Water and Environment Journal.

Print ISSN 1747-6585

Assessment of fog collection as a sustainable water resource in

the southwest of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Salem Algarni
Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia

Keywords
fog collection; fog collector efficiency; mesh;
Saudi water shortage; standard fog collector.
Correspondence
Salem Algarni, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, College of Engineering, King
Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia.
Email: saalgarni@kku.edu.sa
doi:10.1111/wej.12330
Abstract
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) is an arid dessert with less than 100 mm yearly
rainfall in addition to a high-water consumption per capita. The collection of fog
water is a simple and sustainable technology and may offer a supplementary water
supply. Data were collected for a whole year from the Rayda reserve weather sta-
tion, and two standard fog collectors (SFCs) were installed near the weather sta-
tion. The results indicated that the average water collected by the local mesh was
6.7 L/m2/day, compared with 5.5 L/m2/day collected by the imported mesh. The
highest quantity of water was collected in March by the local mesh, at 22 L/m2/day.
The effectiveness of the fog collection was calculated and compared with the inter-
national standards. The obtained results indicate that fog can be utilized as a sup-
plementary water source for the agriculture sector in the southwest KSA.

Introduction growth of tourism industry in the Asir area, it is important to

The rising rate of population growth continues to increase the
population density, and global warming has influenced the cli-
mate locally and globally, leading to severe changes in climate
conditions. As a result, a shift in a monsoon time and frequency
has been observed which has resulted in a water crisis, thus
creating a scarcity of potable water in many parts of the world.
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) is an arid dessert with-
out natural water resources such as rivers or lakes. It relies on
less renewable water sources, such as deep ground water
and desalination, and hence has a scarcity of water sources.
KSA has experienced comprehensive improvements in all sec-
tors and hence high growth rates, and living standards have
increased. As a result, water consumption has increased in all
sectors. The agricultural sector consumes the biggest portion
of the total water produced by the government, as much as
84% (Ministry of Water and Electricity 2015). KSA has high
water consumption per capita (263 L/day) and less than
100 mm average yearly rainfall. Therefore, water demand
management including low-cost and sustainable water
resources will be required to overcome the water scarcity.
The Asir region is located in the southwest KSA (18.28N
latitude and 42.58E longitude) at 2200 m above sea level, as
shown in Fig. 1. It receives more yearly rainfall than the rest
of the country; also, fog forms in the area between Decem-
ber and April and the forms again in the summer months
(May–September). Furthermore, as there is the continual
ensure that renewable water sources are available in the
area. Water from fog collection may be the best supplemen-
tary water supply for the region, as the region is potentially a
good location for fog water collection.
The main scope of the study is to technically and economi-
cally evaluate the potential of fog water collection as a sus-
tainable water resource to support the agriculture sector in
the southwest KSA. Additionally, the paper attempts to
address the theory behind fog water collection and its
related parameters. Finally, it provides a scope for future
research to help in attaining sustainability.
Fog collection around the world
Fog formation is a significant phenomenon that leads to
water accumulating near the earth’s surface. Fog is a thick
cloud formation of tiny water droplets that form from atmos-
pheric water vapour; these droplets are found in a state of
suspension close to the earth’s surface, and they prohibit
visibility more than mist, thus reducing visibility to less than
1 km (Park et al. 2013). The fog droplet sizes range from
approximately 1 to 30 lm (Schemenauer & Cereceda 1992).
These droplets have a low fall velocity of approximately 1–
5 cm/s. The amount of collected fog water is a function of
several factors including fog water content, droplet size, rel-
ative humidity, ambient temperature, wind speed and direc-
tion and mesh size and efficiency.

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Assessment of fog collection
Fig. 1. The map of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia showing the 13 administrative regions including Asir region-studied area (Basulaiman et al. 2014).
Many aspects pertaining to fog collection are being stud-
ied by researchers and published all around the globe. Sche-
menauer & Cereceda (1991) conducted a comprehensive
review of the literature on fog water collection. Many poten-
tial fog collection locations were identified where the climate
is conducive to the formation of low cloud decks.
Standard fog collectors (SFCs) were erected in various parts
of South Africa, and the water collection rates were monitored
over a 3-year period (Olivier 2004). The yields ranged from 1 to
5 L/m2/day and exceeded 10 L/m2/day in the mountainous
regions at elevations higher than 1700 m. Seven large fog col-
lectors (LFCs) were installed between 2001 and 2008 to pro-
vide drinking water at two schools in the Soutpansberg. Daily
water collection rates varied substantially. The first fog collec-
tion project in Nepal was started in 1997 using SFCs for evalua-
tion purposes (MacQuarrie et al. 2001). The climate is
characterised by the summer monsoon season with heavy rain
and the winter with a lack of rain and water shortages in the
mid elevations. Fog collection projects in Nepal are typically in
an elevation band approximately 2000 m.
Almost the entire region of the Middle East lacks readily
available water from rivers and lakes. Some fog collectors
were installed in Oman, Yemen, Jordan, Israel and few in
Saudi Arabia. In these regions, there is a considerable
amount of dew on plants, which can help in the selection of a
proper site for fog collectors. Gandhidasan and Abualhamael
(2007) conducted an experiment in the Asir area. In the
2 Water and Environment Journal 00 (2018) 00–00 V
S. Algarni
study, greenhouse polypropylene shade netting with a 60–
70% shade coefficient is used in addition to a black mesh
with a 35–45% shade coefficient. Black mesh has collected
more fog water than the green mesh at two different loca-
tions. The effects of humidity, wind and dry bulb tempera-
ture strongly influenced the amount of fog collection. If the
humidity increased up to 90%, then the fog collection was
greater, similarly if wind speed increased above 10 m/s, fog
collection was reduced dramatically. Gandhidasan and
Abualhamael (2007) concluded fog water collection will not
be the solution for water shortages but will complement
other water systems. Al-Hassan (2009) ran another experi-
ment. Fog water was collected by SFC mesh in three differ-
ent places; Rayda reserve, Al-Sahab park and Abha city. On
any given day, the amount of water collected from higher
elevation, that is, from Al-Sahab park, was greater than the
amount collected from a lower elevation. Al-Hassan (2009)
found that the quality of water collected in remote areas like
Rayda reserve and Al-Sahab park meets drinking standards,
while water collected from Abha city has heterotrophic bac-
teria in it. Abualhamayel & Gandhidasan (2010) designed and
tested LFCs 20 3 2 m with a surface area of 40 m2 for water
harvesting in the Asir region. The results showed that fog
collection was affected by the meteorological conditions
prevailing during the experimental period. When the relative
humidity is higher than approximately 90%, the collection
rate is high, and the maximum collection is produced when
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S. Algarni Assessment of fog collection

Table 1 A summary of collected fog water studies from around the world
Average
water
productivity
Country Description of study (L/m2/day) Reference
1 Oman Feasibility of fog water collection: a case 20 Abdul-Wahab et al. (2007)
study from Oman
2 South Africa The implementation of fog water collection systems 4.6 Olivier & De Rautenbach (2002)
in South Africa
3 Nepal Harvesting of atmospheric water 6.8 Karkee (2005)
4 Namibia Supplementary water source in Namibia 2.4 Shanyengana et al. (2002)
5 Canary Island Fog water collection during summer in Tenerife 9.5 Marzol (2008)
(Canary Islands, Spain)
6 Morocco Fog water harvesting 7.1 Marzol & Sanchez (2008)
7 Saudi Arabia Exploring fog water harvesting potential 4.0 Gandhidasan & Abualhamayel (2012)
8 Saudi Arabia Fog water collection evaluation 6.2 Al-Hassan (2009)
9 Iran The implementation of fog water collection systems 0.53 Mousavi-Baygi (2008)
in Northeast of Iran

the relative humidity is close to 100%. A summary of selected Methodology

previous studies on fog water collections around the world
is shown in Table 1.
Although few studies were conducted in the southwest
KSA, they have evaluated the fog collection within selected
days in few months or have missed testing the local fabricated
mesh. Furthermore, the latest study was conducted 7 years
ago for only a couple of days. The current project is part of an
ongoing project which intends to explore fog collection for a
minimum of 10 years, study related parameters and to test
new strategies for enhancing fog collection efficiency, begin-
ning in Asir and then expanding to additional sites in the south-
west KSA. The aim of the overall project is to find a renewable
resource mainly to support the agriculture sector in the
remote mountainous surrounding areas as shown in Fig. 2.
Site selection
For a successful fog water collection project, it is mandatory
to have an extensive study of the site conditions. The study
of the area’s climate will provide the necessary data for con-
ducting the project. Altitude is one factor which helps in the
formation of fog. Higher elevation land surfaces should inter-
cept the cloud to obtain fog. The orientation of the mountain
system should be considered, as the longitudinal axis should
be perpendicular to the direction of prevailing winds. In the
Asir region, it is observed that all the ridges and mountain
chains are above 2000 m. This indicates that this region is
potentially good for fog collection.

Fig. 2. Remote mountainous areas in Asir, southwest KSA (Google map) and the terraced agriculture style. [Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]

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Assessment of fog collection
Fig. 3. Lichens on Arar trees at the site as an indication of frequent fog occurrence. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
The main factors required to evaluate a potential fog col-
lection site as introduced by (Schemenauer et al. 2015) are:
(1) the need of supplementary water sources: there must be
a water shortage. KSA has one of the highest water con-
sumption in addition to very low annual rainfall and no
access to natural water sources. In Asir, villages on high
hills have difficulties of getting enough water, especially
for agriculture; therefore, fog might be a solution.
(2) Mountains and their orientation: To obtain maximum
fog, the longitudinal axis of the fog collector should be
perpendicular to the direction of the wind. The orienta-
tion of the mountain or mountain range should be deter-
mined. This can be done by joining the highest peaks to
define a longitudinal axis. The best orientation of this
axis is perpendicular to the prevailing wind bringing the
cloud that will form the fog. The Asir region has a chain
of mountains; it was essential to identify the highest alti-
tude in that area. It was found to be Rayda reserve with
the highest altitude of 3300 m. It was decided to erect
two fog collectors to analyse the data obtained from two
different meshes.
(3) Observation of vegetation and ecosystem: In arid and
semiarid areas, it can be determined the difference
between the foggy area and area with no fog. If the abun-
dance of vegetation, density, the number of species or
size is better than in the surrounding areas and there are
no other factors that may explain those characteristics,
then it is almost certain that fog has a good liquid water
content, is frequent and the geographic factors are
adequate. Lichens on Arar trees can be an indication of
the presence of fog in Rayda reserve as shown in Fig. 3.
(4) preliminary fieldwork: In the preliminary study, a small
scale or SFC for the analysis of potential fog water
4 Water and Environment Journal 00 (2018) 00–00 V
S. Algarni
collection in the selected area should be sited in considera-
tion of the surrounding environment, as it is possible that
the area will be very different. The influence of obstruc-
tions such as trees or buildings must be taken into
account.
Design and fabrication of the fog collector
Two SFCs were installed once the site had been identified.
The size of each SFC selected for this project is 1 m2; it uses
a double layer polypropylene mesh and stands 2 m above
the ground supported by two posts on either end as shown
in Fig. 4(a). They are placed in such a way that the direction
of the wind is perpendicular to the mesh. The mesh is woven
tightly over both the posts on either end. One SFC is made of
imported mesh with a shading coefficient of 35%. Another
SFC is made of local mesh with a shading coefficient of 40%
and a double face (as shown in Fig. 4b). It was installed at a
distance of 5 m away from the first fog collector. Figure 5
shows the fog water collector fabrication and site set-up.
The water collects on the net; droplets join to form larger
drops that fall under gravity toward a channel which is located
directly below the mesh panel. Water then flows to the storage
tank, which is located below. The supporting structure and the
trough are made of noncorrodible material so that the col-
lected water remains uncontaminated. The pipe must be pro-
tected from sunlight which could damage the PVC pipe. The
important things to know are the amount of water that can be
extracted, the duration of the period during which fog
appears, and that the information generated is comparable
with data compiled in other places. The mesh is an extremely
important part of the fog collector as the collection of water
depends upon the mesh type. The mesh is attached to the
frame and remains open to the environment and thus is
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S. Algarni Assessment of fog collection

Fig. 4. Schematic of (a) the standard fog collector (Schemenauer & Cereceda 1994) and (b) a double fog collector.

directly exposed to the atmosphere. When the wind brings the
foggy air in contact, the fog droplets are deposited on the
mesh and combine to form larger droplets, and finally, run
down as water into the reservoir.
Results and discussion
Site measured meteorological parameters
Many meteorological parameters influence the fog forma-
tion, parameters such as wind speed, amplitude, wind and
its direction, relative humidity and cloud cover. Wind is one
of the important parameters in fog formation. Increased
wind velocity increases heat losses, causing reduced dew
formation; however, within certain limits, higher wind speed
yields higher water quantity. Thus, fog water collected is
considered to be a function of the wind. Another important
factor is humidity. It has been observed that relative humid-
ity is a significant factor for fog formation. The amount of fog
water collected is considered to be a function of relative
humidity. High relative humidity is essential for dew

Fig. 5. Fog water collector’s fabrication and site setup (single and double). [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

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condensation. Furthermore, to begin the dew condensation used in the collector. It has been reported that employing
process requires a cooling effect similar to that of a con- the double layer of plastic mesh in LFCs can collect approxi-
denser; the condenser surface temperature has to be lower mately 50% of the water in the fog droplet flux passing
than the air temperature. Similar conditions are met at night through it; thus, collector efficiency is increased. The col-
and in the early morning where air temperature reaches a lected water quantity also depends on the number of fog col-
minimum thus helping relative humidity to reach its maxi- lectors in the installation and the collection rate of that site.
mum. This creates a favourable situation for fog formation. Two SFCs were designed and manufactured with two dif-
The required average values of atmospheric conditions of ferent meshes. One is an imported, double-layered mesh
the site were collected from a weather station that is 20 m with a 35% shading coefficient, and the other is a local poly-
away from the site through the Saudi forecast authority in propylene mesh with a 40% shading coefficient. Both were
the Asir region. Table 2 shows average ambient tempera- installed at the same altitudes. Fog water was collected from
January 2016 until December 2016 by both collectors, as
ture, wind speed and relative humidity.
shown in Table 3.
Along with the highest associated humidity and moderate
Fog water collection rates
wind speed, the results show that the highest average col-
When there is no fog, there is no water collected. Similarly, lected water occurred in March with values of 13.2 and 9.2 L/
when a fog event occurs the amount of water collected will m2/day by the local and imported meshes, respectively. The
be greater. The fog water quantity collection depends upon minimum amount of collected water was in October because
many parameters like the fog water content, the fog droplet of relatively low humidity over the course of the month.
sizes, the wind speed and the mesh efficiency and mesh size Overall, average water collected by the imported mesh was
5.5 L/m2/day while that of the local mesh was 6.7 L/m2/day.
Table 2 Average ambient temperature, wind speed, and relative The most water collected by the local mesh was 22 L/m2/day
humidity
in March, 2016. The highest monthly measured efficiency of
Average ambient Average wind Average relative local mesh was found to be 55% in August associated with
Month temperature (8C) speed (m/s) humidity (%) lowest monthly average wind speed. On the other hand, the
January 13.8 10.3 88.0 back mesh in the double collector collected 35%, as the low-
February 15.5 11.8 93.1 est measured efficiency, of fog water passing through the
March 18.5 12.1 96.8
front mesh in May associated with the highest monthly aver-
April 19.7 13.4 95.4
age wind speed of 13.7 m/s. The overall monthly efficiency
May 20.1 13.7 90.2
June 22.3 12.6 86.4 of the local mesh is measured as 45%.
July 22.8 10.2 82.1 Average monthly collected fog water from local and
August 23.5 9.5 77.5 imported meshes with relative humidity are presented in
September 21.3 9.9 68.5 Fig. 6. The figure also reveals a similar trend between hourly
October 17.6 11.5 61.5 collected fog waters and relative humidity as the collection
November 15.8 12.5 75.8
rate is primarily affected by relative humidity. An hourly
December 12.9 11.6 80.4
collected fog water from both imported and local meshes of

Table 3 Average collected fog water

Collected water (L/m2/day) from local
Collected water
mesh with 40% shading coefficient
Number of (L/m2/day) from imported
Month reading days mesh with 35% shading coefficient Front mesh Back mesh
January 17 6.3 7.1 3.6
February 19 8.7 9.8 4.9
March 21 9.1 13.2 5.3
April 15 8.7 11.1 3.8
May 10 7.5 9.1 3.2
June 9 6.1 6.5 2.9
July 9 5.3 6.1 2.8
August 8 4.6 5.2 2.9
September 12 2.3 2.7 1.3
October 13 1.5 1.4 0.7
November 10 2.6 3.4 1.4
December 17 3.9 5.7 2.9

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Table 4 Chemical analysis of collected fog water

Maximum
allowed value
Sample (mg/L)

Local mesh Imported mesh

Unfilled Filled
Test (1) (2) (3) (1) (2) (3) water water
pH 5.6 5.3 5.9 5.5 5.1 6.3 6.5–8.5 6.5–8.5
Ammonia 0.6 0.01 0.11 0.3 0.04 0.15 1.5 0.5
T.D.S 110 280 120 150 220 90 1000 500
Nitrite 0.1 0.34 0.09 0.18 0.10 0.28 3 3
Nitrate 30 28 19 36 23 15 50 50
Chloride 48 28 45 44 36 51 250 150
Fig. 6. Average monthly collected fog water from imported mesh and Sulphate 71 55 44 79 50 38 250 150
relative humidity. Fluoride 0 0.04 0 0.05 0 0 1.5 1.5

Table 5 A scaled-up fog collector cost breakdown

Item (per unit basis) Cost ($) % of total cost
Stands, frame and channel 37 26.43
Local mesh 3 2.14
Treatment technology 15 10.71
Distribution pipe 35 25.00
Storage tank 20 14.29
Labour 30 21.43
Total 140 100.00

sulphate, chloride and dissolved calcium, magnesium,

Fig. 7. Hourly fog water collection on the third day of December.
the third day of December is presented in Fig. 7. In general,
the results indicate that the local mesh water productivity is
higher than the imported mesh water collection.
Fog water quality
Fog water quality obtained through fog collector is always a
big concern. The air quality influences the fog water quality
in the vicinity. The presence of an air pollution source in the
vicinity may impact the water quality tremendously. The
water quality is also influenced by mesh surface area when it
is contaminated by the presence of dust, insects, algae and
bird droppings. Low levels of total dissolved solids, sodium,
calcium, chloride and bicarbonate may be present in fog
water; however, such operations for fog harvesting are in
line with the quality standards of the World Health Organiza-
tion (WHO) for ions and heavy metals in drinking water, as
described by Klemm et al. (2012) and Abdul-Wahab et al.
(2007).
Table 4 shows the results for the tested samples. The
collected water is pure, having very low concentrations of
sodium and potassium. Microbiological fog water test for
10 samples were found to be within the Saudi water quality
standards for faecal coliforms and coliform organisms,
negative, (Saudi Arabian Standards and metrology).
Although harmful bacteria may not been an issue in the fog
harvesting, particular care must be taken in the transmis-
sion and storage of the water (Schemenauer et al. 2015).
Once the collected fog water is stored in tanks, it must be
kept clean and free from contamination in order to be pro-
vided safely to users (Schemenauer et al. 2015). In the
present study, fog systems are utilized for individual agri-
culture farms and with simple precautions, if needed, there
should not be any problem with faecal coliform. However,
in case of replacing or mixing a clean water system with
fog water, institute a careful water quality testing program
must be there.
Economic study
Water from fog is one of the most feasible and cheaper sour-
ces available in the arid environment. Fog water collection
system costs may be calculated based on the quantity of fog
water produced, materials used and cost of labour in the
area where it is being installed. The fog water setup needs

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Assessment of fog collection
continuous maintenance and supervision. Apart from this,
the maintenance cost of the collector also depends upon the
collector size and on the local environmental conditions. The
cost may be further increased by including a pipeline, stor-
age tank, and small chlorination plant for its purification.
Based on the average water quantity produced, the fog
water cost can be derived. Based on the local market, the
breakdown of fabrication costs for a scaled-up fog collector
is shown in Table 5 where a scaled-up fog collector costs
around $140 per unit. Furthermore, operation and mainte-
nance costs of fog water collectors are low compared to
other conventional water sources.
Conclusions
(1) KSA is facing extreme water shortage conditions. To
overcome the scarcity of water, low-cost and renewable
water resources are required. The collection of fog water
is a simple and sustainable technology and offers a sup-
plementary water supply in the southwest KSA-Asir
region, especially for agriculture usage. Two fog water
collectors have been installed for 1 year in order to eval-
uate the potential of fog collection in the Rada reserve,
Asir and promising results were obtained.
(2) The results indicated that average water collected by
imported mesh was 5.5 L/m2/day compared to the local
mesh which was 6.7 L/m2/day. The effectiveness of the
fog collection was calculated and compared with the
international standards. The highest amount of water
was collected in March by local mesh at 22 L/m2/day. The
efficiency of local mesh was measured as 45%. The
obtained results indicate that fog water can be an alter-
native source of water in the southwest region of Saudi
Arabia, especially for agriculture purposes.
(3) It is recommended to investigate potential fog water col-
lection at other sites in the southwest region of Saudi
Arabia. Mechanical study on local mesh properties is rec-
ommended with a comparison to imported mesh. Social
awareness programs should be organised to tap this
source of water, highlighting the proper steps to be
taken to impart the technical knowhow of the design and
implementation to the public. Finally, the current KSA
low water pricing does not encourage consumers to
move toward efficient water usage; therefore, a new
water pricing system is needed.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the National Commission for Wildlife
Conservation and Development and King Khaled University,
Abha, KSA for providing the facilities. Many thanks to the
local community for their supports and encouragements.
8 Water and Environment Journal 00 (2018) 00–00 V
S. Algarni
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