andstar-delta
three
(b) secondary
transformers
(c)
line
delta-delta
voltages
are connected
and
(d) delta-star.
currents
as: (a)when
star-star
the
frequency and at 6 per cent slip. [Ans: Stator themaximum
at locked rotor
torque
reactance
point.
(iii) the rotor frequency
current = 72.61 A, Rotor speed = 1410 rpm, [Ans: (i) 0.244 (ii)
1. work
A 165
at bank
inkVA,
of
a three-phase
three
11,000/110
single-phase
system.
V aretransformers
interconnected
Find the primary
rated
to
Output torque = 305.1 N-m] 1.64 Ω (iii) 14.64 Hz]
Ans
Chapter_09.indd 571 5/4/2017 5:19:52 PM
Primary Secondary
Connection
Voltage (V) Current (A) Voltage (V) Current (A)
Star-star
Appendix
Line
Phase
19053
11000
15
15
190.53
110
1500
1500
Delta-Star Line 11000 25.98 190.53 1500
In order to enhance the knowledge
Phase 11000 15 110 1500
Star-delta Line 19053 15 110 2598
further, an appendix is provided at
Phase 11000 15 110 1500
Delta-Delta Line 11000 25.98 110 2598
the end of the book.
Phase 11000 15 110 1500
Chapter_07.indd 460 5/4/2017 5:04:55 PM

Preface
Electrical Machines is one of the more traditional fields of electrical and allied engineering disciplines. It forms
a part of the curriculum of most of the core electrical engineering courses as well as that of their allied courses.
This book presents a comprehensive treatment of the subject as required for undergraduate students of B. Tech/
BE in electrical engineering and other branches. It is also intended to be used as a textbook for the course in
Electrical Machines in other branches.
This book Electrical Machines is the fruition of our wish to document the knowledge we gathered from
our teachers during our undergraduate studies and from industry experience. Moreover, the dearth of electrical
machines books to prepare for university examinations and technical job interviews further prompted us to
write this book. We have tried to make the language and approach in the book simple and straightforward so
that students can have lucid reading.
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About the Book
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This book offers a balance between theoretical and analytical approach. It includes practical illustrations along
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with computational approach for solving various critical thinking and numerical problems. Some of the topics
dealt with in the book essentially involve mathematics, but throughout the book computations are kept as simple
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as possible. Photographs of real systems have been used in places where schematic representation needed to be
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augmented.
The prerequisite for the reader of this book is that he/she should have had introductory courses on basic calculus,
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vector/phasor analysis, transform theory, circuit analysis, basic electrical measuring instruments and techniques,
and elementary mechanics. The text is organized into 15 chapters broadly based under the following heads:
iv
1. Basic electromagnetic concepts and general concepts of electrical machines

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2. DC generators and motors

3. Single-phase and three-phase transformers
4. Three-phase and single-phase induction motors
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5. Synchronous generators and motors

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6. Special machines
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Features of the Book

The following are the salient features of the book:
• Lucid and simple language
• Additional stress on constructional features of machines, thereby enhancing physical understanding
• Important concepts highlighted as boxed items in each chapter
• Wealth of solved numerical examples to supplement the text
• Numerous solved MATLAB examples
• Chapter-end exercises comprising objective-type questions with answers, critical thinking type questions,
broad answer type questions, and numerical exercises with answers
• Chapter outlines and learning outcomes listed at the start of each chapter
• Point-wise summary at the end of each chapter to enable quick revision
• Pedagogy includes as many as 314 solved examples, 303 short and long-answer questions, 159 MCQs, and
137 numerical problems

Preface vii
Organization of the Book

The content of the book is organized into 15 chapters and one appendix:
Chapter 1 provides an introduction to magnets and magnetism. It starts with the basics of electromagnetism
and then discusses the basic laws of electromagnetism and electromagnetic induction. Properties of magnetic
materials and their types for use in electrical machines are also discussed.
Chapter 2 discusses the basic principles of electrical machines and their general concepts including the construc-
tion, working principles, and operation. It also lists the different conducting, insulating, and magnetic materials
and their properties for use in electrical machines.
Chapter 3 deals with the construction, basic principle, and operation of DC machines. It also discusses the basic
guiding equations in DC generators and motors. The chapter also highlights the effects of armature reaction and
the methods adopted to compensate armature reaction.
Chapter 4 provides theoretical techniques for predicting the operational characteristics of DC machines. The
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chapter emphasizes on practical implications of these operational characteristics, as predicted theoretically.
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Chapter 5 describes techniques adopted for starting, speed control, and braking of DC motors. It also discusses
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the various losses that take place in DC machines and the testing techniques followed to estimate their efficiency.
Chapter 6 presents the basic principles, construction, and operation of single-phase transformers. It includes
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phasor diagram, equivalent circuit, and tests to be performed on two-winding transformers and also discusses the
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features of auto-transformers. The chapter also details the processes of connecting two or more transformers in
parallel, methods of measuring and calculating losses and efficiency, and regulation of single-phase transformers.
er
Chapter 7 starts with basic constructional features of three-phase transformers and then discusses types of con-
iv
nections including various possible vectors groups. Conditions for parallel operation of three-phase transformers
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are highlighted. Special three-phase transformer connections such as the open-delta connection, Scott connec-
tion, three-phase to six-phase, and 12-phase conversion connections are described. The chapter also discusses
the excitation phenomenon, sources of harmonics, and ways of mitigating those in three-phase transformers.
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Chapter 8 deals with the construction and operation of three-phase induction motors. It also discusses power
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flow equations in three-phase induction motors, and also derives the expression for developed torque.
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Chapter 9 goes a step forward towards analysis and performance of three-phase induction motors. Phasor dia-
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grams and equivalent circuits are developed. It explains the different parts of the torque–speed characteristics.
The chapter details the tests performed on three-phase induction motors and explains ways of developing the
circle diagram. It also discusses the different performance characteristics of three-phase induction motors and
ends with the effects of abnormal operating conditions.
Chapter 10 introduces the starting, speed control, and braking methods adopted in three-phase induction motors.
It also details special constructions available for three-phase induction motors for achieving high-starting torques.
Chapter 11 presents the principle of construction and operation of synchronous generators, that is, alternators. Expression
for EMF induced and factors governing its magnitude and frequency are highlighted in the chapter. Phasor diagram and
equivalent circuit of alternators are also developed. Tests, performed for identifying equivalent circuit parameters and
calculation of voltage regulation, are discussed in detail. Effect of armature reaction on alternator output is also high-
lighted. This chapter also covers the power equations in both cylindrical rotor type and salient-pole rotor type alternators.
Chapter 12 introduces the necessity, conditions, and procedures for connecting alternators in parallel, either to one
another or to an infinite bus. It also discusses the methods of synchronizing, sharing of load, and effects of variations

viii Preface
of excitation and mechanical power input on alternator performance. The chapter also discusses transient conditions,
hunting, and other stability issues in alternators. The chapter ends with losses and efficiency calculations for alternators.
Chapter 13 discusses the construction and operating principles of synchronous motors. The difficulties and
remedies adopted for starting of such motors are discussed in detail. The chapter ends with notes on various
applications of synchronous motors.
Chapter 14 discusses the methods of starting a single-phase induction motor and ways of improving the starting
performance. It also includes the equivalent circuit of a single-phase induction motor and tests performed for identi-
fication of the equivalent circuit parameters. Power flow relations in single-phase induction motors are also included.
Chapter 15 presents the construction, operating principles, performance characteristics, and applications of vari-
ous special types of machines. These include AC commutator motor, universal motor, Schrage motor, switched
reluctance motor, brushless DC motor, hysteresis motor, stepper motor, tacho-generator, synchro, servo motor,
linear induction motor, and induction generators.
Appendix A discusses the troubleshooting and maintenance of transformers and national and international stan-
s
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dards relevant to electrical machines.
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Online resources
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To aid teachers and students, the book is accompanied with online resources that are available at https://india.
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oup.com/orcs/9780199472635. The content for the online resources is as follows:
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For Faculty For Students

• Chapter-wise PPTs • MCQ Test Generator
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• Solutions Manual • Additional MATLAB codes

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• Laboratory Experiments Manual • Additional Reading Material

• Machine Images • Laboratory Experiments Manual
• Machine Images
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Acknowledgement
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We are thankful to many whose direct and indirect contributions in different ways have helped us to prepare
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the manuscript.
One of us (Prithwiraj Purkait) would not miss putting in record the enlightenment he received from his teach-
ers during undergraduate engineering course whose class notes he still preserves as treasure.
We would like to express our gratitude to our current and previous institutes (St. Thomas’ College of Engineering
& Technology and Haldia Institute of Technology) for providing us the opportunity to utilize their resources
while compiling the manuscript.
We would like to thank our colleagues and students who may have had to face troubles when we got bogged
down trying to complete the manuscript in time.
No acknowledgement is enough for our respective parents and other family members who always stood beside
us and encouraged us to complete the manuscript by sharing our routine domestic chores.
Last but not the least, we would like to thank the editorial team at Oxford University Press, India for their
help and support.
Comments and suggestions for the improvement of the book can be sent to me at praj@ieee.org.
Prithwiraj Purkait
Indrayudh Bandyopadhyay

Brief Contents
Features of the Book iv

Preface vi
Detailed Contents x
1. Magnets and Magnetism 1

2. Basic Concepts of Electrical Machines 46
3. Theory, Construction, and Operation of DC Machines 84
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4. Operating Characteristics and Applications of DC Machines 156
5. Control, Performance, and Testing of DC Machines 211
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6. Single-phase Transformers 278
7. Three-phase Transformers
y 390
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8. Theory, Construction, and Operation of Three-phase Induction Motors 460
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9. Analysis and Performance of Three-phase Induction Motors 505

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10. Starting, Speed Control, and Braking of Three-phase Induction Motors 571
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11 Construction, Principle, and Operation of Synchronous Generators 616

12. Parallel Operation and Stability of Alternators 697
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13. Synchronous Motors 739

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14. Single-phase Induction Motors 786

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15. Special Machines 836

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Appendix A 876
References 879
Index 880
About the Authors 885

Detailed Contents
Features of the Book iv 1.8.2 Energy and Co-energy in Magnetic
Preface vi Systems 36
1.8.3 Loss of Energy during Magnetization–
Brief Contents ix Hysteresis and Eddy Current
Losses 37
1. Magnets and Magnetism 1.9 Magnetic Materials 39
1.10 MATLAB EXAMPLES 40
Introduction 1
1.1 Magnets 1
1.1.1 Source of Magnetism in a 2.
Basic Concepts of Electrical
Machines 46
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Material 2
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1.1.2 Magnetic Flux and Flux
Density 3 Introduction 46
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1.1.3 Magnetic Field Intensity 3 2.1 Electromechanical Energy Conversion 47
1.2 Magnetic Field Produced by a Current 2.2 Energy Balance During Electromechanical
Carrying Conductor 4
y Energy Conversion 48
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1.2.1 Biot-Savart’s Law 5 2.3 Force and Torque in Electromechanical
1.2.2 Magnetic Field due to Steady Systems 49
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Current in an Infinitely Long 2.3.1 Singly Excited Magnetic
Straight Conductor 6 System 49
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1.2.3 Magnetic Field along Axis of a 2.3.2 Doubly Excited Magnetic

Circular Current Carrying Coil 8
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System 53
1.2.4 Ampere’s Circuital Law 10 2.3.3 Electromagnetic Torque and
1.2.5 Magnetic Field Produced by a Reluctance Torque 55
Solenoid 11
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2.4 General Concepts of Rotating

1.3 Force on a Current Carrying Conductor
or
Machine 56
Placed in a Magnetic Field–Fleming’s 2.4.1 Generator 56
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Left Hand Rule 13 2.4.2 Motor 57

1.3.1 Force Between Two Parallel Current 2.5 Physical Concept of Torque Production in
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Carrying Conductors 17
Electrical Machines 58
1.4 Magnetic Circuits 18
2.6 Mechanical Degree and Electrical
1.4.1 Comparison Between Electric and
Degree 61
Magnetic Circuits 19
1.4.2 Composite Magnetic 2.7 Winding of AC Machines 63
Circuits 20 2.7.1 Distributed Winding–EMF Polygon
1.4.3 Flux Leakage and Fringing 21 and Distribution Factor 63
2.7.2 Advantages of Distributed
1.5 Electromagnetic Induction 25
Winding 65
1.5.1 Dynamically Induced EMF 26
2.7.3 Coil Pitch and Pitch Factor 65
1.5.2 Statically Induced EMF 27
2.7.4 Advantage of Using Short Pitch
1.6 Energy Stored in an Electromagnet 31 Winding (Short Chorded
1.7 Lifting Force or Pulling Force of a Winding) 67
Magnet 34 2.7.5 Winding Factors for Harmonic
1.8 Magnetization with AC Supply 35 Waveforms 68
1.8.1 Magnetic Hysteresis 36 2.7.6 Winding and Coil Groups 72

Detailed Contents xi
2.7.7 Different Types of Winding 3.8.1 Increasing the Air Gap

Arrangement 73 Length 129
2.8 MMF of Distributed AC Winding 73 3.8.2 Increasing the Air Gap at the Pole
2.8.1 MMF Distribution in Space of a Tips 129
Single Coil 73 3.8.3 Reducing Area of Iron at the Pole
2.8.2 MMF Distribution in Space of a Tips 130
Distributed Winding 74 3.8.4 Using Strong Main Field
2.9 Materials Used in Electrical Machines 75 Flux 130
2.9.1 Magnetic Materials Used in 3.8.5 Interpoles or Commutating
Electrical Machines 75 Poles 130
2.9.2 Types of Si-steel Laminations 3.8.6 Compensating Winding 132
Available 77 3.9 Energy Conversion in DC Machines 136
2.9.3 Conductor Materials Used for 3.9.1 EMF Induced in DC
Winding 78 Generators 137
2.9.4 Insulating Materials in Electrical 3.9.2 Torque Developed in DC
s
Machines 78 Motors 139
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2.10 MATLAB EXAMPLES 79 3.9.3 Counter Torque and Back EMF 141
3.9.4 Relationship Between Induced EMF
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3. Theory,
Construction, and and Developed Torque 141
Operation of DC Machines 84 3.10 Circuit Model of DC Machines 146
y 3.11 MATLAB EXAMPLES 149

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Introduction 84
3.1 Basic Principles 84 4.
Operating Characteristics and
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3.2 Fundamentals of DC Generator 87 Applications of DC Machines 156

iv
3.2.1 Generation of EMF in an Elementary

DC Generator 88 Introduction 156
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3.2.2 Rectification of Alternating EMF 89 4.1 Excitation in DC Machines 156

3.3 Fundamentals of DC Motor 91 4.1.1 Types of Excitation in DC
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3.4 Constructional Features of DC Machine 157

Machine 92
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4.2 Operating Characteristics of DC
3.5 Armature Winding in DC Machine 99 Generators 168
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3.5.1 Types of Armature Winding 100 4.2.1 Open Circuit Characteristics 168

3.5.2 Placement of Brushes 112 4.2.2 Building Up of Self-excited Shunt
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3.6 Commutation Process 113 Generator 172

3.6.1 Voltage Commutation 116 4.2.3 External Characteristics 178
3.6.2 Resistance Commutation 117 4.3 Applications of DC Generator 182
3.7 Armature Reaction 119 4.4 Parallel Operation of DC Generators 186
3.7.1 Flux Produced by Main Poles 119 4.4.1 Parallel Connection of DC Shunt
3.7.2 Flux Produced by Armature Generators 187
Coils 121 4.4.2 Sharing of Load Between Parallel
3.7.3 Main Pole Flux and Armature Flux Connected DC Shunt
Acting Simultaneously 122 Generators 188
3.7.4 Quantization of Demagnetizing and 4.4.3 Parallel Operation of DC Series
Cross Magnetizing MMFs 125 Generators 189
3.7.5 Overall Effects of Armature 4.4.4 Parallel Operation of DC Compound
Reaction 127 Generators 190
3.8 Methods for Compensating the Effects of 4.5 Operating Characteristics of DC
Armature Reaction 129 Motors 192

xii Detailed Contents
4.5.1 Shunt and Separately Excited 6. Single-phase Transformers 278

Motor 193
4.5.2 Series Motor 194 Introduction 278
4.5.3 Compound Motors 196 6.1 Basic Principle of Transformer 278
4.6 Applications of DC Motors 198 6.1.1 Electromagnetic Induction 279
4.7 MATLAB EXAMPLES 202 6.1.2 Mutual Flux and Leakage Flux 280
6.1.3 Disadvantages of Leakage Flux in
Transformers 281
5.
Control, Performance, and Testing 6.2 Construction of Transformers 281
of DC Machines 211 6.2.1 Magnetic Parts 282
6.2.2 Comparison Between Core
Introduction 211 Type and Shell Type
5.1 Starting of DC Motors 212 Transformers 285
5.1.1 Design of Shunt Motor Starter 217 6.2.3 Electrical Parts—Windings 286
5.1.2 Automatic Starters 222 6.2.4 Insulating Parts 287
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5.2 Speed Control of DC Motors 225 6.2.5 Mechanical Parts and
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5.2.1 Speed Control of DC Shunt Accessories 288
Motors 225 6.3 Performance and Operation of Single-phase
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5.2.2 Speed Control of DC Series Transformer 296
Motors 235 6.3.1 Ideal Transformer Operation Under
5.2.3 Speed Control of DC Motors Using
y No-Load 296
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Solid-state Devices 238 6.3.2 Ideal Transformer Operation Under
5.2.4 Drum Controller for Series Load 299
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Motors 243 6.3.3 Real Transformer Operation Under
5.3 Braking of DC Motors 244 No-Load 300
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5.3.1 Counter Current Braking or 6.3.4 Real Transformer Operation with

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Plugging 244 Load 303
5.3.2 Dynamic or Rheostatic 6.4 Equivalent Circuit of a Single-phase
Braking 245 Transformer 306
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5.3.3 Regenerative Braking 247 6.5 Determination of Equivalent Circuits

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5.4 Losses and Efficiency of DC Parameters of a Single-phase Transformer

Machines 247 by Tests 314
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5.4.1 Iron Losses 248 6.5.1 Open Circuit Test 314

5.4.2 Copper Losses 249
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6.5.2 Short Circuit Test 316

5.4.3 Mechanical Losses 249 6.5.3 Turns Ratio (or Voltage Ratio)
5.4.4 Stray Losses 250 Test 318
5.4.5 No-load and Load 6.5.4 Advantages of Transformer
Losses 250 Tests 320
5.4.6 Efficiency of DC Machines 252 6.5.5 Dependence of Equivalent Circuit
5.5 Testing of DC Machines 261 Parameters on Voltage, Frequency, and
5.5.1 Direct Method: Brake Test 261 Load 320
5.5.2 Indirect Method: Swinburne’s 6.5.6 Per-unit Quantities 323
Method 262 6.6 Voltage Regulation of Transformers 325
5.5.3 Hopkinson’s Method or Regenerative 6.6.1 Mathematical Expression for Voltage
Method or Back to Back Test Regulation 325
Method 263 6.6.2 Maximum Regulation and its
5.5.4 Retardation Test 265 Condition 327
5.5.5 Field Test 267 6.6.3 Variation of Regulation with Load
5.6 MATLAB EXAMPLES 271 Power Factor 327

Detailed Contents xiii
6.7 Transformer Efficiency 330 7.1.1 Standard Three-phase Transformer

6.7.1 Power Efficiency 330 Connections 391
6.7.2 Condition for Maximum 7.2 Three-phase Transformer
Efficiency 332 Construction 392
6.7.3 Separation of Hysteresis and Eddy 7.2.1 Core-type Construction 392
Current Losses 333 7.2.2 Shell-type Construction 393
6.7.4 All-day Efficiency 340 7.2.3 Comparison between a Single Three-
6.7.5 Sumpner’s Test (Back-to-back Test phase Unit and a Bank of Three Single-
or Regenerative Test) 342 phase Units 394
6.8 Transformer Polarity 343 7.3 Transformer Vector Groups 399
6.8.1 Instantaneous Polarity of 7.3.1 Star-star Transformer 401
Transformer Coils 344 7.3.2 Star-delta Transformer 402
6.8.2 Polarity Test 344 7.3.3 Delta-delta Transformer 404
6.9 Auto-Transformer 346 7.3.4 Delta-star Transformer 405
6.9.1 Basic Configuration 346 7.3.5 Zig zag Connected
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6.9.2 Power Transfer from Primary to Transformer 407
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Secondary 346 7.4 Grounding Transformers 410
6.9.3 Advantages of Auto-transformer 7.5 Parallel Operation of Three-phase
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over Conventional Two-winding Transformers 411
Transformer 349 7.5.1 Phase Sequence 411
6.9.4 Disadvantages of Auto-
y 7.5.2 Vector Group 412
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transformer 352
6.9.5 Equivalent Circuit of Auto-
7.6 Open-delta Connection (V-V Connection
or V Connection) 413
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transformer 358
6.9.6 Difference between Auto-transformer 7.6.1 Voltage Relations in Open Delta
iv
and a Simple Resistive Potential Connection 413

Divider 362 7.6.2 kVA Delivered by an Open Delta
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Connection 414
6.10 Parallel Operation of Single-phase
7.6.3 Applications of Open Delta
Transformers 362 System 416
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6.10.1 Reasons for Connecting

7.7 Three-phase to Two-phase Conversion
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Transformers in Parallel 362

6.10.2 Conditions for Parallel (Scott Connection) 417
7.7.1 Basic Theory of Scott
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Connection of Single-phase
Transformers 364 Connection 417
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7.7.2 Voltage Relations in Scott

6.11 Special Purpose Transformers 374
Connection 419
6.11.1 Instrument Transformers 374
7.7.3 Position of the Neutral Point on
6.11.2 Pulse Transformers 375
Primary 420
6.11.3 Audio Frequency (AF)
7.7.4 Current Relations in Scott
Transformers 376
Connection 421
6.11.4 Welding Transformers 377
6.11.5 Tap Changing Transformers 377 7.8 Three-phase to Multi-phase Transformer
Connections 425
7.8.1 Three-phase to Six-phase
Conversion 425
7. Three-phase Transformers 390 7.8.2 Three-phase to 12-phase
Conversion 428
Introduction 390 7.9 Harmonics in Transformers 431
7.1 Three-phase Transformer 7.9.1 Excitation Phenomena in
Connections 391 Transformers 431

xiv Detailed Contents
7.9.2 Effect of Harmonics in 8.7.3 Developed Torque and Output Torque

Transformers 435 in an Induction Motor 491
7.9.3 Reducing the Effects of 8.8 MATLAB EXAMPLES 500
Harmonics (Suppression of
Harmonics) 445 9. Analysis
and Performance of Three-
7.10 Transients in Transformer 447 phase Induction Motors 505
Introduction 505
8. Theory,
Construction, and 9.1 Equivalent Circuit of an Induction
Motor 506
Operation of Three-phase Induction 9.1.1 Stator Equivalent Circuit 506
Motors 460 9.1.2 Rotor Equivalent Circuit 507
9.1.3 Complete Equivalent Circuit 508
Introduction 460 9.1.4 Induction Motor Phasor
8.1 Basic Principle of Electromagnetic Diagram 509
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Induction 461 9.2 Analysis of Induction Motor Equivalent
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8.2 Generation of Rotating Magnetic Circuit 511
Field 462
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9.2.1 Current–speed Characteristics 512
8.2.1 Conditions for Generation of 9.2.2 Torque–speed Characteristics 513
RMF 462 9.2.3 Condition for Maximum
8.2.2 Graphical Analysis of
y Torque 515
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RMF 463 9.2.4 Starting Torque 517
8.2.3 Mathematical Analysis of 9.2.5 Torque Ratios 518
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RMF 465 9.2.6 Current Ratios 520

8.2.4 Speed of Rotation of the
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9.3 Determination of Equivalent Circuit

RMF 467 Parameters of a Three–phase Induction
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8.2.5 Direction of Rotation of the

Motor by Tests 531
RMF 469
9.3.1 Measurement of DC Resistance of
8.2.6 MMF and Flux Wave Variations with
Stator 531
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Time and Space 469

9.3.2 Polarity Test 533
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8.2.7 Relative Speeds 472

9.3.3 Blocked Rotor (or Locked Rotor)
8.3 Constructional Details 473 Test 533
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8.3.1 Stator 473 9.3.4 No Load Test 536

8.3.2 Air Gap 474
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9.4 Tests on Induction Motors as per Indian

8.3.3 Rotor 475
Standards 538
8.4 Comparison between Transformers and 9.4.1 Heat Run Test or Temperature Rise
Induction Motors 480 Test 539
8.5 Applications of Induction Motors 482 9.4.2 Voltage Ratio Test 539
8.6 Rotor Induced EMF 483 9.4.3 Slip Measurement 540
8.6.1 Frequency of the Rotor Induced 9.4.4 Determination of Losses from
EMF 483 No Load and Blocked Rotor
8.6.2 Magnitude of the Rotor Induced Tests 541
EMF 486 9.5 Circle Diagram of an Induction
8.7 Power Flow in an Induction Motor 487 Motor 542
8.7.1 Power Losses in an Induction 9.5.1 Circle Diagram of a Simple R–L
Motor 487 Series Circuit 542
8.7.2 Flow of Power in an Induction 9.5.2 Circle Diagram of a Three-phase
Motor 487 Induction Motor 543

Detailed Contents xv
9.5.3 Construction of the Circle 10.2.5 Variation of Rotor Circuit Resistance

Diagram 545 or Reactance 590
9.5.4 Determination of Performance 10.2.6 Rotor Slip-power Control 591
Parameters from Circle 10.3 Electric Braking of Induction
Diagram 547 Motors 601
9.5.5 Determination of Maximum 10.3.1 Counter Current Braking or
Quantities from Circle Plugging 601
Diagram 551 10.3.2 Dynamic or Rheostatic
9.5.6 Generating and Braking Regions in Braking 602
Circle Diagram 553 10.3.3 Regenerative Braking 602
9.6 Induction Motor Performance 10.4 Induction Motor Dynamics 603
Characteristics 554 10.5 Achieving High Starting
9.6.1 Performance Characteristics from Torque 604
Circle Diagram 554 10.5.1 Deep-bar Rotor Squirrel Cage
9.6.2 Performance Characteristics from Induction Motor 605
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Load Test 555 10.6 Standard Classification of Squirrel Cage
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9.7 Abnormal Operating Conditions in Three- Motors 607
phase Induction Motors 556 10.6.1 Induction Motor Efficiency
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9.7.1 Operation on Unbalanced Supply Classes as per International
Voltage 556 Standards 607
9.7.2 Operation with Single Phasing 557
y 10.7 MATLAB EXAMPLES 608
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9.7.3 Effect of Harmonics 557
9.7.4 Cogging 561
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9.7.5 Rotor Circuit Unbalancing 561 11. Construction,

Principle, and
9.7.6 Switching Transients 562
Operation of Synchronous
iv

Generators 616
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Introduction 616
10. Starting,
Speed Control, and
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11.1 Principle of Operation for Generation of

Braking of Three-phase Induction AC Supply 617
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Motors 571 11.2 Constructional Features of Synchronous

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Introduction 571 Machines 618
11.2.1 Reasons for Selecting Rotor as
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10.1 Starting of Three-phase Induction Field 618

Motor 572 11.2.2 Constructional Structure of
10.1.1 Current and Torque at Synchronous Machine Rotor 620
Starting 572 11.2.3 Constructional Structure of
10.1.2 Direct on Line (DOL) Synchronous Machine Stator 621
Starting 573
11.3 Excitation Systems Used in Rotor
10.1.3 Reduced Voltage Starting 574
10.1.4 Rotor Resistance Starting 578 Field 622
10.2 Speed Control of Three-phase Induction 11.4 Space Distribution of Magnetic Flux 624
Motor 581 11.5 EMF Generation in an
10.2.1 Variation of Supply Voltage 582 Alternator 625
10.2.2 Variation of Supply 11.5.1 Expression for Induced EMF in a
Frequency 583 Coil 627
10.2.3 Variable Voltage Variable 11.5.2 Expression for Induced EMF in the
Frequency (VVVF) Control 585 Whole Winding 629
10.2.4 Variation of Number of 11.6 Phasor Diagram and Equivalent Circuit of
Poles 587 an Alternator 633

xvi Detailed Contents
11.7 Tests for Determination of Synchronous 12.1 Advantages of Parallel Operation of

Impedance (Reactance) 637 Alternators 698
11.7.1 Open Circuit Test 638 12.2 Synchronization of Alternators and its
11.7.2 Short Circuit Test 638 Conditions 698
11.7.3 Zero Power Factor (Potier 12.3 Methods of Synchronization 698
Triangle) Method 641 12.3.1 Three Dark Lamps Method 698
11.8 Determination of Voltage Regulation of an 12.3.2 Using Synchroscope 702
Alternator 646 12.4 Sharing of Load Between Alternators
11.8.1 EMF Method (or Synchronous Connected in Parallel 702
Impedance Method) 646 12.4.1 Sharing of Current and Power
11.8.2 Short Circuit Ratio (SCR) 649 Among Alternators Connected in
11.8.3 MMF Method 652 Parallel 703
11.8.4 American Standards Association 12.4.2 Controlling the Load Sharing
Method 655 Among Alternators Connected in
11.9 Effect of Load Power Factor on Armature Parallel 708
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Reaction and Terminal Voltage of an 12.4.3 Governor Characteristics 709
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Alternator 658 12.5 Synchronizing Power During Parallel
11.9.1 Armature Reaction in Three-phase
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Operation of Two Alternators 710
Alternators 659
12.6 Effect of Change in Mechanical Power
11.10 Power Angle Characteristics of Input to the Prime Mover of Alternators
Cylindrical Rotor Alternators 663
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Operating in Parallel 711
11.11 Analysis of Cylindrical Rotor Alternators 12.7 Effect of Change in Excitation Given
Considering Armature Resistance 668
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to the Field of Alternators Operating in
11.11.1 Phasor Diagrams Considering
Parallel 712
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Armature Resistance 668

11.11.2 Active and Reactive Power 12.8 Operation of Alternators Connected to
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Delivered by an Alternator Infinite Busbar 715

Considering Armature 12.9 Synchronizing Power and Synchronizing
Resistance 671 Torque developed in an Alternator
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11.11.3 Maximum Power Conditions Connected to Infinite Busbar 717

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When Armature Resistance is 12.10 Stability of Alternators 721

Considered 673 12.10.1 Damper Winding 722
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11.12 Salient Pole Synchronous Machines and 12.11 Short Circuit Transients in Synchronous

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its Two Reaction Model 676 Machines 724

11.12.1 Phasor Diagram of Salient Pole 12.12 Capability Curve of Alternators 727
Alternator with Lagging
12.13 Losses and Efficiency of Synchronous
Load 677
Machine 729
11.12.2 Phasor Diagram of Salient Pole
12.13.1 Measurement of Losses 730
Alternator with Leading Load 680
12.13.2 Rating of Alternator 731
11.12.3 Determination of Xd and Xq by Slip
Test 683 12.14 Application of Synchronous
Generators 732
11.13 Power Angle Characteristics of Salient
Pole Rotor Alternators 686 12.15 MATLAB EXAMPLES 733
13. Synchronous Motors 739

12. Parallel
Operation and Stability of
Alternators 697 Introduction 739
13.1 Constructional Features of Synchronous
Introduction 697 Motors 739

Detailed Contents xvii
13.2 Operating Principle of Synchronous 14.3.4 Starting Methods of Single-phase

Motors 740 Induction Motor 797
13.3 Starting of Synchronous Motors 741 14.3.5 Split-phase Starting Type
13.3.1 Auxiliary Motor (Pony Motor) Motors 797
Starting 741 14.3.6 Shaded-pole motors 803
13.3.2 Damper Winding Starting 742 14.3.7 Repulsion Start Motors 804
13.3.3 Synchronous–Induction Motor 14.3.8 Reluctance Start Motors 806
Starting 745 14.3.9 Condition for Maximum
13.3.4 Starting from a Variable Frequency Starting Torque in Single-phase
Supply 746 Induction Motors 807
14.3.10 Equivalent Circuit of Single-phase
13.4 Equivalent Circuit of Synchronous
Induction Motors 817
Motors 746
14.3.11 Power Flow in Single-phase
13.5 Phasor Diagram of Synchronous Induction Motors 820
Motors 747 14.3.12 Determination of Single-phase
13.6 Power Flow in Synchronous Motors 753 Induction Motor Equivalent Circuit
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13.7 Expressions for Power in Synchronous Parameters by Tests 823
Motors 754 14.3.13 Applications of Single-phase
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13.7.1 Expressions for Power in Induction Motors 827
Cylindrical Rotor Synchronous 14.4 MATLAB EXAMPLES 828
Motors 754
13.7.2 Conditions for Maximum
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Power 756 15. Special Machines 836
13.7.3 Power Equations Neglecting
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Armature Resistance 757 Introduction 836

iv
13.7.4 Expressions for Power in Salient Pole

15.1 Single-phase AC commutator
Synchronous Motors 758
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motor 837
13.8 Operating Curves of Synchronous 15.1.1 AC Series Motor 837
Motors 761 15.1.2 Universal Motors 839
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13.9 Pull-out Test of Synchronous 15.1.3 Uncompensated AC Series

Motors 773
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Motors 839
13.10 Hunting in Synchronous Motors 774 15.1.4 Compensated AC Series
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13.11 Synchronous Condenser 775 Motor 845

13.12 Applications of Synchronous 15.2 Switched Reluctance Motor 851
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Motors 777 15.2.1 Construction and Operation of a

SRM 851
15.2.2 SRM Drive System 852
15.3 Brushless DC Motors (BLDC) 853
15.3.1 Construction and Operation of a
14. Single-phase Induction Motors 786 BLDC Motor 853
15.4 Hysteresis Motor 854
Introduction 786 15.4.1 Construction and Operation of
14.1 Recapitulation of Three-phase Induction Hysteresis Motor 854
Motor 787 15.5 Synchronous Reluctance Motor 856
14.2 Two-phase Induction Motor 787 15.5.1 Construction and Operation of
14.3 Single-phase Induction Motor 790 Synchronous Reluctance
14.3.1 Pulsating Magnetic Field 790 Motor 856
14.3.2 Double Revolving Field 15.6 Stepper Motor 857
Theory 792 15.6.1 Variable Reluctance Stepper
14.3.3 Cross Field Theory 795 Motor 858

xviii Detailed Contents
15.6.2 Permanent Magnet Stepper 15.10 Linear Induction Motors 865

Motors 860 15.11 Induction Generators 866
15.6.3 Hybrid Stepper Motors 860 15.12 Induction Regulators 868
15.7 Tacho-Generators 861 15.13 MATLAB EXAMPLES 868
15.7.1 DC Tacho-generator 861
15.7.2 AC Tacho-generator 861 Appendix A 876
15.8 Synchro 862 References 879
15.9 Servo Motors 863
Index 880
15.9.1 DC Servo Motor 863
15.9.2 AC Servo Motor 864 About the Authors 885
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Un
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Basic Concepts of
Electrical Machines
s
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CHAPTER • Recognize the fundamentals of electromechanical energy conversion.
OUTLINE • Compute force and torque developed in electromechanical systems.
Pr
• Discuss the general concepts of electric generators and motors.
• Describe the constructional details and performance of different types of coils and windings
y
available for rotating electrical machines.
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• Classify different magnetic, conducting, and insulating materials used in electrical machines.
er
LEARNING After going through this chapter, the students will be able to:
OUTCOME • Employ the principles of electromechanical energy conversion to describe basic operation of
iv
electric generators and motors.

Un
• Determine the force and torque developed in electromechanical systems of varying configuration.
• Choose appropriate winding scheme for different rotating machines and appraise their
performance.
d
• Determine the type of material to be used for construction of a machine following efficiency,
performance, and environmental standards.
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INTRODUCTION
Michael Faraday’s most outstanding discoveries in electromagnetism during 1830s form the very early origins
of transformers, alternators, and DC generators. He had a ring made of soft iron over which two copper coils
were wound. Upon making and braking current through one of the coils, he observed disturbance of a magnetic
needle placed near the second coil. This is considered as the first model of a transformer where interrelationship
between electricity and magnetism was observed. In 1831, Faraday performed one more series of experiments
in which he passed a coil wound on a hollow paper cylinder swiftly over a cylindrical bar magnet. Ends of the
coil were connected to a galvanometer. The galvanometer pointer showed deflection as long as the coil was in
motion. This was the first ‘alternator’ where a relative motion between magnet and conductor produced electricity.
In the same year 1831, Faraday discovered a rotating machine that can be thought as the origin of DC generator.
He had a revolving copper disc placed in the small gap between a pair of magnetic poles. To make contact with
the revolving plate, he amalgamated two metal brushes with mercury, one at the end of the disc and the other
on the axle. The two brushes were connected to a galvanometer. The galvanometer showed steady deflection,
indicating production of direct current as long as the disc was revolved.
Chapter_02.indd 46 5/15/2017 8:38:13 PM

Basic Concepts of Electrical Machines 47
Faraday’s achievements in 1831 led to the development of practical electrical machines—dynamos, alternators,
and motors that could convert mechanical energy to electrical energy interchangeably in both ways.
In fact, the idea of interaction of electric and magnetic fields as demonstrated by Hans Christian Oersted and
André-Marie Ampère back in the 1820s was the basis for development of motors and generators in the years to
follow. For over more than 100 years, eminent scientists, physicists and engineers whose long list contain names
like Peter Barlow (1822), François Arago (1824), Joseph Henry (1831), William Sturgeon (1833), Joseph Saxton
(1833), Thomas Davenport (1837), Werner Siemens (1856), Walter Baily (1879), Galileo Ferraris (1885), Nikola
Tesla (1889), Mikhail DolivoDobrovolskyn (1890) and many more contributed to development of the motors
and generators that we see today.
In this chapter, the basic principles of electromechanical energy conversion will be described, followed by
basic concepts of rotating electrical machines, their basic features and functionalities will be highlighted.
2.1 ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION
s
Different components of a typical electromechanical energy conversion system and their interrelationships are
es
pictorially shown in Figure 2.1. As illustrated in Figure 2.1, an electromechanical system consists of the following
three basic components:
Pr
• An electrical subsystem (electric circuits such as windings)
• A magnetic subsystem (magnetic field in the magnetic cores and air gap)
y
• A mechanical subsystem (mechanically movable parts such as a plunger in a linear actuator or as rotor in a
sit
rotating electrical machine)
Electromechanical
er
Voltages and currents are used to describe performance of system
the electrical subsystem and they are governed by the basic

iv
circuital laws, namely: Ohm’s law, KCL and KVL. State

Un
Electrical Mechanical
of the mechanical subsystem can be described in terms of system
Magnetic
system system
torque and speed, and is governed by the Newton’s laws.
The magnetic subsystem or magnetic field that acts as a
d
coupling between the electrical and mechanical subsys- Voltage, current Flux Torque, speed
or
tems is described by quantities such as magnetic flux,

flux density, and field strength. These are governed by the
xf
T, ω
Maxwell’s equations. Circuit equations: Force, torque
KCL, KVL, equations:
When coupled with an electric circuit, the magnetic flux
O
Ohm’s law e, i Newton’s law

interacting with the current in the circuit would produce
Fig. 2.1 Mapping of electromechanical energy
a force or torque on a mechanically movable part. On the conversion components
other hand, the movements of the moving part will cause
variation of the magnetic flux linking the electric circuit and induce an electromotive force (EMF) in the circuit.
Basic operating principle of all rotating electrical machines is based on conversion of electrical energy
to mechanical energy and vice versa. This conversion of one form of energy to the other form generally
takes place through a coupling medium, either a magnetic field or an electric field. In a conventional motor,
electrical energy is drawn from the supply which is converted first to magnetic energy in the coupling medium
and then converted back to mechanical energy in the rotating part of the machine to drive mechanical loads
such as line shafts or machine tools. On the other hand, when the machine is driven mechanically by a
prime mover such as engine or turbine, the mechanical energy is transmitted through a magnetic field to be
converted to electrical energy from the generator output terminals. The electromechanical energy conversion
process is reversible, except for the losses in the system that may take place during the conversion process.
The term ‘reversible’ implies that the energy can be transferred back and forth between the electrical and
the mechanical systems.
Chapter_02.indd 47 5/15/2017 8:38:13 PM

2.2 ENERGY BALANCE DURING ELECTROMECHANICAL

ENERGY CONVERSION
The principle of conservation of energy holds good for electromechanical energy conversion systems, as is
expected for any energy conversion process. Since the mass of electrical machine does not change during its
operation, the input energy must equal the output energy; energy can neither be created nor be destroyed.
During any such energy conversion process, in addition to the energy stored in coupling magnetic field, various
losses also take place as power flows from input source to the output load. For example, in a motor as input
power flows through the motor coils, then through to the coupling magnetic field, and finally out of the motor
shaft, there will be ohmic losses (I2R) in coils, hysteresis, and eddy current loss in magnetic core, and finally
frictional losses due to moving parts. All of these losses will produce heat, raise temperature of the machine and
reduce its useful output, thereby reducing efficiency of the energy conversion system.
The energy balance equation during such a conversion process in a motor can be developed keeping in mind
the principle of conservation of energy as:
 Electrical Energy   Mechanical Energy   Energy Stored in   Energy 
s
 =  +  Magnetic Field  +  Losses  (2.1)
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 Input   Output     
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These same losses will take place in a generator operation as well, only difference being the direction of flow of
energy. In a generator, mechanical energy is supplied as input, that flows through the coupling magnetic field to be
y
finally converted to electrical energy as output. Energy balance equation for a generator can hence be written as:
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 Mechanical Energy   Electrical Energy   Energy Stored in   Energy 
 Input =  Output + +  (2.2)
  Magnetic Field   Losses 
er
  
Note the similarity between the energy conversion equations for motor Eq. (2.1) and generator Eq. (2.2). In fact, one
iv
single equation, say Eq. (2.1) can be used for both motors as generators if we consider that electrical and mechanical
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energy terms have positive values for motor action, while they have negative values for generator actions.
If the total losses be divided among three groups, (a) ohmic losses as electrical loss, (b) core losses as magnetic
loss, and (c) friction losses as mechanical loss, then the energy balance equation of Eq. (2.1) can be rewritten as:
d
or
 Electrical Energy Input   Mechanical Energy Output   Energy Stored in Magnetic Field 
=
   +  (2.3)
− I 2 R Losses   + Friction Losses   + Core Losses 
xf

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The term on left hand side of Eq. (2.3) indicates the useful electrical energy available after ohmic losses that
is being passed on to the coupling field for onward conversion. If the supply voltage is v and input current is i,
passing through winding resistance of r, then the incremental amount of useful electrical energy reaching the
coupling field within a small time dt is given by:
dEe = ( v − ir ) idt
vidt − i 2rdt = (2.4)
This energy when reaches the coupling magnetic field, will induce a voltage such as the supply voltage is
 dψ 
opposed. This induced EMF  e = − will have instantaneous magnitude of e = ( v − ir ) in order to balance
the voltage properly.  dt 
The first term on right hand side of Eq. (2.3) indicates the useful mechanical energy output plus the mechanical
losses. These two together can be termed as the total energy converted to mechanical form, or in other words
the total mechanical energy developed. In the small time dt, the incremental amount of energy converted to
mechanical energy is denoted by the symbol dEm .
The second term on right hand side of Eq. (2.3) is the total energy absorbed by the coupling magnetic field
that includes energy stored in it as well as the magnetic losses. This incremental energy is denoted by dEf .
Chapter_02.indd 48 5/15/2017 8:38:15 PM

Thus, Eq. (2.3) can be rewritten in differential form as:
=
dE e = dEm + dEf
eidt (2.5)
2.3 FORCE AND TORQUE IN ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS

All electrical equipments that operate on the principles of electromechanical energy conversion, be it rotating or
not, produce some kind of force or torque due to interaction of magnetic field with current carrying conductors.
In devices such as relays, electromagnets, moving-iron instruments etc., there is only one excitation winding that
creates the operating magnetic field and hence are called singly-excited devices. These devices have limited range
of movement or rotation. In rotating machines such as DC machines, synchronous machines, or even in energy
meters and wattmeters, there are more than one independent excitation coils that make them doubly-excited or
even sometimes multiply-excited magnetic systems.
2.3.1 Singly Excited Magnetic System
s
es
Consider the magnetic coupling of Figure 2.1 to be Magnetic core
composed of a loss-less magnetic system as shown in i r
Pr
Figure 2.2 with a single exciting winding placed on core dx
of the magnetic structure. A movable plunger fixed at
one end is placed in the air gap so that it can move in or v
y e F
sit
out of the air gap linearly under magnetic force exerted
by the electromagnet.
er
Movable
Let a supply voltage v be supplied to the exciting plunger
winding that has a lumped resistance r as shown in
iv
Figure 2.2. After drop in the resistance, a voltage of e Fig. 2.2 Singly-excited linear electromechanical
Un
is available for conversion of electrical energy to mag- energy conversion system

netic energy, i.e., =e ( v − ir ) . This voltage available
after drop in the resistance is responsible for producing magnetism in the magnetic core and is balanced by the
d
 dψ 
or
opposing EMF induced in the coil  e = − by the electromagnetic field. Let, under action of this magnet, the
 dt 
xf
plunger moves by a small distance dx within a small time dt in the direction shown under action of the force F.
Thus, mechanical work done by the force acting on the plunger during this time is
O
dEm = Fdx (2.6)

From Eq. (2.4), electrical energy supplied after loss in the winding resistance is
dEe = ( v − ir ) idt
vidt − i 2rdt = (2.7)
dψ
From the relation: e = ( v − ir ) =
dt
we can obtain an alternate expression for the electrical energy supplied as:
( v ir ) idt =
dEe =− idψ (2.8)
eidt =
Now go back to the energy balance equation of an electromechanical system derived in Eq. (2.5), so that total
incremental energy stored in the magnetic field can be expressed as:
dEf =dEe − dEm =idψ − Fdx (2.9)
Chapter_02.indd 49 5/15/2017 8:38:16 PM

Equation (2.9) indicates that energy stored in the magnetic field is a function of flux linkage ψ of the exciting
winding and displacement x of the plunger. Mathematically, such dependence of the magnetic energy stored on
ψ and x can be written in partial differential form as:
∂Ef (ψ , x ) ∂Ef (ψ , x )
dEf (ψ , x )
= dψ + dx (2.10)
∂ψ ∂x
Comparing Eqs. (2.9) and (2.10), we express current and force in terms of the magnetic energy stored as:
∂Ef (ψ , x ) ∂Ef (ψ , x )
i= and F= − (2.11)
∂ψ ∂x
From basic electromagnetic principles (Section 1.8.2), energy stored in an electromagnet can be expressed as:
ψ
=
Ef
∫=
dEf
∫ idψ (2.12)
s
0
es
When the energy stored in the magnetic field is a function of flux linkage ψ of the exciting winding and displace-
Pr
ment x of the plunger, then Eq. (2.12) is re-written as:
ψ
Ef (ψ , x ) =
∫ (ψi , x ) dψ
y (2.13)
sit
0
er
In the configuration shown in Figure 2.2, reluctance of the air gap is much higher as compared to reluctance of the flux
path through magnetic core. Thus, for all practical purposes, the magnetic circuit behaves predominantly like that of
iv
air, i.e., it obeys linear magnetization characteristics with most of the magnetic energy being stored in the air gap. For
such a linear magnetic path and for reasonably limited range of movement of the plunger such that reluctance to the
Un
flux path does not change, the flux linkage ψ and exciting current i are linearly proportional. The inductance value is
thus independent of exciting current and hence independent of flux linkage ψ, but will, however, depend on displace-
d
ment x of the plunger. Current I can then be expressed as a function of flux linkage and self-inductance of the coil:
or
ψ ψ
L ( x) = or i (ψ , x ) = (2.14)
i (ψ , x ) L ( x)
xf
O
Thus, magnetic energy stored from Eq. (2.13) for a linear magnetic material can be written as:
ψ
∫
ψ 1 ψ2
Ef (ψ , x ) = dψ or, Ef (ψ , x ) = (2.15)
L( x) 2 L ( x)
0
Electromechanical force Eq. (2.11) acting on the movable plunger thus can be expressed as:
∂E (ψ , x ) d 1 ψ2 
− f
F= =
−  
∂x dx  2 L ( x ) 
1 d  1  dL ( x ) 1 ψ 2 dL ( x )
or, F = − ψ2   or, F=
2 dL  L ( x )  dx 2 L ( x )2 dx
2
1  ψ  dL ( x ) 1 dL ( x )
or, F=   or, F = i2 (2.16)
2  L ( x )  dx 2 dx
Chapter_02.indd 50 5/15/2017 8:38:17 PM

An alternate method for finding out expression for electromechanical force on the (i, ψ )
plunger is available using the concept of energy and co-energy in a magnetic field as Ef
discussed in Section 1.8.2. ψ
Recall the ψ versus i curve of the magnetic material (reproduced in Figure 2.3), Ef′
where area under the curve adjacent to ψ axis is the magnetic energy stored Ef, while
area under the curve adjacent to i axis E ′f was termed as the co-energy.
At any operating point (ψ, i) as indicated in Figure 2.3, we have: i
Ef + Ef′ =
iψ (2.17) Fig. 2.3 Energy stored
and co-energy
Note that Ef is the area with the ψ axis, and E ′f is the area with i axis. Thus, Ef can
be written as a function of ψ, while E ′f as a function of i; both being functions of displacement x of the plunger
as well. Thus, Eq. (2.17) is re-written is the form: Ef (ψ , x ) + Ef′ ( i, x ) =
iψ (2.18)
In differential form: dEf (ψ, x ) + dEf′ ( i, x ) =+

ψ di idψ (2.19)
s
Incremental co-energy is thus: dEf′ ( i, x ) = ψ di + idψ − dEf (ψ , x ) (2.20)
es
=
Recall from Eq. (2.8) that dE idψ − Fdx
Pr
f
Hence, co-energy in Eq. (2.20) is re-written in terms of the electromechanical force developed as:
dEf′ ( i,=
x ) ψ di + Fdx
y (2.21)
sit
Alternately, dEf′ ( i, x ) in partial derivative form is expressed as:
er
∂Ef′ ( i, x ) ∂Ef′ ( i, x )
dEf′ ( i, x )
iv
= di + dx (2.22)
∂i ∂x
Un
Therefore, comparing Eqs. (2.21) and (2.22) we express flux linkage and force in terms of the magnetic co-energy
∂Ef′ ( i, x ) ∂Ef′ ( i, x )
d
as: ψ = (2.23) and F= (2.24)

∂i ∂x
or
Expression for co-energy is derived as the area underneath the curve adjacent to i axis:
xf
O
∫
Ef′ ( i, x ) = ψ ( i, x ) di
0
(2.25)
Considering the magnetic path to have linear characteristics as before we express Eq. (2.25) in terms of self-
ψ ( i, x )
inductance with L ( x ) = , i.e., ψ ( i, x ) = iL ( x ), such that:
i
i
∫
1 2
Ef′ ( i, x )
= iL ( x ) di
= i L ( x) (2.26)
2
0
Thus, final expression for electromechanical force derived from co-energy Eq. (2.25) can be obtained as:
∂Ef′ ( i, x ) d  1 2  1 2 d dL ( x )
=F = i L ( x ) or, F= i  L ( x ) 
∂x dx  2  2 dL  dx
Chapter_02.indd 51 5/15/2017 8:38:18 PM

1 dL ( x )
or, F = i2 (2.27)
2 dx
Comparing Eqs. (2.16) and (2.27), we see that either way we obtain the same expression for the electromechani-
cal force developed.
According to Eq. (2.11), electromechanical force developed can be expressed as the negative partial deriva-
tive of energy stored in the magnetic field against linear displacement. On the other hand, Eq. (2.24) tells us that
the same force can also be expressed as positive partial derivative of co-energy of the magnetic system against
linear displacement.
This force always tends to move the plunger in a direction such that the air gap is reduced and hence stored
energy in the system is reduced, i.e., the system always tries to achieve a stable position of minimum field energy.
Let A (in m2) and l (in m) are cross sectional area and length the magnetic flux path at the air gap in Fig-
ure 2.2. Then the above expression of co-energy Eq. (2.26) can be written in a different way by expressing the
ψ ( i, x )
self-inductance as: L ( x ) =
i
s
1 2 ψ ( i, x ) 1 1
Ef′ ( i, x ) iψ ( i, x ) iNφ ( i, x )
es
So that, Eq. (2.26) becomes: = i= =
2 i 2 2
Pr
(Since ψ = Nϕ where N is number of turns made over the magnetic core and ϕ is the flux flowing through the
magnetic field.)
y
Let us now introduce the term co-energy density which is nothing but is co-energy divided by the total volume
sit
(Al) through which the flux is passing:
Ef′ 1 iNφ 1 Ni φ 1 1
er
′
E=
V = = = =
HB µH2 (2.28)
Al 2 Al 2 l A 2 2
iv
A singly-excited magnetic system can also have a rotating actuator as shown in Figure 2.4. The linearly movable
Un
plunger is replaced by a rotating element free to rotate in the air gap between the two pole faces. In a manner
similar to the way force is developed to actuate linear displacement, torque is developed in a rotating system.
Expression for the torque developed can be found out in exactly similar manner to obtain:
d
In terms of magnetic energy stored:

or
∂Ef (ψ ,θ )
T= − (2.29)
xf
∂θ
∂Ef′ ( i,θ )
O
In terms of magnetic co-energy: T = (2.30)

∂θ
1 dL (θ )
And finally: T = i 2 (2.31)
2 dθ
where θ is the angular displacement of the rotor from axis
of the stator poles as marked in Figure 2.4. Magnetic core
The torque acts in such a way that the rotor is rotated i r
in a direction so as to bring the rotor in alignment with T
the stator poles, thereby reducing the reluctance offered Rotor
to the complete flux path. Since this torque is created by v e
variation in reluctance of the magnetic circuit, it is often
referred to as the reluctance torque. If the rotor is not of
θ
the salient pole structure as shown in Figure 2.4, but is
of a smooth cylindrical structure, then reluctance seen by
the stator flux does not vary with rotation of the rotor, and Fig. 2.4 Singly-excited rotating electromechanical
hence no reluctance torque will be developed. energy conversion system
Chapter_02.indd 52 5/15/2017 8:38:22 PM

2.3.2 Doubly Excited Magnetic System

Model of a doubly excited magnetic system is shown Stator
in Figure 2.5. The stator is excited from a source that Magnetic core
i1 r1
sends the exciting current i1 through N1 number of T
r2
turns in the stator coil. The rotor also has an exciting
e2 v2
coil with N2 number of turns that is supplied from a v1 e1
second source that passes a current of i2 through the Rotor
i2
rotor coil. As indicated in Figure 2.5, the rotor initial
position is at an angle θ with respect to the stator θ dθ
pole axis. Due to interaction of the two magnetic
fields, one from the stator and the second from the
Fig. 2.5 Doubly excited rotating electromechanical
rotor, the rotor experience a torque that tends to energy conversion system
rotate the rotor. Expression for the torque developed
on rotor can be derived using concepts of magnetic energy and co-energy as before.
s
Let the rotor rotate by a small incremental angle dθ in a small time dt under influence of the torque.
es
Incremental amount of energy supplied to the magnetic field is due to combined action of two sources, one
in the stator and the other in the rotor:
Pr
dEe =e1i1dt + e2i2 dt =i1dψ 1 + i2 dψ 2 (2.32)
y
where ψ1 and ψ2 are flux linkages in stator and rotor coils due to currents i1 and i2, respectively.
sit
From energy balance concept in electromechanical systems, this input electrical energy can be expressed as
summation of magnetic energy stored and mechanical energy developed:
er
=
dE e dEf + dEm (2.33)
iv
The differential amount of mechanical work done by the torque T when rotor moves by incremental angle dθ is
Un
dEm = Tdθ (2.34)

Thus, expression for magnetic energy stored can be written for a doubly excited system as:
d
=
dE dEe − dEm or, dEf =i1dψ 1 + i2 dψ 2 − Tdθ (2.35)
or
Note that this energy stored in the magnetic field is a function of the two flux linkages ψ1 and ψ2, and is also depen-
xf
dent on angular position of rotor θ. Thus, in partial differential form, magnetic energy stored can be written as:
O
∂Ef (ψ 1 ,ψ 2 ,θ ) ∂Ef (ψ 1 ,ψ 2 ,θ ) ∂Ef (ψ 1 ,ψ 2 ,θ )

dEf (ψ 1 ,ψ 2 ,θ ) = dψ 1 + dψ 2 + dθ (2.36)
∂ψ 1 ∂ψ 2 ∂θ
Comparing Eqs. (2.35) and (2.36), the torque developed T can now be expressed in terms of magnetic energy
∂E (ψ ,ψ ,θ )
stored as: T = − f 1 2 (2.37)
∂θ
Recall that magnetic energy stored and co-energy are related by the following expression [refer Eq. (2.17)]:
Ef + Ef′ = iψ = i1ψ 1 + i2ψ 2
Thus, magnetic co-energy has the expression: Ef′ =i1ψ 1 + i2ψ 2 − Ef (2.38)
In differential form: dEf′ = ψ 1di1 + ψ 2 di2 + i1dψ 1 + i2 dψ 2 − dEf (2.39)

Combining Eqs. (2.34) and (2.39), we have an alternate expression for differential co-energy:
dEf′ =ψ 1di1 + ψ 2 di2 + Tdθ (2.40)
Chapter_02.indd 53 5/15/2017 8:38:23 PM

Note that this co-energy denotes the area of ψ-i curve adjacent to the i axis. Thus, it is a function of the two cur-
rents i1 and i2, and is also dependent on angular position of rotor θ. Thus, in partial differential form, magnetic
co-energy can be written as:
∂Ef′ ( i1 , i2 ,θ ) ∂Ef′ ( i1 , i2 ,θ ) ∂Ef′ ( i1 , i2 ,θ )
dEf′ ( i1 , i2 ,θ ) = di1 + di2 + dθ (2.41)
∂i1 ∂i2 ∂θ
Comparing Eqs. (2.40) and (2.41), the torque developed T can also be expressed in terms of magnetic co-energy as:
∂Ef′ ( i1 , i2 ,θ )
T= (2.42)
∂θ
According to Eq. (2.36), electromechanical torque developed in a doubly excited system can be expressed as
the negative partial derivative of energy stored in the magnetic field against angular displacement. On the other
hand, Eq. (2.42) tells us that the same torque can also be expressed as positive partial derivative of co-energy
of the magnetic system against angular displacement.
s
es
Neglecting magnetic saturation and hysteresis, the flux linkages ψ1 and ψ2 may be expressed in terms of self
and mutual inductance of the two coils as: ψ = 1 L1i1 + M12i2
Pr
ψ 2 L2i2 + M21i1
= (2.43)
y
where L1 is self-inductance of stator winding, L2 is self-inductance of rotor winding, and M12 (or M21) is mutual
sit
inductance between stator and rotor windings.
er
N12 N 2 N1 N 2
L1 = , L2 = 2 , M12
= M21
= M= (2.44)
S1 S2 S12
iv
(i ,ψ )
Un
where S1, S2, and S12 are the reluctances offered to stator flux, rotor B A
(i ,ψ )
flux, and resultant of stator and rotor flux respectively. ψ E F
E
Assuming linear magnetization characteristics (linear ψ-i curve) E
d
ψ
for both stator and rotor as shown in Figure 2.6, the total magnetic
or
energy stored in stator and rotor combined is given by summation of O C D G

i
areas of the two triangles OABO of Figure 2.6(a) in stator and DEFD i
xf
(a) (b)
of Figure 2.6(b) in rotor:
Fig. 2.6 Linear ψ-i characteristics
O
indicating magnetic energy stored in (a)

1 1
Ef = Efs + Efr = ∆OABO + ∆DEFD = i1ψ 1 + i2ψ 2 (2.45) stator (b) rotor
2 2
Putting values of ψ1 and ψ2 from Eq. (2.43), we can write total magnetic energy stored as:
1 1 1 1 1 1
Ef= i1 ( L1i1 + M1i2 ) + i2 ( L2i2 + M2i1 ) or, Ef = i12 L1 + i1i2 M12 + i2 2 L2 + i1i2 M21
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1
=
Since, M12 =
M 21 M , we have: Ef = i12 L1 + i2 2 L2 + i1i2 M (2.46)
2 2
When the stator and rotor windings are switched on and the rotor starts rotating, then the incremental change
in energy stored in magnetic field can be calculated by differentiating Eq. (2.46) with respect to i1, i2 and also
noting that L1, L2, and M will depend on position of the rotor θ. Thus:
1 1
dEf ( i1 , i2 ,θ ) = i1L1di1 + i2 Mdi1 + i2 L2 di2 + i1 Mdi2 + i12 dL1 (θ ) + i2 2 dL2 (θ ) + i1i2 dM (θ ) (2.47)
2 2
Chapter_02.indd 54 5/15/2017 8:38:24 PM

From Eq. (2.32), the differential form of electrical energy supplied with respect to currents and rotor position
can be written as: dEe ( i1 , i2 ,θ ) =i1dψ 1 + i2 dψ 2 =i1d ( L1i1 + M12i2 ) + i2 d ( L2i2 + M21i1 )
or, dEe ( i1 , i2 ,θ ) =i1L1di1 + i12 dL1 (θ ) + i1 M12 di2 + i1i2 dM12 (θ ) + i2 L2 di2 + i2 2 dL2 (θ ) + i2 M21di1 + i1i2 dM21 (θ )
=
Putting M12 =
M 21 M , we have:
dEe ( i1 , i2 ,θ ) = i1L1di1 + i12 dL1 (θ ) + i1 Mdi2 + i1i2 dM (θ ) + i2 L2 di2 + i2 2 dL2 (θ ) + i2 Mdi1 + i1i2 dM (θ )

or, dEe ( i1 , i2 ,θ ) = i1L1di1 + i12 dL1 (θ ) + i1 Mdi2 + i2 L2 di2 + i2 2 dL2 (θ ) + i2 Mdi1 + 2i1i2 dM (θ ) (2.48)
The differential amount of mechanical work done during incremental rotation of dθ is given from Eq. (2.33) by:
dEm = Tdθ
From the law of conservation of energy we have:
s
=
dE e dEm + dEf or, dE=
m dEe − dEf
es
Subtracting Eqs. (2.47) from (2.48), we obtain:
Pr
1 2 1
Tdθ =
dEm = i1 dL1 (θ ) + i2 2 dL2 (θ ) + i1i2 dM (θ ) (2.49)
2 2
y
sit
∴Electromechanical torque developed can be expressed from Eq. (2.49) as:
1 dL (θ ) 1 2 dL2 (θ ) dM (θ )
er
T = i12 1 + i2 + i1i2 (2.50)

2 dθ 2 dθ dθ
iv
In case the doubly excited system has translational motion instead of rotational motion, that is, one electromagnet
Un
is held stationary while the other electromagnet is free to move linearly on a plane due to interaction of their elec-
tromagnetic fields, then the electromechanical force (F) developed can be developed in a similar manner to obtain:
d
1 dL ( x ) 1 2 dL2 ( x ) dM ( x )
F = i12 1 + i2 + i1i2
or
(2.51)
2 dx 2 dx dx
xf
where, x is the amount of linear displacement of the movable element.

O
2.3.3 Electromagnetic Torque and Reluctance Torque

The total electromechanical torque produced by a doubly excited magnetic system is given by Eq. (2.50). In
such a system, if only the stator is excited and no supply is given to the rotor coils, the rotor current i2 = 0. Thus,
1 dL (θ )
Eq. (2.50) reduces to: T = i12 1 (2.52)
2 dθ
Similarly, if only the rotor is excited and no supply is given to the stator, then stator current i1 = 0. Torque
1 dL (θ )
developed is then: T = i2 2 2 (2.53)
2 dθ
It is thus seen that in a doubly excited magnetic system, even if one of the coils is not energized, torque is still
developed enabling the rotor to rotate in appropriate direction. This is because reluctance to the flux path changes
with rotor position, i.e., self-inductance of stator and rotor are both dependent on the rotor position. These com-
ponents of torque given by Eqs. (2.52–2.53) that are present in a doubly excited salient pole rotor structure as
shown in Figure 2.5 are called reluctance torques. In a salient pole structure, where the air gap between stator
Chapter_02.indd 55 5/15/2017 8:38:25 PM

and rotor is different at different orientation of the rotor, reluctance torque is present due to tendency of magnetic
flux to search for lowest reluctance path. In either case, whether the stator or the rotor is excited, magnetic flux
passing between stator and rotor always tend to follow a minimum reluctance path and thereby a reluctance
torque is produced that rotates the rotor in clock-wise direction as shown in Figure 2.5.
If the salient pole rotor is now replaced by a smooth cylindrical rotor, then total torque on the rotor can be
derived from Eq. (2.50) as following with both stator and rotor coils excited:
1 2 dL2 (θ ) dM (θ )
=T i2 + i1i2 (2.54)
2 dθ dθ
1 dL (θ )
Note that the reluctance torque term T = i12 1 is absent in Eq. (2.54) because the reluctance S1 seen by
2 dθ
the stator flux does not change with movement of the rotor; surface of rotor being smooth cylindrical, making
dL (θ )
the air gap between stator poles and rotor surface constant. Thus, L1 is constant and 1 = 0.
dθ
s
In addition, if the stator poles surface facing the air gap is also cylindrical and stator coils are uniformly
es
distributed around the cylindrical stator surface, then reluctance S2 seen by the rotor flux also does not change
dL2 (θ )
Pr
with rotor position and hence = 0 . In such a configuration with both stator and rotor surface facing each
dθ
other are smooth cylindrical, then torque developed on the rotor reduces to
y
sit
dM (θ )
T = i1i2 (2.55)
dθ
er
dM (θ )
This component of total torque i1i2 that depends on currents in both stator and rotor and also on the
iv
dθ
rate of change in mutual inductance M with respect to angular displacement θ is known as the electromagnetic
Un
torque. Electromagnetic torque can thus only be developed in a device when both stator and rotor carry c urrent,
and are mutually coupled.
d
Physically, production of electromagnetic torque can be explained by the fact that north and south poles
developed by the stator electromagnet tends to attract the opposite poles created in rotor by the rotor electro-
or
magnet. Direction of rotation of the rotor due to electromagnetic torque thus depends on direction of current in
xf
both the coils.

Note that direction of reluctance torque does not depend on direction of current in either of the two coils,
O
since in any case the rotor is always pulled to a direction where the air gap between stator and rotor can be
made minimum.
2.4 GENERAL CONCEPTS OF ROTATING MACHINE

A device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy by taking help of magnetic field is called gen-
erator. A device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy using magnetic field is called motor.
2.4.1 Generator
According to the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, when a coil is rotated in a magnetic field, an EMF
is induced in it. If a number of such coils are connected in series and they are collectively rotated in the magnetic
field, then total EMF of summation of all coils is induced in the whole winding. Actually, this winding is placed
on a laminated core and this total structure where EMF is generated is called the armature of the machine. The
other portion of the machine where field flux is generated is called the field. When load is connected with armature
terminal, then current starts to flow through the armature and an armature field is also created.
Chapter_02.indd 56 5/15/2017 8:38:26 PM

Figure 2.7 shows the basic configuration of a generator

where a coil is made to rotate in a magnetic field by an external
applied mechanical torque, Tm. Magnetic flux lines of forces
are found to flow from N-pole to S-pole. According to Flem- N
ing right-hand rule, the direction of induced EMF (e) in the Rotating armature
represented in
coil is shown in the figure. As an external load Rl is connected form of a coil I Stator field
with the coil, so current (I) also starts to flow in same direc-
e Magnetic
tion as that of induced EMF. According to Fleming left-hand flux lines
rule, this current interacts with the magnetic field and generate Te Tf e
an internal torque, Te inside the machine which opposes the
external supplied torque Tm. If Rl is not present and the circuit ω
RI
is open, then the applied mechanical torque is only equal to Tm
frictional torque Tf. Therefore, due to the presence of Rl, the
S
applied mechanical torque is equal to:
Tm = Tf + Te(2.56) Fig. 2.7 Basic configuration of a generator
s
es
If, Tf is considered negligible, then: Tm = Te
Pr
e
The current I = , where r is resistance of the coil.
R1 + r
Then,= e IR1 + Ir
y
sit
Multiplying both sides by current I, we have:= eI I 2 R1 + I 2r
Here,
er
eI = Electrical power developed inside the machine I 2 R1 = Power consumed by the load
2 = Copper loss in the generator coil
I r
iv
Since power is defined as the rate of change of energy, and since under steady state the magnetic flux in an
Un
dEf
electrical machine is fairly constant, the rate of change of stored magnetic energy = 0 . Thus, the energy
dt
balance equation in a generator given by Eq. (2.2) can be modified to write the power balance equation under
d
steady state as:

or
Electrical power developed inside the machine = Mechanical power supplied to the machine
– Frictional losses
xf
or, eI =( Tm − Tf ) ω =Teω (2.57)

O
where ω is speed of the rotor in radian per second.

Equation (2.57) denotes the equivalence between electri-
cal power developed in the generator with the internal torque
and speed of rotation. N
2.4.2 Motor I Stator field

N(coil)
Figure 2.8 shows a coil which is supplied from a DC source e
of V volt. The coil is placed in the magnetic field created by S(coil)
Te e
the N-pole and S-pole of the machine. The N-pole and S-pole ω
constitute the stator field of the machine. When a number of
Tf
such coils connected in series in the form a winding is placed V
Tm
on a magnetic core, then that is called rotor of the machine.
For the time being, let the coil in Figure 2.8 is considered S
rotor of the machine. Magnetic core of the rotor is not shown
in Figure 2.8 to enhance visual clarity. Fig. 2.8 Basic configuration of a motor
Chapter_02.indd 57 5/15/2017 8:38:27 PM

According to Fleming’s left hand rule, the coil will experience a torque (Te) in anticlockwise direction. Thus,
the coil rotates in anti-clockwise direction. In order to maintain the rotation continuously, a special arrangement of
brush and ring is made which is explained in more details in the chapter on DC machines. For the time being, it is
assumed that rotation continues in anticlockwise direction. Now, according to Fleming’s right hand rule, an EMF
(e) is induced in the coil which opposes the supplied voltage (V) and therefore also opposes the supplied current.
Hence, the electrical equation associated with the coil is
V −e =Ir , where r is resistance of the coil
Multiplying both sides by current I, we have:
VI= eI + I 2r
Here,
I r = Copper loss in the motor coil
eI = Electrical power available for conversion to mechanical power
VI = Electrical Power supplied
s
Thus, in the same way as for a generator, the power balance equation for a motor under steady state
es
dE
(with f = 0 ) can be written as:
dt
Pr
Power supplied = Electrical power available for conversion to mechanical power
+ Copper loss
y
sit
The torque (Te) generated in anticlockwise direction needs to overcome the frictional torque, Tf and also has
to carry the mechanical load torque, Tm on the motor. Therefore:
er
ω=
Te = Tm + Tf or, Te ωTm + ωTf (2.58)
iv
where ω is the rotational speed of the machine in radian per second.

Un
In Eq. (2.58), ωTe is the total mechanical power developed inside the machine which is available after con-
version from electrical power.
Then, eI = ωTe (2.59)
d
or
Note the equivalence between Eq. (2.57) in a generator and Eq. (2.59) in a motor. This clearly indicates the
interchangeability between a generator and a motor.
xf
O
From the elementary definition of motor and generator, the following observations can be made:
(a) In case of generator, induced EMF e and current I are in same direction whereas in case of motor the
induced EMF e and current I are in opposite directions.
(b) In case of generator, the internally developed torque, Te is opposite to direction of rotation of the rotor
or rotor speed ω, whereas in case of motor the internal developed torque, Te and motor direction of
rotation or rotor speed ω, is same.
(c) The direction of frictional torque Tf is always opposite to direction of rotation of the machine whether
it is motor or generator.
2.5 PHYSICAL CONCEPT OF TORQUE PRODUCTION IN

ELECTRICAL MACHINES
As explained earlier, in rotating machine, a North-South pole pair arises in both stator and rotor part of the
machine. The North-South pole pair of the rotor always tries to align with that of the stator and hence a torque
is produced in order to create this alignment. Two examples of how a continuous torque is created between stator
and rotor are shown in Figures 2.9 and 2.10.
Chapter_02.indd 58 5/15/2017 8:38:27 PM

Position A Direction of Position B Position C

Rotor rotation of rotor
N N
N S N S N S
S S
Stator pole
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 2.9 Continuous torque production in a rotating machine by changing polarity
of the rotor
Figure 2.9 shows that the arrangement in the rotor Direction of rotation Rotor follows change
is so made that the polarity of a rotor is always at of stator pole position in stator pole position
N-pole when it is at position A. When the rotor crosses
the stator North-South pole axis, then the rotor pole 2 3
strength is removed as shown in Figure 2.9(b). Due N
N
s
to inertia, the rotor crosses the stator axis and then
S S
es
the rotor polarity also gets interchanged as shown
in Figure 2.9(c). So, there is a continuous torque in
Pr
clockwise direction and rotation prevails in the system. 1 N S N S
This type of concept is used in DC machine.
In Figure 2.10 another way of rotor rotation is
y N
sit N
described. Here, the stator pole position is continu-
ously shifted with time. Thus, it also exerts a continu- S S
er
ous torque on the rotor and continuous rotation of
the rotor is maintained. This mechanism is followed
iv
mainly in AC machines such as induction machine Fig. 2.10 Continuous torque production in a rotating
machine by shifting stator pole position
Un
and synchronous machine.

To find the torque expression for a machine, a
cross-sectional view of a two-pole machine with stator
d
and rotor is shown in Figure 2.11(a). It can be assumed

or
that a sinusoidally distributed magnetic field with

respect to space angle is present in the air gap of the
xf
machine for both the field of stator and rotor. The axis
of stator field is represented as stator MMF, Fs and the
O
(a) (b)
rotor field is represented as rotor MMF, Fr as shown
in Figure 2.11(a and b). The axis actually represents
position of peak value of Fs and Fr. The north-south
pole position of both stator and rotor are kept on the
axis of Fs and Fr respectively. Figure 2.11(c) shows
the sinusoidal distribution of field MMF with respect (c)
to space angle in case of stator MMF, Fs. The position
of N and S in Figure 2.11(c) is also shown at position Fig. 2.11 (a) Stator and rotor of a machine and their
respective field axis (b) Stator field, rotor field and
of maximum MMF value.
resultant field (c) MMF distribution in space angle is
Later on, in detail discussions at various chapters, considered to be sinusoidal
it will be found that for all the machines (DC machine,
induction machine, synchronous machine, etc.) the angle between Fs and Fr will remain same when any machine
is running under steady state. In brief, the following assumptions are made for determining the expression for
torque production in a machine:
(a) Stator and rotor fields are sinusoidally distributed in the air gap between stator and rotor.
(b) The air gap is very less. So, all the flux lines are flowing radial and no tangential component is present.
Chapter_02.indd 59 5/15/2017 8:38:28 PM

(c) The field intensity H, radially along the air gap is constant in magnitude. Therefore, MMF across the air
gap is: F= H ⋅ g , where g is the radial air gap distance between stator and rotor.
(d) Because of all the above three assumptions, the MMF of both stator and rotor fields are sinusoidal and the
flux density of both fields are also sinusoidal.
Let the angle between Fs and Fr be α. Then, the resultant MMF Fre can be expressed as:
Fre 2 = Fs2 + Fr 2 + 2 Fs Fr cosα (2.60)
Reluctance of magnetic core part of the machine is considered to be negligible and only the reluctance of air gap
length is considered. Therefore, peak value of resultant magnetic field intensity (Hre) at the air gap is
Fre
H re =
g
Average value of co-energy density in the air gap space according to Eq. (2.28) is:
1
s
EV′ = µ0 × [average value of (field intensity)2]
2
es
For a sinusoidal distributed magnetic field, the field intensity in the air gap is also sinusoidally distributed around
Pr
π
1 1
( H sin θ ) 2
π ∫ re
the space. Therefore, average value of (field intensity)2 throughout the space angle = = H re 2 .
y 0
2
1
sit
Then, average value of co-energy density over the air gap space EV′ = µ0 H re 2
4
er
Volume of the total air gap space V = π DLg, where D is mean diameter of the air gap; L is axial length of
the stator or rotor.
iv
F
Hence, putting value of H re = re , total co-energy in the air gap can be found out as:
g
Un
2
π π  Fre  π (2.61)
=Ef′ = µ0 H re 2 DLg µ0=
  DLg µ0 Fre 2 DL
4 4  g  4g
d
or
Putting Eq. (2.60) in Eq. (2.61) we have:

xf
π π
=Ef′ µ0=
Fre 2 DL µ0 DL  Fs2 + Fr 2 + 2 Fs Fr cosα  (2.62)
4g 4g
O
Therefore, torque developed in the system following Eq. (2.42) is derived as the positive partial derivative of
co-energy of the magnetic system against angular displacement:
dEf′ π
T= = − µ0 DLFs Fr sin α (2.63)
dα 2g
The above expression Eq. (2.63) is true for a two-pole machine.
In general, for P-pole machine, the torque expression can be modified as:
P π (2.64)
T = −   µ0 DLF5 Fr sin α
 2  2g
From the above expression, it is found that torque is proportional to the stator and rotor MMFs and the sine of
angle between their axes. The negative sign in Eq. (2.64) indicates that the torque acts in a direction such that it
tends to decrease the displacement angle α.
From Figure 2.11(b): Fs sin α = Fre sin δ and Fr sin α = Fre sin γ
Chapter_02.indd 60 5/15/2017 8:38:29 PM

The torque equation Eq. (2.64) can now be modified in alternate forms as:
P π P π
T = −   µ0 DLFr Fre sin δ (2.65) T = −   µ0 DLFs Fre sin γ (2.66)
 2  2g  2  2g
Thus, the torque expression can be again expressed as proportional to the stator MMF and the resultant MMF
and sine of angle between them or it may be also be seen as proportional to the rotor MMF and the resultant
MMF and sine of angle between them.
2.6 MECHANICAL DEGREE AND ELECTRICAL DEGREE

In Figure 2.12(a), a two pole AC generator is shown. The rotor of the machine is an electromagnet with fixed North
and South poles. Previously, it was assumed that the MMF is sinusoidally distributed in space with respect to
space angle (θm). Now, it is assumed that the flux (ϕ) distribution in space is also sinusoidal with respect to space
angle. Further explanation on flux distribution is
given in Chapter 11 on Construction, Principle,
s
Position II
A
es
Operation and P erformance of Synchronous
Direction EMF induced in
Machine. When the rotor is at position I as shown N
of rotation conductor A e
Time
Pr
in Figure 2.12, the flux is nearly zero at point S N X
near conductor A and maximum of value ϕm at T
y
S
position of stator (point X) just along the N-pole. EMF induced in
sit
So, EMF induced in conductor A at that instant A′ Position I
conductor A′
Flux
is zero. Figure 2.12(b) shows the flux distribu- distribution (a)
e
Time
er
tion curve for the rotor position I in bold line. As in space
Shifting of flux T
the rotor rotates from position I to position II, Position I
iv
the distribution of flux in space also shifts from

EMF induced 2e
Un
position I to position II (shown by dotted line) as A A′ in coil A A′ Time

Position II Space
shown in Figure 2.12(b). Thus, flux cutting with angle,
conductor A is found to increase sinusoidally. 360° mechanical T
d
Then, EMF induced in conductor A will also angle

or
(b)
increase sinusoidally. So, if the total time of one (d)
complete rotation of the rotor is T, then in time
xf
T, one complete sinusoidal flux wave will cut the

A
conductor A. Then, one complete cycle of EMF
O
wave is generated in conductor A within the same

time T as given in Figure 2.12(d). A′ (c)
Similarly, conductor A′ is under the influ-
Fig. 2.12 Sinusoidal EMF generation in a coil of a two pole
ence of negative flux cutting as shown in Figure
machine
2.12(b). The EMF induced in A′ is also sinusoidal
but lagging by 180° to that of conductor A. Now, as shown in Figure 2.12(c), conductor A and A′ are connected
in series from behind and therefore the induced EMF in the coil A-A′ is the summation of induced EMF of
conductor A and A′ Figure 2.12(d).
Similarly, for a four pole machine (Figure 2.13(a)), it can be assumed that the flux distribution in space has
two complete sine waves within the same 360° mechanical angle (Figure 2.13(b)). Then this flux distribution in
space follows the function ϕmsin2θm. According to the present position of the rotor as shown in Figure 2.13(a),
the distribution in space is shown by the bold line curve in Figure 2.13(b). Now, for one complete rotation of the
rotor, two sinusoidal flux waves cut conductor A1. If the total time taken for one complete rotation of the rotor
is T, then in time T, two sinusoidal EMF waves are induced in conductor A1 (Figure 2.13(c)). Figure 2.13(a)
shows that position of conductor A1 with respect to N-pole is same as position of conductor A1′ with respect to
S-pole. Therefore, induced EMF in conductor A1′ is 180° out of phase with respect to conductor A1. Then, the
Chapter_02.indd 61 5/15/2017 8:38:29 PM

coil A1-A1′, is induced with an EMF which is the A1 Direction of EMF induced
rotation in conductor em
summation of EMF induced in conductor A1 and Time
A1 and A2
conductor A1′ (Figure 2.13(c)). Figure 2.13(a)
S N1
also shows another pair of conductors A2 and A2′.
T
The position of conductor A2 is same as that of A′2
A1 on the flux distribution graph (Figure 2.13(b)). A′1
N2 EMF induced in 2em
S
Also, position of A2′ is similar to A1′. Therefore, coil A1A1′ and
Time
coil A2A2′
the coil A2-A2′ also induces with the same EMF
as that of coil A1-A1′ (Figure 2.13(c)). Then coil A2
Flux T
A1-A1′ and coil A2-A2′, can be connected in distribution (a)
parallel as shown in Figure 2.13(d). in space (c)
In the above explanation, it is mentioned that Shifting of flux
with rotor rotation
perpendicular component of flux distribution in Space A1 A2
angle,
space for two pole machine is ϕmsinθm and for
four pole machine is ϕmsin2θm.Therefore, gen- A1 A1′ A2 A2 ′
s
eralising for P number of poles, perpendicular A2′
es
360° mechanical A1′
angle
component of flux distribution in space can be
Pr
(b) (d)
P Fig. 2.13 Sinusoidal EMF generation in coils of a four pole
represented as φm sin θ m. RMS value of this
2 machine
distribution is: φf =
φm
y
sit
2
In addition, from Figure 2.12 and Figure 2.13, it can be seen that:
er
P
360° mechanical rotation generates × 360°angle of electrical wave.
iv
2
P
Un
⇒1° mechanical rotation generates degree angle of electrical wave

2
Therefore, when:
P = 2, 1° mechanical angle = 1° electrical angle
d

or

xf
Therefore, in general:
O
2
1° electrical angle = degree mechanical angle
P
2
1 full cycle of electrical wave = cycle of mechanical rotation
P
If the frequency of generation of the electrical wave is f Hz, then:
2× f
f full cycles of electrical wave generated per second = cycle of mechanical rotation occurring per second
P
Thus to generate an electrical wave of frequency f Hz,
2× f
Speed of the rotor should be = rotation per second
P
120 × f
or, speed of the rotor should be rotation per minutes (rpm).
P
This speed is called synchronous speed, Ns.
120 × f
i.e., Ns = (2.67)
P
Chapter_02.indd 62 5/15/2017 8:38:30 PM

2.7 WINDING OF AC MACHINES

Normally, AC machines are of two types: Induction machine and synchronous machine. The winding nature of
the armature (where EMF is generated) of the machine is, however, similar in both types of machine. For induction
machine, the winding nature of the field (where magnetic flux is generated) is also same as that of the armature. For
synchronous machine, the field arrangement is made by simple placement of concentric coils around a magnetic core.
So, the main concern in any AC machine is how armature winding is to be arranged. Before going into the details of
armature winding, certain important factors related to winding pattern is discussed in the following sections:
2.7.1 Distributed Winding—EMF Polygon and Distribution Factor

Figure 2.14(a) shows that a winding is formed 3
2 Direction of
in the outer stator by connecting three coils 1-1′, 1
rotation
2-2′, and 3-3′ in series. The rotor has a pair of
N
poles with initial position as shown.Since each
s
of the three coils are having same position with
es
e1 e2 e3
respect to the poles, induced EMF in each of them et1
are same. These are represented by the phasors e1,
Pr
e2, and e3 for the coils 1-1', 2-2' and 3-3', respec- S
tively, as shown in Figure 2.14(b). These three
EMFs are shown to be all of same magnitude and
y 1′
sit 2′
3′
are along the same phase. Then total EMF induced
in the winding is summation of these three EMFs (a) (b)
er
and is represented by et1 which is equal to 3e1 (or Fig. 2.14 (a) Undistributed winding arrangement (b) EMF
3e2 or 3e3). However, a practical machine does not induced in coil 1-1′, 2-2′ and 3-3′
iv
have this type of concentrated (undistributed)

Un
Direction
winding arrangement. Rather, a distributed of rotation
2
winding arrangement as shown in Figure 3 1 Flux
distribution
2.15(a) is present in all practical machines. α
d
N in space
Figure 2.15(a) shows a distributed wind- α α
or
M•
ing where the three coils 1-1′, 2-2′ and 3-3′ M 3 2 1
Space
do not occupy the same position in the stator,
xf
S Direction angle
but are placed in slots separated from each of flux shift
1′ 2′ 3′ with rotor
O
other. These three coils are connected in rotation

series to form the total winding. The angle (a) (b)
α T
between two adjacent slots where the con- Q R
α X
ductor 1, 2 and 3 are placed is α. The EMF e1 e2 α
(π /2–
P
e3 α /2) Y S
induced in coils 1-1′, 2-2′ and 3-3′ are e1, et2 (π /2– 3α /2)
e2 and e3 respectively. For the rotor rotation α /2 3α /2
shown in Figure 2.15(a), the EMF e3 has O
(c) (d)
a time phase lag of α angle with respect
Fig. 2.15 (a) Distributed winding (b) position of conductor with
to e2 (Figure 2.15(c)). Similarly, e2 has a respect to distribution of flux in space (c) phasor in coil 1-1’, 2-2’
time phase lag of α angle with respect to e1 and 3-3’ (d) EMF polygon
(Figure
2.15(c)). However, the magnitude of
e1, e2 and e3 are same. This is because similar rate of flux cutting (Figure 2.15(b)) will occur in coils 2-2′ and
3-3′ when the space distribution of flux shifts by α angle and 2α angle, respectively, from the position of the
coil 1-1′ as determined by direction of rotation of rotor. Therefore, the resultant EMF induced in the winding is
the phasor sum of e1, e2 and e3 and it is represented by et2.
Distribution factor (kd) (or breadth factor) is defined as the ratio of induced EMF with distributed winding
to that of concentrated (undistributed) winding.
Chapter_02.indd 63 5/15/2017 8:38:31 PM

et 2
In the present case, kd = .
et1
To find out et2, the diagram of Figure 2.15(d) is taken into consideration.
In Figure 2.15(d), PS represent et2, PQ represent e1, QR represent e2 and RS represent e3.
PQRS is part of a polygon of equal arm where O is the centre of the polygon.
Then,
OP = OQ = OR = OS
∠PQR = π − ∠TQR = π − α
1 π α
∴∠PQO = ∠PQR = − [A line drawn from a vertex of an equal arm polygon to the centre of the polygon
2 2 2
bisects the angle at the vertex of the polygon].
π α
Then, ∠PQO = ∠QPO = − [Triangle ∆PQO is an isosceles triangle with equal arms OP and OQ.
2 2
s
Therefore, ∠PQO = ∠QPO]
es
π α  π α 
Then, ∠POQ = π − ∠PQO − ∠QPO = π −  −  −  −  = α
Pr
2 2 2 2
OX is the line drawn from O perpendicular to the line PQ. As POQ is an isosceles triangle, then
1 α
y
sit
∠POX = ∠POQ =
2 2
er
π α  α
Now, PX = OP cos ∠XPO = OP cos  −  = OP sin
 2 2  2
iv
α α
Thus, PQ = 2 PX = 2OP sin Then, e1 = PQ = 2OP sin
Un
2 2
Therefore, magnitude of e3 = e2 = e1 = 2OP sin α
d
2
α
Then for concentrated (undistributed) winding, et1 = 3 × 2OP sin
or
2 α
From property of polygon with equal arm and from property of isosceles triangle, ∠YOP = ∠YOS = 3
xf
2
α α
Now, SY = OS sin 3 ∴ PS = 2 SY = 2OP sin 3 [As OS = OP]
O
2 2
α
Thus, total resultant EMF et2 = PS = 2OP sin 3
2
Therefore, distribution factor for the winding of Figure 2.15:
α 3α
et2 2OP sin 3 sin
kd = = 2 = 2
et1 3 × 2OP sin α 3 sin α
2 2
Now, if there are n number of coils (instead of only three coils as shown in Figure 2.15) distributed in a winding,
nα
sin
then distribution factor (kd) for n number of coils will be: kd = 2 (2.68)
α
n sin
2
Expression for distribution factor Eq. (2.68) can now be utilized to obtain expression for induced EMF in a
distributed winding.
Chapter_02.indd 64 5/15/2017 8:38:37 PM

Let, RMS value of EMF induced in a single coil = e

∴ RMS value of EMF induced in an concentrated (undistributed) winding with n number of coils = e × n
Since distribution factor (kd) is defined as the ratio of induced EMF with distributed winding to that of con-
centrated winding, therefore, RMS value of EMF induced in a distributed winding with n number of coils can
be expressed as: Ef = kd × e × n (2.69)
The expressions for kd Eq. (2.68) and Ef Eq. (2.69) obtained so far are valid for a two-pole machine with single
turn in a coil. Also, the slots are single layered, i.e., a single coil is placed in a pair of slots. If the number of
poles is more, and if the number of turns in a coil are more, and if the slots are having multiple layers of coils,
then the following modifications need to be applied:
The quantity n which was defined in Eq. (2.68) as the number of coils, would have to be redefined as the
number of slots per pole per phase to be used for calculation of kd from Eq. (2.68). The quantity nα in that case
is known as the phase spread and is expressed in electrical degrees or radians. Note that phase spread indicates
the angle ∠POS in Figure 2.15(d) where the number of slots per pole per phase is n = 3 and the angular dis-
placement between slots = α.
RMS value of EMF induced in a distributed winding should use this new value of kd and have a final modified
s
es
expression: Ef = kd × e × T (2.70)
where T is number of turns per phase
y Pr
2.7.2 Advantages of Distributed Winding
sit
Graphical summation of EMF waveforms e1,
e2 and e3 are shown for concentrated winding et2
er
et1
in Figure 2.16 (a) and for distributed winding Induced e1 e2 Induced
iv
EMF EMF
in Figure 2.16(b). In each case, for simplicity e3 Time Time e2
e3
of representation e1, e2 and e3 are taken as
Un
square wave-shape. For undistributed wind- e1

ing, the resultant EMF in the winding is rep-
resented by et1 and for distributed winding the
d
resultant EMF in the winding is represented

or
by et2. Figure 2.16(a) shows that shape of et1 (a) (b)

xf
is similar to shape of the induced EMFs in Fig. 2.16 EMF waveform for (a) undistributed winding
each coil; i.e., similar to the wave-shapes of (b) distributed winding
O
e1 or e2 or e3. Figure 2.16(b) shows that et2 has

a waveform that changes in steps. From the two figures, it is observed that the shape of et2 in Figure 2.16(b)
is coarsely like a sine wave as compared to the rectangular wave shape of et1 in Figure 2.16(a). Therefore,
by increasing the number of coils in a winding and by properly distributing them along the armature periph-
ery, it is possible to improve the wave shape of induced EMF close to a sinusoidal waveform. Generation
of sinusoidal EMF is always desirable for an AC generator. If the generated EMF is non-sinusoidal, then
performance of any machine that is being supplied from the generator will get complicated and harmonics
will be generated.
2.7.3 Coil Pitch and Pitch Factor

Another term related to AC machine armature winding is the pitch factor. A full pitch winding is a winding in
which the two coil sides of a coil are placed in such a way that position of one coil side with respect to one pole
is same as that of the other coil side with respect to the adjacent opposite pole. Thus, according to Figure 2.17(a),
if the coil is made up of two coil sides R and R′, then it is a full pitch coil since while coil side R in under N pole,
the other coil side R′ of the same coil is under S pole. Angular distance between these two full-pitched coil sides is
Chapter_02.indd 65 5/15/2017 8:38:38 PM

π electrical angle as shown in Figure Direction of

rotation of
2.17(c) [for a two-pole machine, the R
rotor
distance happens to be π mechani- Flux
distribution
cal angle as well]. In coil R-R′, say N
in space Space
the EMF induced in conductor R is M angle,
eR and in conductor R′ is eR′. They N β

M R R′′ R′
are same in magnitude and phase S Direction of

flux shift
as their positions with respect to R′
R′′ with rotor
rotation
the respective poles are same. The (a) (b)
phasor diagram is shown in Figure
2.17(e) and the resultant EMF across
π π–β
the coil terminals is thus e = 2eR. e e e Q β
T
e e P
Now, if the coil is formed with coil e e
e
S e
sides R and R″ (Figure 2.17(a)), then e′
it is called a short pitch (chorded) R
s
(e) (f)
winding. The angular distance
es
e e′
between the coil sides is less than
(c) (d)
π electrical angle (Figure 2.17(d)).
Pr
Let EMF induced in conductor R″ Fig. 2.17 Full pitch and short pitch winding
is eR″. With the rotor rotating in the direction shown in Figure 2.17(a), the EMF eR″ (Figure 2.17(f)) has a time
y
phase lag of β angle with respect to eR (Figure 2.17(e)). However, the magnitude of eR and eR″ are same. This
sit
is because similar rate of flux linkage (Figure 2.17(b)) will occur in conductor R″ when the space distribution
of flux shifts by β angle from the position of the conductor R′. Therefore, the resultant EMF induced in the coil
er
R-R″ is the phasor sum of eR and eR″ and it is represented by e′.

iv
Pitch factor (kp) or coil span factor is defined as the ratio of induced EMF with short pitch winding to that
e′
Un
of full pitch winding. In the present case, kp = .

e
To find out e′, the diagram of Figure 2.17(f) is taken into consideration. ∆PQR is an isosceles triangle with
d
PQ representing eR and QR representing eR″. Then, PQ = QR.

Also, ∠TQR = ∠QPR + ∠QRP [Property of triangle: external angle of a triangle is sum of two interior
or
opposite angles]
β
xf
∠QPR = ∠QRP = [As QPR is an isosceles triangle with PQ = QR, Then ∠QPR = ∠QRP ]
2
O
Now, drop a perpendicular bisector QS on the base PR of ∆PQR.
β β
PS = PQ cos ∠QPR = PQ cos ∴ PR = 2 PS = 2 PQ cos
2 2
β
Thus, induced EMF in the short pitch coil R-R″ is e′ = PR = 2 PQ cos
2
=
Induced EMF in the full pitch coil R-R' is: e 2=
eR 2 PQ
β
2 PQ cos
e′ 2 = cos β
Then, pitch factor (kp) with respect to the coil can be expressed as: kp = = (2.71)
e 2 PQ 2
Pitch factor with respect to one coil is applicable to the whole winding assuming the winding to be uniformly
would all around the armature.
Expression for pitch factor Eq. (2.71) can now be utilized to obtain expression for induced EMF in a short
pitch coil once the EMF in a full pitch coil is known.
Chapter_02.indd 66 5/15/2017 8:38:41 PM

From Eq. (2.70), we know that RMS value of EMF induced in a full pitch distributed coil with T number of
turns is given by: Ef = kd × e × T
Since pitch factor (kp) is defined as the ratio of induced EMF with short pitch winding to that of full pitch wind-
ing, therefore, RMS value of EMF induced in a short pitch distributed winding can be expressed as:
Ef = kp kd × e × T (2.72)
The product of pitch factor (kp) and distribution factor (kd) is referred to as the winding factor (kw):
kw = kp kd (2.73)
2.7.4 Advantage of Using Short Pitch Winding (short chorded winding)

It has been assumed so far that the flux distribution in Fundamental
space is always sinusoidal. However, in practice, the EMF induced 3 harmonic
distribution of flux in space is not purely sinusoidal, 5 harmonic
s
and therefore EMF generated in AC generator will
es
also have harmonics. Due to symmetry of the EMF
wave around the vertical axis, only odd harmonics
Pr
like 3rd, 5th, 7th and so on will be present. Higher the
harmonic order, lesser is its effects due to reduced
y
Time
magnitude of the higher harmonic voltages. So, the
sit
more dominant harmonics that need to be taken care Fig. 2.18 EMF generation in an AC generator where
of while attempting to produce a smooth sinusoidal harmonics are present
er
waveform are the 3rd and 5th harmonic components.

Figure 2.18 shows samples of fundamental, 3rd harmonic and 5th harmonic EMF that may be generated in an
iv
AC generator due to non-sinusoidal distribution of air-gap flux.

Un
When the EMF waveform is composed of fundamental and harmonics, RMS values of which are E1, E3, E5,
etc., effective value of the resultant voltage E is:
d
E = E12 + E32 + E52 + .... (2.74)

or
In a three-phase machine, the phase angle difference between fundamental signals of consecutive phases is always
120°. Therefore, the third harmonic voltages present in the three-phases have a phase difference of 3×120° =
xf
360° or 0° between them. Thus, for a three-phase balanced system, not only that the third harmonic voltages in
O
three-phases are equal in magnitude, they are also in the same phase. In a star connected machine, the line volt-
age is measured as the potential difference between any two-phase terminals. Since the third harmonic voltage
is same in all three-phases, when the line voltage of a star connected machine is calculated, the third harmonic
voltages get cancelled out.
Effects of third harmonic voltages in individual phase coils can also be eliminated by proper choice of coil
span, i.e., by proper choice of short pitching angle.
Let eR1 and eR″1 be the fundamental induced EMF in β eR3
conductors R and R″, respectively, of the short pitch eR1
coil R-R″ shown in Figure 2.17. Let the short pitch eR″3
π
angle β = , i.e., coil span between R and R″ is 2π .
β = π for the 3 harmonic
e1 eR″1
3 3
Thus, the time phase difference between the EMF eR1 β = π/3 for the e = 0 as it is phasor
3
π fundamental summation of eR3 and eR″3
and eR″1 is as shown in Figure 2.19(a). Thus, the
3 (a) (b)
fundamental induced EMF in coil R-R″ is e1 which is Fig. 2.19 Fundamental induced EMF and 3rd
summation of eR1 and eR″1. Now, let eR3 and eR″3 be the harmonic induced EMF in short pitch coil
Chapter_02.indd 67 5/15/2017 8:38:43 PM

3rd harmonic induced EMF in conductors R and R″, respectively. Then, the time phase difference between the
3π
EMF eR3 and eR″3 is which is equal to π as shown in Figure 2.19(b). Fig 2.19(b) shows that the induced EMFs
3
due to 3rd harmonic in the two coil sides of coil R-R″ is equal and opposite to each other such that they are
π
summing up to zero and is represented by e3. Thus, using short pitching by angle, the third harmonic voltage
3
can be eliminated in a coil and therefore in the whole winding. In general, if it is desired to eliminate the nth
1
harmonic component from the phase voltage, the short pitch angle should be times the full pitch.
n
While manufacturing a machine, the flux distribution in space gives estimation about which harmonics of
induced EMF is liable to be present in the generated EMF waveform of the AC generator. The short pitching of
the winding is done accordingly to cancel out the most prominent harmonics that may be present in the gener-
ated voltage waveform.
s
2.7.5 Winding Factors for Harmonic Waveforms
es
When the flux distribution and hence the induced EMF is assumed sinusoidal, then expression for induced EMF
Pr
in a distributed winding is written following Eq. (2.72) as:
Ef = kp kd × e × T
y
sit
The product of pitch factor (kp) and distribution factor (kd) is referred to as the winding factor (kw):
kw = kp kd
er
In case the flux wave deviates from being sinusoidal, the induced EMF also becomes non-sinusoidal.
iv
Thus, the EMF signal will have different harmonics in addition to the fundamental frequency component
Un
signal. The distribution factor and pitch factor both will have different values corresponding to different
harmonics.
Referring to Section 2.7.1, Eq. (2.68), the distribution factor for the fundamental component of voltage is
d
nα
sin
or
given by: kd1 = 2

α
xf
n sin nmα
2 sin
O
Then distribution factor for the mth harmonic will be given by: kdm = 2 (2.75)
mα
n sin
2
Note that for the mth harmonic, the phase difference between voltages of adjacent coils is mα .
In the same way, pitch factor will also have different values for different harmonic voltages. If the chord-
ing angle is β electrical degrees for the fundamental component of voltage, then following Section 2.7.3 and
β
Equation (2.71), the pitch factor is given by kp = cos . For the mth space harmonic flux, the short chording
2
angle becomes mβ electrical degrees. Therefore, pitch factor for the mth harmonic is
mβ
kpm = cos (2.76)
2
As a result, winding factor for the mth harmonic becomes:
kwm = kpm kdm (2.77)
where kdm and kpm are given by Eqs. (2.75) and (2.76).
Chapter_02.indd 68 5/15/2017 8:38:46 PM

Example 2.1 The induced EMF in each turn of a single-phase AC generator with uniformly distributed T single turn coils
is 2 V (rms). Calculate EMF of the whole winding.
Solution: For single-phase AC generator with uniformly nα nα π

distributed winding, the phase spread is generally 180° sin sin sin
∴Distribution factor kd = 2 = 2 = 2 = 0.637
(electrical). α α π
n sin n
Thus, in Eq. (2.68), nα = π 2 2 2
Where, Considering full pitch coil, the pitch factor kp = 1
n = number of slots per pole per phase
Given: EMF induced in single turn = e = 2V
α = angle between each slots
∴EMF induced in the whole winding with T turns is:
α α
When α is very small, sin ≈
2 2 Ef = kp kd × e × T = 1 × 0.637 × 2 × T ≈ 1.273T
s
Example 2.2 Calculate the distribution factor for a three-phase, four-pole AC machine having single layer winding uni-
es
formly distributed among 36 slots.
Pr
36 36
Solution: Number of slots per pole =9 Number of slots per pole per phase n = =3
4 4×3
y nα 3 × 20°
sit
180° sin sin
∴ Angle between each slot α = = 20° 2 = 2 = 0.9598
9 ∴Distribution factor kd =
α 20°
er
n sin 3 sin
2 2
iv
Un
Example 2.3 The armature of a 20-pole AC generator has 180 stator slots with 6 conductors per slot. All the coils of a phase
are in series. When the machine winding is connected as single-phase, the generated voltage is V1. When the same machine
winding is connected as three-phase star connection, the generated phase voltage is V2. Assuming full pitch, single-layer
winding, find the ratio V1/V2.
d
or
Solution: For single-phase winding, no. of coils in the phase, 180°

As it is a three-phase machine, n2α = = 60°
Slots × ( Conductors/slot ) 180 × 6 3
xf
T1 = = = 540 Number of
2 × Number of phases 2 ×1 Since the same machine is used, ∴ angle between each slot
O
remains as α = 20°
180
slots per pole per phase,=
n1 = 9
20 n2α 60°
sin sin
180° Distribution factor kd2 = 2 = 2 = 0.9597
As it is a single-phase machine, α = = 20° α 20°
9 n2 sin 3 sin
2 2
180°
∴ Angle between each slot n1α = = 180°
1 The phase EMF for first case, Ef1 = kp kd1 × e × T1
nα 180°
sin 1 sin The phase EMF for second case, E f 2 = k p kd 2 × e × T2
Distribution factor kd1 = 2 = 2 = 0.6398
α 20° Assuming full pitch coils for both cases, kp = 1
n1 sin 9 sin
2 2
In both the cases, EMF per coil (e) would remain same.
For three-phase winding, no. of coils in each phase,
∴Ratio of generated voltages:
180 × 6
T2 = = 180
2×3 V1 Ef1 kp kd1 × e × T1 0.6398 × 540
180 = = = =2
Number of slots per pole per phase, n2 = =3 V2 Ef2 kp kd2 × e × T2 0.9597 × 180
( 3 × 20 )
Chapter_02.indd 69 5/15/2017 8:38:53 PM

Example 2.4 A two-pole, three-phase star connected AC generator with uniformly distributed winding of total 60 turns. In
each of these turns et volts (rms) is induced. Calculate the phase and line voltage for the following two cases:
(a) phase spread is 120° with full pitch winding
(b) phase spread is 60° with four-fifth of full pitch winding
Solution: The induced voltage per phase, ∴Induced voltage between lines:
Ef = kp kd × et × T =
Ef ( Line ) =
3Ef 28.65et
where,
et = Induced EMF per turn (b) for phase spread of 60°,
T = Turns per phase = 60/3 = 20 nα = 60° = π/3
nα nα π
sin sin sin
Distribution factor, kd = 2 ≈ 2 (when α is small 6 = 0.955
α α kd =
n sin n π
2 2 6
sin α ≈ α in radians)
s
es
As the winding is short pitched by four-fifth of full pitch
(a) for phase spread of 120°, 180°
winding, then short-pitch angle, β = = 36°
Pr
nα =120° = 2π/3 5
2π β 36°
sin ∴ Pitch factor, kp = cos = cos = 0.95
y
6 = 0.827 2 2
kd =
sit
2π
∴ Ef = 0.95 × 0.955 × et × 20 = 18.15et
6
er
With full-pitch winding, kp = 1 ∴ Induced voltage between lines:
iv
∴ Ef = 1 × 0.827 × et × 20 = 16.54et =
Ef ( Line ) =
3Ef 31.43et
Un
Example 2.5 An eight-pole, three-phase machine has 36 number of stator slots and has a 120° phase spread winding. Find
the distribution factor of the machine.
d
Solution: For 120° phase spread, nα = 120° Then, nα = 1.5α = 120°

or
36 ∴α = 80° nα 120°
n = number of slots per pole per phase = = 1.5
xf
sin sin
8×3 Distribution factor, kd = 2 2 = 0.898
=
α = electrical angle between each slots α 80°
O
n sin 1.5 sin

2 2
Example 2.6 An AC generator has a uniformly distributed full pitch winding.

(a) Find distribution factor when four-fifth of the slots are wound.
(b) Find ratio of single-phase output with four-fifth slots wound and single-phase output when all slots are wound.
(c) Find ratio of single-phase output with four-fifth slots wound and three-phase output when all slots are wound.
(d) Find ratio of single-phase output with all slots wound and three-phase output when all slots are wound.
Solution For single-phase and four-fifth of slots being wound,

(a) When four-fifth of all slots are wound: 4 180 4π
nα = × =
4 180° 5 1 5
Phase spread, nα = × , where m is number of
5 m
phases α nα
When α is very less, n sin ≈
n = number of slots per pole per phase 2 2
α = angle between two slots
Chapter_02.indd 70 5/15/2017 8:38:58 PM

nα 4π where T is total number of turns when all slots are

sin sin wound.
∴Distribution factor, kd = 2 = 10 = 0.756
nα 4π
2 10 (c) For three-phase winding with all slots being wound,
(b) When all slots are wound: 180° π
nα = =
3 3
180°
Phase spread, nα = , where m is number of nα π
m sin sin
phases 2 6 = 0.955
∴Distribution factor, kd = =
nα π
For single-phase with all slots being wound, 2 6
180° With same voltage induced per turn, three-phase output that is
nα = =π available across terminals will be √3 times the EMF induced
1
α nα per phase. Remember that the total T number of turns will
When α is very less, n sin ≈ be distributed among three-phases.
2 2
nα π Thus, ratio of single-phase output with four-fifth slots wound
s
sin sin to three-phase output when all slots are wound
es
∴Distribution factor, kd = 2 = 2 = 0.6366
nα π 4T
0.756 ×
Pr
2 2 5
= = 1.096
∴Ratio of single-phase output with four-fifth slots T
3 × 0.955 ×
y
wound to that when all slots are wound = ratio of (dis- 3
sit
tribution factor × no. of turns) (d) Ratio of single-phase output to three-phase output when
4T 0.6366 × T
0.756 × all slots are wound = = 1.155 .
er
5 = 0.95 T
= 3 × 0.955 ×
0.6366 × T 3
iv
Un
Example 2.7 A four-pole AC generator has a three-phase winding distributed among 120 slots. The coils are short pitched
in such a way that if one coil side lies in slot number 1, the other side of the same coil lies in slot number 27. Calculate the
d
winding factor for (a) fundamental and (b) third harmonic frequency voltages.
or
120 (a) For fundamental frequency voltage component,

Solution: n = Number of slots per pole per phase = = 10
4×3 nα 10 × 18°
sin sin
xf
Distribution factor, kd1 = 2 = 2 = 0.639 `

For full pitch coils, the phase spread in electrical degrees = α 18°
O
180°, i.e., π radian n sin 10 × sin

2 2
180° 180°
∴α = Electrical angle between two slots = = = 18°
n 10 β 24°
Pitch factor, kp1 = cos = cos = 0.978
2 2
Slots 120
=
For full pitch coils, the coil span is = = 30 slots ∴ Winding factor, kw1 = kp1kd1 = 0.978 × 0.639 = 0.625
Pole 4
For the given short pitch coil, the coil span is (27 – 1) = (b) For third harmonic frequency voltage component,
26 slots. Distribution factor,
∴ Coil span in electrical degrees 3nα 3 × 10 × 18°
sin sin
kd3 = 2 = 2 = 0.22
180° 180° 3α 3 × 18°
= × 26 = × 26 = 156° n sin 10 × sin
Slots 120 2 2
Pole 4
3× β 3 × 24°
Pitch factor, kp3 = cos = cos = 0.81
∴ Chording angle, i.e., short pitch angle 2 2
β = (180° − 156° ) = 24° ∴ Winding factor, kw3 = kp3kd3 = 0.81 × 0.22 = 0.178
Chapter_02.indd 71 5/15/2017 8:39:05 PM

2.7.6 Winding and Coil Groups

The winding of an AC machine is normally three-phase type as there are many inherent advantages for three-
phase winding. This three-phase winding is symmetrically connected so that a balanced EMF is generated in the
winding. A balanced three-phase EMF means that magnitude of EMF in each phase will be equal in magnitude
and having a time phase difference of 120°. N S
A three-phase, two-pole winding of the armature of
an AC machine is shown in Figure 2.20(a). According
to the figure, there are six numbers of slots for each pole
with two numbers of conductors in each slot. A coil
group A1-A2, is shown with terminal A1 and A2. The
coil group has two series connected coils whose upper
coil sides are lying in slots 1 & 2 and lower coil sides 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
are lying in slots 7 & 8. Similarly, the next coil group,
B1-B2, is formed with respect to phase B. Their position
s
with respect to the previous coil group is 120° apart. In
es
A1 A2 (a)
that case, they will be formed by the upper coil sides in
slots 5 & 6 and lower coil-sides in slots 11 & 12. The A1
Pr
N S
third coil group, C1-C2, is linked with phase C and will
A1 B3 C1 A3 B1 C3
be 120° out of phase with the coil group B1-B2. Then,
y
A4 B2 C4 A2 B4 C2
upper coil sides in slots 9 & 10 and lower coil sides in
sit
slots 3 & 4 will get involved. A2
Figure 2.20(b) shows the phase spread on the arma- (b)
er
ture surface. A1 and A2 are the terminals of the coil group Fig. 2.20 (a) three-phase, two-pole, double layer
A1-A2 situated on top zone, A1 and on bottom zone, A2. winding of the stator (b) phase spread of the winding
iv
Similarly, B1 and B2 zones are related to B1-B2 coil group

Un
and C1 and C2 zones are linked with coil group C1-C2. A
Figure 2.20(b) shows that another set of coil groups

A3-A4, B3-B4, C3-C4, is possible which are covering A A
d
the zones A3 & A4, B3 & B4, and C3 & C4, respectively. A A
or
However, from Figure 2.20(b) it is observed, coil group

A3-A4 is lying 180° out of phase with respect to coil A A B A
xf
B
group A1-A2. Therefore, EMF induced in coil group C C
C
B B
O
C
A3-A4 is also 180° out of phase with respect to EMF B C
B C
induced in coil group A1-A2. However, the magnitudes B C B
C
of EMF induced in both the coil groups are same as their (a) (b)
positions with respect to the poles (N-pole for coil group Fig. 2.21 (a) Coil groups connected in parallel
A1-A2 and S-pole for coil A3-A4) are same. Therefore, (b) coil groups connected in series
they can be connected in parallel or in series by choosing
proper terminals as shown in Figure 2.21(a) and 2.21(b). Voltage VA1-A2 and VA4-A3 are exactly identical and
therefore the coil group A1-A2 and A3-A4 can be connected in series or parallel. Similarly, B3-B4 coil group is
lying 180° out of phase with respect to B1-B2 coil group and C3-C4 coil group is lying 180° out of phase with
respect to C1-C2 coil group. Therefore, they will also behave in the same manner as that of the explanation
provided for A3- A4 coil group. When the coil groups are connected in parallel as shown in Figure 2.21(a), then
they form two parallel paths for the flow of current in a single-phase.
Coil Pitch The coil pitch is the space angle (electrical) between two coil sides of the same coil and expressed
in number of coil slots. According to Figure 2.20(a), the coil side placed on the top of slot 1 joins with the bot-
tom coil sides placed at slot 7. Therefore, the coil pitch is 7 – 1 = 6.
Pole Pitch The pole pitch is equal to number of slots per pole. According to Figure 2.20(a), pole pitch = 12/2 = 6.
Chapter_02.indd 72 5/15/2017 8:39:05 PM

2.7.7 Different Types of Winding Arrangement

For a short pitch winding of the same machine, the lower N S
coil sides are shifted by one slot position. Then, the zones A1 B3 C1 A3 B1 C3
of various phase spread is as shown in Figure 2.22 for a A4 B2 C4 A2 B4 C2 A4
two-pole machine. Fig. 2.22 Phase spread of short pitch double layer
The phase spread distribution of a four-pole machine winding for three-phase, two-pole machines
is shown in Figure 2.23(a). The connection diagram of
various coil groups is shown in 2.23(b). Thus, there are N S N S
four numbers of parallel paths for flow of current in a A1 B7 C1 A3 B1 C3 A5 B3 C5 A7 B5 C7
phase. A8 B6 C8 A2 B8 C2 A4 B2 C4 A6 B4 C6
In all the above mentioned three-phase winding, (a)
the phase spread is 60° and it is called narrow spread
A4 A5 A8
winding. Here, number of coil groups per phase per A1
pair of poles is 2. Sometimes, wide spread winding
s
A2
is also used where the phase spread is 120°. Here, A3 A6 A7
es
number of coil groups per phase per pair of poles is B7 C2
1. A four-pole machine wide spread arrangement is B6 C3
Pr
B8 C6 C1
shown in Figure 2.24. There are two coil groups per B5
B3
C4
C7
phase and the phase difference between induced EMF B4 B2 C5
in them is 360°. Therefore, voltage phasor of all coil
y B1 (b) C8
sit
groups in a phase are identical in phase and magnitude Fig. 2.23 (a) Phase spread of the full pitch winding
for a widespread winding. for three-phase, four-pole machine (b) coil groups
er
Let there be n number of coils in a coil group. These connection

n numbers of coils are placed in n adjacent slots. Let α
iv
be the electrical angle between two adjacent slots. Then, N S N S

Un
180 A1 C1 B1 A3 C3 B3
the phase spread nα = where m is the number of C4 B4 A2 C2 B2 A4 C4
m
phases. For a two-phase machine, nα = 90°. For three- Fig. 2.24 Wide spread full pitch winding for three-
d
phase machine, nα = 60° (for narrow spread winding). phase, four-pole machine
or
xf
2.8 MMF OF DISTRIBUTED AC WINDING

O
The armature of a machine has distributed winding. When current flows through this winding, a magnetic field
is created by this current. The MMF space distribution of this field in the air gap between stator and rotor is
discussed in the present section.
2.8.1 MMF Distribution in Space of a Single Coil •A
Figure 2.25 shows a two-pole AC machine with a cylindrical rotor. It

has been assumed that a single coil A-A′ is present which has N number θ
N S N S
of turns and each conductor carries i current. The direction of current is axis of the
coil A-A′
shown in Figure 2.25. According to right hand grip rule, the direction
of magnetic field flux is shown. The direction of flux also determines
the North (N) and South (S) pole on the stator and also on the rotor. The + A′
MMF created by the coil is Ni. If the reluctance of the metallic core is
Fig. 2.25 A two-pole AC machine
Ni where direction of armature field is
considered negligible, then amount of MMF is consumed to create
2 shown for a single coil
Chapter_02.indd 73 5/15/2017 8:39:07 PM

Ni FA1
flux in the air gap between stator to rotor and the rest amount of MMF
2
MMF creates flux in the air gap between rotor and stator.
Ni/2
MMF or flux radially going from rotor to stator is considered positive Ni
and that from stator to rotor is considered negative. θ
The concept is made clearer when the stator and the rotor are laid
down flat as shown in Figure 2.26.
(a)
Figure 2.26 shows that MMF created by the coil A-A′ is distributed in
Ni
space as rectangular wave with + creating flux from rotor to s tator and
2
Ni
− creating flux from stator to rotor. Fourier series analysis is applied Rotor
2 Stator + A′ A • A′
+
on this MMF wave and the fundamental sine wave is drawn in the Figure
2.26.The expression of the fundamental wave is:
s
S N
es
4  Ni  (2.78)
FA1 = cosθ (b)
π  2 
Pr
Fig. 2.26 (a) MMF distribution in
the air gap for a single coil and the
where θ is the angle with respect to axis of the coil which is same as the
y fundamental component of that MMF
sit
positive peak of the fundamental MMF wave. wave (b) The stator and the rotor of
the machine is laid down flat and
4  Ni 
er
direction of armature field is shown
The peak of this sinusoidal wave, FAP = (2.79)
π  2  for the coil A-A′
iv
Un
A
From here onward, the fundamental MMF wave will only be consid-
ered and higher harmonics will be neglected as there magnitude is also
less. Moreover, in the next section it will be shown that in distributed
d
winding the higher order harmonics get cancelled.

θ
or
N S
Axis
xf
of the
2.8.2 MMF Distribution in Space of a Distributed winding
Winding
O
A-A′
Figure 2.27 shows a distributed two-layer winding. Let N be the number A′

of turns in a single layer and i is the current flowing in a single turn.
Fig. 2.27 Distributed winding placed
Then for two layer winding for each slot the MMF produced is 2Ni.
on the armature of AC machine
The MMF generated in the air gap produced by the winding is shown in
Figure 2.28. It is found that the aggregate MMF produced by the wind- MMF
ing is stepped with a step jump of 2Ni. It is also noted from the Figure FA1 (winding)
2.28 that the MMF wave tends to become a sinusoidal wave. The upper 2 Ni 5 Ni
half of the MMF wave locates for a position on the stator where S-pole
of the stator exists. The lower half of the MMF wave corresponds to the
N-pole position of the stator. A′ A
From this MMF wave, the fundamental sinusoidal wave and its peak
value has to be determined. Let the number of turns connected in series
in a single coil group = Ncg N S N
Therefore, current i which is mentioned to be flowing through a single Fig. 2.28 MMF wave of the
turn actually flows through all the Ncg turns in a single coil group. distributed winding
Chapter_02.indd 74 5/15/2017 8:39:09 PM

Then total Ampere-turn per coil group = Ncgi

Let the number of coil groups in the winding of a phase = A
Assume that the coil groups are connected in parallel as shown in Figure 2.21(a) and Figure 2.23(b).
Then total Ampere-turn per phase = A(Ncgi)
From Figure 2.21(a) and Figure 2.23(b), it can be understood that if i is the current flowing through a single
coil group then for A number of coil groups connected in parallel in a single-phase, Ai amount of current flows
through a single-phase.
Let Ia is the current in a single-phase. Then Ia = Ai
Then total Ampere-turn per phase = Ncg Ia
N cg I a
If there are P number of poles in the machine, then ampere-turn per phase per pole = (winding of the
P
machine is considered to be concentrated)
Therefore, the peak value of the fundamental MMF wave for the concentrated winding
4  N cg I a 
s
=  
π P 
es
But, the actual winding is a distributed winding. Therefore, the peak will be diminished by a factor kd
Pr
which is the distribution factor of the machine. Hence, for distributed winding, the peak of the fundamental
4  N cg I a 
MMF wave is FAP( winding ) = kd  
y (2.80)
sit
π P 
Therefore, the fundamental MMF waveform is expressed by the equation:
er
4  N cg I a 
iv
FA1( winding ) = kd   cosθ (2.81)

π P
Un

The angle θ is taken with reference to the axis where the N-pole and S-pole of the stator is shown.
It is thus advantageous to use distributed winding from the point of view of obtaining MMF waveform more
d
close to a sinusoid.
or
xf
2.9 MATERIALS USED IN ELECTRICAL MACHINES

O
All electrical machines, be it static devices like transformer, or be it rotating such as motors and generators, will
comprise of the following basic components:
• Magnetic materials to be used as core

• Conducting materials in windings and coils
• Insulating materials for electrical isolation between different live parts
In addition, rotating machines will have bearings, fans etc. while transformer has various accessories that will
be discussed in details in corresponding chapters.
2.9.1 Magnetic Materials Used in Electrical Machines

We have learnt earlier in Chapter 1 that the core of an electrical machine must be made of a good magnetic
material so that the mutual flux can easily pass through it and chances of leakage are less. In addition to reduc-
ing flux leakage, a proper choice of core material also ensures lower power loss during magnetization, enough
mechanical strength to support the windings and also optimized cost.
Chapter_02.indd 75 5/15/2017 8:39:11 PM

On the basis of relative permeability, we have seen in Section 1.9 that materials can be grouped into the fol-
lowing three categories for describing their magnetic properties:
µr1
• Ferromagnetic materials: μr >> 1 (Iron, steel, nickel, cobalt)
B µr2
• Paramagnetic materials: μr ≈ 1 (Aluminum, Magnesium)
• Diamagnetic material: μr < 1 (Copper, Silver, Wood) µr3
Because of their high permeability, i.e., high affinity towards magnetic flux,
ferromagnetic materials are most popularly used as magnetic materials to build
the core of an electrical machine.
Remember the relation B = μrH, where H (AT/m) is the magnetizing force
required to produce a magnetic flux density of B (Wb/m2) in a magnetic material H1 H2 H3 H
of relative permeability of μr. Fig. 2.29 Magnetization
The B–H curves for magnetic materials with different μr values are shown in curves for different
Figure 2.29. The μr value determines the slope of the curve. Material with higher ferromagnetic materials
μr value will have a steeper B-H curve.
s
For the same value of flux density, a magnetic material with higher μr value will require less magnetizing
es
force and hence less magnetizing current.
In Figure 2.29,
Pr
µr1 > µr2 > µr3 H1 < H2 < H3
y
µ
NI
sit
Since, H = m B
µ
L µ
where N is the number of turns in the exciting coil, Im is the magnetizing
er
current and L is the length of flux path. Thus Im1 < Im2 < Im3.
iv
Thus, a magnetic material with higher relative permeability will draw

less magnetizing current.
Un
H
Thus, the power factor and hence losses and regulation are better in
machines employing magnetic materials with higher permeability. Also, µr
value if higher, the area of Hysteresis loop is less as shown in Figure 2.30
d
and thus the Hysteresis losses are also less.

or
Thus, it is preferred to have a magnetic material with high value of relative

Fig. 2.30 Dependence on
permeability as the core material in an electrical machine.
xf
Hysteresis loop area of relative

In earlier days of electrical industry, the sheet material used for magnetic
permeability
O
circuit of electrical machines and core of the transformer was iron with low
content of carbon and other impurities. This had one major disadvantage of that of ageing. Ageing is the term used
to denote the deterioration of magnetic performance over time while in service caused by increase in coercive
force and Hysteresis loss which in turn caused cumulative overheating and subsequent breakdown. During the
last century, however, it was discovered that a great improvement in magnetic properties of iron (steel) could be
achieved by alloying Silicon with the steel in which the content of Si lies from about 0.3% to 4.5% by weight.
The advantages of adding Si to steel are:
1. It virtually eliminates the ageing problem
2. It increases the permeability of steel, thereby requiring less magnetizing current
3. Increased permeability reduces the Hysteresis loss
4. It increases resistivity of steel, thereby reducing the Eddy current loss as well
5. It increases mechanical strength
6. It increases malleability of steel sheets
Unfortunately, addition of Si to steel has two major drawbacks also. As the percentage of Silicon increases, it
is found that there is some loss of permeability at higher flux densities and loss of ductility. Therefore, above
about 5% Si content, the resulting alloy is very brittle and cannot be punched or sheared.
Chapter_02.indd 76 5/15/2017 8:39:11 PM

An analytical expression for Eddy current loss was provided in Chapter 1:
Pe = K e f 2 t 2 Bm 2 W/m3
where Ke is constant depending on the material properties

including its resistivity, f is the supply frequency, t is the
thickness of the material body, and Bm is maximum value
of flux density in the material. It is thus apparent that in
machines where there is chance of varying flux linking with
the magnetic material, Eddy current loss can be greatly
reduced by reducing the thickness ‘t’ of the Si-steel core Fig. 2.31 Si-steel laminations (a) transformer
material. This is achieved by stacking thin sheets (lamina- (b) rotating AC machine
tions) of Si-steel together to make the entire thickness of
Support
core. These laminations are insulated from each other by rollers
s
layers of varnish so that flow of Eddy current across them Steel
es
is prevented. Figure 2.31 shows sample photographs of sheet
laminations used in transformers and stator of a rotating Steel
Pr
AC machine. block
Blocks of Si-steel are passed through a series of rollers of
y
Working
progressively reduced spacing to form thin sheets of lamina- rollers
sit
tions from a thick block of steel as schematically shown in
Fig 2.32.
er
Fig. 2.32 Steel rolling mill producing
laminations
iv
2.9.2 Types of Si-steel Laminations Available

Un
1. HRS—Hot rolled steel

2. CRGOS—Cold rolled grain oriented steel
3. CRNOS—Cold rolled non-oriented steel
d
or
HRS
xf
HRS is made when a block of Si-steel is rolled under high pressure to form thin laminations while the steel block
is under red-hot condition. In HRS, however, the grains (Si-steel crystals) are randomly oriented. In this mate-
O
rial there is no preferential direction of magnetization. Its magnetic properties are similar when magnetization
is done in any direction. HRS is used as core material in rotating parts of a machine where the direction of flux
always changes. HRS is cheaper, but its surface finish is not good as due to heating, expansion and contraction
may happen and gas bubbles may be formed inside the surface.
CRGOS
Si-steel crystal lattice structure is shown in Figure 2.33:
3
1. Crystal edge
2
2. Face diagonal
3. Crystal diagonal (cube diagonal)
While manufacturing CRGOS, a block of Si-steel is heat treated (annealed)
1
with specific cycles of time and temperature, and then rolled in the form 1. Crystal edge
of thin laminations under cold condition in such a way that all the grains 2. Face diagonal
(crystal edges) are aligned along the direction of rolling. Magnetization is 3. Crystal diagonal (cube diagonal)
easiest in the direction of grain orientation (i.e., crystal edges). Along this Fig. 2.33 Si-steel crystal
Chapter_02.indd 77 5/15/2017 8:39:12 PM

direction, the material offers highest permeability and lowest iron losses as µr1 (crystal edge)
denoted in Figure 2.34. B µr2 (face diagonal)
If the flux lines are parallel to the grain orientation, then best magnetic µr3 (cube diagonal)
properties are obtained. CRGOS is hence very effectively used as core mate-
rial for large transformers.
Surface finish of CRGO is very smooth since it is rolled under cold condi-
tion, but the manufacturing cost is quite high.
H
CRNOS Fig. 2.34 B–H characteristics of

CRGO steel when magnetization
A block of Si-steel rolled in the form of thin laminations under cold condi- is done along different diagonals
tion is called CRNOS. There is, however, random orientation of the grains in
CRNOS resulting in no preferred direction of magnetization. CRNOS is used with rotating machines where the flux
path is always changing. The surface finish of CRNOS is better than HRS and CRNOS is cheaper than CRGOS.
For use in transformers, CRGOS appears to be the best because flux path is always constant along the core.
This reduces the losses and offers highest permeability. Cost of CRGOS is, however, more than HRS. In fact:
s
es
Cost/kg of CRGOS
= 1.25 ∼ 1.35
Cost/kg of HRS
Pr
It may seem that using CRGOS will be more costly than HRS when used B CRGOS
y
as core material for a given transformer. However, note that CRGOS having
B2
sit
higher permeability than HRS, higher values of flux densities are permissible HRS
in CRGOS since its saturation level is higher than that of HRS as shown in B1
er
Figure 2.35.
Since higher flux densities are allowable in CRGOS, for same value of
iv
flux, cross sectional area requirement of core is less for CRGOS than HRS.
Un
B2 = flux density with CRGOS

B1 = flux density with HRS H
For same flux ϕ in the core, the cross sectional area required for core when Fig. 2.35 Saturation value of
d
CRGOS and HRS are used can be compared as: CRGOS is higher than that of
or
HRS
φ φ
xf
A2 = with CRGOS A1 = with HRS

B2 B1
O
Since B2 > B1, A2 < A1

Thus, though per kg cost of CRGOS is more than that of HRS, the total weight of core material required for
CRGOS being less, the overall cost using CRGOS or HRS are often comparable.
2.9.3 Conductor Materials Used for Winding

Windings of DC and AC machines consist of the current-carrying conductors wound around the sections of the
core or slots in the core, and these must be properly insulated, supported and cooled to withstand operational
and test conditions. Copper and aluminum are the primary materials used as conductors in electrical machine
windings. These conductors may be of circular or rectangular cross section, depending on the current and volt-
age ratings of the machine and are insulated using enamel, paper or cotton.
2.9.4 Insulating Materials in Electrical Machines

Electrical machines use varieties of insulating materials in different shapes and sizes for electrical isolation
between two live parts at different potential or between one live part and ground potential. Insulating materials
Chapter_02.indd 78 5/15/2017 8:39:13 PM

can be either of organic, inorganic or synthetic origin. Insulating materials are processed (both chemically and
mechanically) for use in electrical machines of varying capacity.
***In order to get more information on conductor materials used for winding, insulating materials in electri-
cal machines, and uses of insulating materials in electrical machines, please go to online resources.***
2.10 MATLAB EXAMPLES
MATLAB Example 2.1 A two-pole, three-phase star connected AC generator with uniformly distributed winding of total
60 turns. In each of these turns 5 volts (rms) is induced. Calculate the phase and line voltage for the following two cases:
(a) phase spread is 120° with full pitch winding
(b) phase spread is 60° with four-fifth of full pitch winding
s
N = 60; %Number of turns = 60
es
T=N/3; % Number of turns per phase
Et=5; % Voltage per turn = 5 V
Pr
%(a) For phase spread of 120° and full pitch coils
Ph_Sprda=2*pi/3; %phase spread =120°
y
Kda=sin(Ph_Sprda/2)/(Ph_Sprda/2); %Distribution factor
sit
Kpa=1; % Pitch factor=1 for full pitch coil
V_Pha=Kpa*Kda*Et*T; % Phase voltage induced
V_La=sqrt(3)*V_Pha; % Line voltage induced
er
%(b) For phase spread of 60° and coil pitch as 4/5th of full pitch
Ph_Sprdb=pi/3; %phase spread =60°
iv
Kdb=sin(Ph_Sprdb/2)/(Ph_Sprdb/2); %Distribution factor

Un
Beta=pi/5; %Short pitch angle (1/5th of pole pitch)

Kpb=cos(Beta/2); % Pitch factor for short pitch coil
V_Phb=Kpb*Kdb*Et*T; % Phase voltage induced
d
V_Lb=sqrt(3)*V_Phb; % Line voltage induced

or
disp([‘(a)Phase spread is 120° with full pitch winding ‘]);

disp([‘Distribution factor Kd = ‘, num2str(Kda)]);
xf
disp([‘Pitch factor Kp = ‘, num2str(Kpa)]);

O
disp([‘Per Phase induced EMF = ‘, num2str(V_Pha) ‘ V’]);

disp([‘Line voltage induced = ‘, num2str(V_La) ‘ V’]);
disp([‘(b)Phase spread is 60° with 4/5th of full pitch winding ‘]);
disp([‘Distribution factor Kd = ‘, num2str(Kdb)]);
disp([‘Pitch factor Kp = ‘, num2str(Kpb) ]);
disp([‘Per Phase induced EMF = ‘, num2str(V_Phb) ‘ V’]);
disp([‘Line voltage induced = ‘, num2str(V_Lb) ‘ V’]);
Upon execution, the output is
>> ME2_1
(a)Phase spread is 120° with full pitch winding
Distribution factor Kd = 0.82699
Pitch factor Kp = 1
Per Phase induced EMF = 82.6993 V
Line voltage induced = 143.2394 V
(b)Phase spread is 60° with 4/5th of full pitch winding
Chapter_02.indd 79 5/15/2017 8:39:13 PM

Pitch factor Kp = 0.95106

Per Phase induced EMF = 90.8192 V
Line voltage induced = 157.3035 V
MATLAB Example 2.2 A four-pole AC generator has a three-phase winding distributed among 120 slots. The coils are
short pitched in such a way that if one coil side lies in slot number 1, the other side of the same coil lies in slot number 27.
Calculate the winding factor for (a) fundamental and (b) third harmonic frequency voltages.
S = 120; %Number of slots = 120

P=4; %Number of poles = 4
Ph=3; %Number of phases = 3
Short_Span=26; % Coil span = 26 slots
n=120/(4*3); % Slots per pole per phase

Ph_Sprd=pi; % For full pitch coil
s
alpha=Ph_Sprd/n; % Eletrical angle between slots per pole per phase
es
Slots_Per_Pole=120/4;
Pr
Coil_Pitch=(Ph_Sprd/Slots_Per_Pole)*Short_Span;
y
Beta=(Ph_Sprd-Coil_Pitch); %Short pitch angle
sit
% (a)For fundamental frequency voltage component
er
Kda=sin(n*alpha/2)/(n*sin(alpha/2)); %Distribution factor

Kpa=cos(Beta/2); % Pitch factor for short pitch coil
iv
Un
Kwa=Kpa*Kda; % Winding factor
% (d)For third harmonic frequency voltage component

d
Kdb=sin(3*n*alpha/2)/(n*sin(3*alpha/2)); %Distribution factor

or
Kpb=cos(3*Beta/2); % Pitch factor for short pitch coil

xf
Kwb=Kpb*Kdb; % Winding factor

O
disp([‘(a)For fundamental frequency voltage component’]);

disp([‘Distribution factor Kd = ‘, num2str(Kda)]);
disp([‘Pitch factor Kp = ‘, num2str(Kpa)]);
disp([‘Winding factor Kw = ‘, num2str(Kwa)]);
disp([‘(b)For third harmonic frequency voltage component’]);

disp([‘Distribution factor Kd = ‘, num2str(Kdb)]);
disp([‘Pitch factor Kp = ‘, num2str(Kpb) ]);
disp([‘Winding factor Kw = ‘, num2str(Kwb)])
Upon execution, the output is
>> ME2_2
(a)For fundamental frequency voltage component
Winding factor Kw = 0.62528
Chapter_02.indd 80 5/15/2017 8:39:14 PM

(b)For third harmonic frequency voltage component

Winding factor Kw = 0.1782
SUMMARY
• Electromechanical systems deal with interaction of to that of concentrated (undistributed) winding. kd <
electrical, magnetic, and mechanical systems. 1 for a distributed winding.
• Relationship between input energy, output energy, • By increasing the number of coils in a winding and
energy losses, and energy stored is governed by the by properly distributing them along the armature
law of conservation of energy in all types of machines. periphery, it is possible to improve the wave shape of
• Electromechanical force (or torque) developed can induced EMF close to a sinusoidal waveform.
s
be expressed as the negative partial derivative of • Angular distance between the two coil sides of a full
es
energy stored in the magnetic field against linear (or pitch coil is π electrical angle, i.e., its coil sides are
angular) displacement. exactly one pole pitch apart. In a short-pitch coil or a
Pr
• Electromechanical force (or torque) can also be short-chorded coil, the angular distance between the
expressed as positive partial derivative of co-energy coil sides is less than π electrical angle.
of the magnetic system against linear (or angular) •
yPitch factor (kp) is defined as the ratio of induced
sit
displacement EMF with short pitch winding to that of full pitch
• Total torque in a doubly excited salient pole structure winding. kp < 1 for a short-pitch coil.
er
comprises reluctance torque and electromagnetic • By proper choice of short-pitch angle, it is possible
torque. Reluctance torque can act when at least one to cancel out the most prominent harmonics that may
iv
of the two structures (stator and rotor) is excited, be present in the generated voltage waveform.
Un
whereas electromagnetic torque acts when both are • RMS value of EMF induced in a short pitch distrib-
excited together. uted winding can be expressed as:
• In case of generator induced EMF e and current • Ef = kp kd × e × T , e is the EMF per turn, and T is the
d
I are in same direction whereas in case of motor total number of turns

or
the induced EMF e and current I are in opposite • The product of pitch factor (kp) and distribution
directions. factor (kd) is referred to as the winding factor (kw):
xf
• In case of generator, the internally developed torque, kw = kp kd

O
Te is opposite to direction of rotation of the rotor or • The shape of MMF developed by a single coil is
rotor speed ω, whereas in case of motor the internal rectangular; containing fundamental sinusoidal
developed torque, Te and motor direction of rotation component and higher harmonics.
or rotor speed ω, is same. • A distributed winding gives rise to MMF wave closer
• In case of generator induced EMF e and current to sinusoid.
I are in same direction whereas in case of motor • Magnetic materials used in electrical machines should
the induced EMF e and current I are in opposite preferably have high permeability, low losses, high
directions. mechanical strength. These properties can be improved
°
• 1° electrical angle =   mechanical angle
2 in steel by adding silicon to it by less than 5% in weight.
P • Copper and aluminum are most commonly used
• All practical rotating (circular) machine armatures conductor material used in electrical machines. Both
have distributed winding where the coils do not have their relative merits and demerits.
occupy the same position, but are placed in slots • Choice of insulating material to be used in electri-
separated from each other. These three coils are con- cal machines depend on several of its properties
nected in series to form the total winding. including resistivity, breakdown strength, dielectric
• Distribution factor (kd) (or breadth factor) is defined constant, temperature withstanding capacity, chemi-
as the ratio of induced EMF with distributed winding cal and mechanical stability, etc.
Chapter_02.indd 81 5/15/2017 8:39:15 PM

CHAPTER-END EXERCISES
Multiple-choice Questions
1. For a P-pole machine, the relation between electri- 6. The main advantage of distributing the winding in
cal and mechanical degrees is given by slots is to
2 P (a) Reduce harmonics in the generated
(a) θ elec = θ mech (c) θ mech = θ elec voltage
P 2
(b) Make the winding mechanically
4 P stronger
(b) θ elec = θ mech (d) θ elec = θ mech
P 2 (c) Reduce the amount of copper required
(d) Reduce size of the machine
2. For eliminating nth harmonic from the EMF gener-
ated in the phase of a three-phase alternator, the 7. Electromagnetic torque is present in a rotating
chording angle should be machine when
2 (a) The rotor has salient pole structure
(c) × full-pitch
s
(a) n × full-pitch
n (b) When the air gap is uniform
es
1 3 (c) When either the rotor or the stator coil is
(b) × full-pitch (d) × full-pitch
Pr
excited
n n
(d) When both the stator and rotor coils are
3. The developed electromagnetic force and/or torque excited
in electromechanical energy conversion system act
y
sit
8. For linear electromagnetic circuit, which one of
in a direction tends to
the following statements is true?
(a) increase the stored energy at constant flux
er
(a) Stored energy is zero
(b) decrease the stored energy at constant flux
(b) Stored energy is less than co-energy
(c) decrease the co-energy at constant MMF
iv
(c) Stored energy is equal to co-energy

(d) decrease the stored energy at constant MMF
Un
(d) Stored energy is more than co-energy

4. To eliminate fifth harmonic voltage from the phase
voltage of a generator, the winding of the machine 9. Addition of 0.3 to 4.5% of silicon to iron
should be short pitched by an electrical angle of _________ the electrical resistivity of iron
d
(a) Increases (c) Does not change

or
(a) 60° (c) 45°
(b) Decreases (d) Reverses
(b) 36° (d) 18°
xf
10. Mica is a
5. A three-phase AC machine stator winding has a
(a) Magnetic material
coil span of 156 electrical degrees. Its coil span
O
(b) Conducting material

factor is:
(c) Insulating material
(a) 0.914 (c) 0.978
(b) 0.94 (d) 0.208 (d) Semiconductor material
Critical Thinking Questions

1. ‘For successful mechanical movement in a singly in magnetic field is reduced, but the co-energy is
excited system, it is necessary that air gap between increased: Justify with reason whether the state-
stator and the moving element is non-uniform’. Justify ment is true or false.
with reason whether the statement is true or false. 4. ‘Direction of rotation of the rotor in a singly excited
2. ‘For achieving movement of the rotor of a cylindri- machine with salient pole structure of rotor can be
cal rotor motor, it is necessary that both stator and reversed by reversing the current direction in stator
rotor be excited’. Justify with reason whether the electromagnet’. Justify with reason whether the
statement is true or false. statement is true or false.
3. In a doubly excited system, the salient pole rotor 5. Derive the power balance equation in a basic gen-
moves in a direction such that the stored energy erator from the original energy balance equation
Chapter_02.indd 82 5/15/2017 8:39:17 PM

of electromechanical energy conversion principles 7. If air does not have any hysteresis loss associated
considering the law of conservation of energy. during its magnetization, then why simple air-core
6. ‘Distribution factor and pitch factor reduces the coils are not used in transformers?
EMF induced in every turn of a generator’. Justify 8. What will happen if the percentage of silicon is
with reason whether the statement is true or false. increased beyond 5% in electrical grade steel?
Descriptive Questions
1. Based on the principle of conservation of energy, 5. What are the advantages of distributing a wind-
write an energy balance equation for a motor. Also, ing in rotating electrical machine? Show that
write briefly about the various energy terms involved. qγ
sin
2. Show that for a singly excited linear electrome- Kd = 2 . where k = distribution factor,
d
chanical energy conversion device, electrome- γ
q sin
chanical force developed can be expressed as the 2
negative partial derivative of energy stored in the q = slots per pole per phase, γ = slot pitch in elec-
s
magnetic field against linear displacement. trical radian.
es
3. What is reluctance torque? Explain the difference 6. What is EMF polygon? Find expression for the
Pr
between electromagnetic torque and reluctance pitch factor of a short chorded winding.
torque. Explain whether a DC motor can develop 7. Derive the relation between electrical angle and
any reluctance torque. mechanical angle in relation to rotating machines.
4. Show that the general expression for torque devel-
y 8. What are the advantages of adding silicon to steel
sit
oped in a P-pole AC machine is proportional to the for use as core material in electrical machines?
stator MMF, the resultant MMF and sine of angle 9. What are the thermal classifications of insulating
er
between them. materials as per Indian standards?

iv
Un
Numerical Problems
1. Find the distribution factor of a three-phase, six- 5. Determine the winding factors for a six-pole AC
d
pole AC machine with 54 slots. [Ans: 0.9598] machine winding placed in 36 slots with coils of
or
2. Calculate the pitch factor of a coil having its two span 5/6th of a pole pitch, when the winding is
sides placed apart by 5/8th of full pitch distance. (a) Three-phase with phase spread of 60°
xf
[Ans: 0.83] (b) Three-phase with phase spread of 120°

3. An AC machine has 4 poles with 64 slots. The (c) Two-phase
O
coils are wound with 11/16th faction of full pitch. (d) Single-phase
Calculate pitch factor. [Ans: 0.88] [Ans: (a) 0.929 (b) 0.837 (c) 0.876 (d) 0.622]
4. Determine the winding factor of an eight-pole, 6. Find the fundamental, 3 rd, and 5 th harmonic
three-phase alternator having 72 slots, with 6 turns distribution factors for a 16-pole, 144 slot alter-
per coil when the winding is short pitched by nator.
3 slots. [Ans: 0.58] [Ans: kd1 = 0.667, kd3 = 0.33, kd5 = 0.667]
Answers to Multiple-choice Questions
1. a, 2. b, 3. b, 4. b, 5. c, 6. a, 7. d, 8. c, 9. a, 10. c
Chapter_02.indd 83 5/15/2017 8:39:17 PM

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Former Head, Department of Electrical Engineering,

Haldia Institute of Technology

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

Electrical_Prelims.indd 1 5/15/2017 5:19:30 PM

© Oxford University Press 2017

The moral rights of the author/s have been asserted.

First published in 2017

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

Typeset in Times New Roman

Printed in India by Magic International (P) Ltd, Greater Noida

Cover image: Evannovostro / Shutterstock

Third-party website addresses mentioned in this book are provided

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

Electrical_Prelims.indd 2 5/15/2017 5:19:30 PM

7.2.3 Comparison between a Single Three-phase Unit and a Bank of Three

Various solved examples are added to each

bank will require three independent cores, having

Chapter_07.indd 396 5/4/2017 5:02:09 PM

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

Electrical_Prelims.indd 4 5/15/2017 5:19:31 PM

(c) Reduce the amount of copper required

(b) full-pitch (d) full-pitch

MATLAB examples are provided at the end

three-phase induction motor to its maximum torque

Critical Thinking Questions, Descriptive

answers are provided for readers to test their

Chapter_07.indd 460 5/4/2017 5:04:55 PM

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

Electrical_Prelims.indd 5 5/15/2017 5:19:34 PM

1. Basic electromagnetic concepts and general concepts of electrical machines

2. DC generators and motors

5. Synchronous generators and motors

Features of the Book

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

Electrical_Prelims.indd 6 5/15/2017 5:19:34 PM

Organization of the Book

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

Electrical_Prelims.indd 7 5/15/2017 5:19:34 PM

For Faculty For Students

• Solutions Manual • Additional MATLAB codes

• Laboratory Experiments Manual • Additional Reading Material

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

Electrical_Prelims.indd 8 5/15/2017 5:19:34 PM

Features of the Book iv

1. Magnets and Magnetism 1

9. Analysis and Performance of Three-phase Induction Motors 505

11 Construction, Principle, and Operation of Synchronous Generators 616

13. Synchronous Motors 739

14. Single-phase Induction Motors 786

15. Special Machines 836

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Electrical_Prelims.indd 9 5/15/2017 5:19:34 PM

1.2.3 Magnetic Field along Axis of a 2.3.2 Doubly Excited Magnetic

2.4 General Concepts of Rotating

Left Hand Rule 13 2.4.2 Motor 57

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

Electrical_Prelims.indd 10 5/15/2017 5:19:34 PM

2.7.7 Different Types of Winding 3.8.1 Increasing the Air Gap

y 3.11 MATLAB EXAMPLES 149

3.2 Fundamentals of DC Generator 87 Applications of DC Machines 156

3.2.1 Generation of EMF in an Elementary

3.2.2 Rectification of Alternating EMF 89 4.1 Excitation in DC Machines 156

1. Magnets and Magnetism 1

9. Analysis and Performance of Three-phase Induction Motors 505

11 Construction, Principle, and Operation of Synchronous Generators 616

13. Synchronous Motors 739

14. Single-phase Induction Motors 786

15. Special Machines 836

1.2.3 Magnetic Field along Axis of a 2.3.2 Doubly Excited Magnetic

2.4 General Concepts of Rotating

2.7.7 Different Types of Winding 3.8.1 Increasing the Air Gap

3.2 Fundamentals of DC Generator 87 Applications of DC Machines 156

3.2.1 Generation of EMF in an Elementary

3.2.2 Rectification of Alternating EMF 89 4.1 Excitation in DC Machines 156

3.4 Constructional Features of DC Machine 157

3.5.1 Types of Armature Winding 100 4.2.1 Open Circuit Characteristics 168

4.5.1 Shunt and Separately Excited 6. Single-phase Transformers 278

5.3.1 Counter Current Braking or 6.3.4 Real Transformer Operation with

5.3.3 Regenerative Braking 247 6.5 Determination of Equivalent Circuits

5.4 Losses and Efficiency of DC Parameters of a Single-phase Transformer

5.4.1 Iron Losses 248 6.5.1 Open Circuit Test 314

6.5.2 Short Circuit Test 316

6.7 Transformer Efficiency 330 7.1.1 Standard Three-phase Transformer

6.10.1 Reasons for Connecting

7.7.2 Voltage Relations in Scott

7.9.2 Effect of Harmonics in 8.7.3 Developed Torque and Output Torque

9.3 Determination of Equivalent Circuit

8.2.5 Direction of Rotation of the

8.2.7 Relative Speeds 472

9.4 Tests on Induction Motors as per Indian

9.5.3 Construction of the Circle 10.2.5 Variation of Rotor Circuit Resistance

11.1 Principle of Operation for Generation of

Motors 571 11.2 Constructional Features of Synchronous

10.1 Starting of Three-phase Induction Field 618

11.7 Tests for Determination of Synchronous 12.1 Advantages of Parallel Operation of

11.11.3 Maximum Power Conditions Connected to Infinite Busbar 717

11.12 Salient Pole Synchronous Machines and 12.11 Short Circuit Transients in Synchronous

13. Synchronous Motors 739

13.2 Operating Principle of Synchronous 14.3.4 Starting Methods of Single-phase

13.7.4 Expressions for Power in Salient Pole

13.9 Pull-out Test of Synchronous 15.1.3 Uncompensated AC Series

13.11 Synchronous Condenser 775 Motor 845

Motors 777 15.2.1 Construction and Operation of a

15.6.2 Permanent Magnet Stepper 15.10 Linear Induction Motors 865

2.2 ENERGY BALANCE DURING ELECTROMECHANICAL