DS 101 - Complete Notes-3 PDF

DS 101: Development Perspectives I
TOPIC 1: CONTENDING THEORIES OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

An Overview:
Development is heavy concept that can mean lots of things depending with individuals defining
it and their background. For economists development would mean one thing, for politician
would mean another, yet whatever each side says is a perspective of the same concept. Thus
development is a many-sided concept that can neither be articulated well from one side
neglecting the other. In this topic will discuss these different perspectives presented by
different theories of social development.
Introduction:
Despite half a century of development experience millions of Africans continue to live in
massive poverty, diseases and ignorance. While the processes of social development continue
to be informed predominantly by trial-and-error theories, processes and institutions, solid and
sustainable progress has remained elusive. This introductory module seeks to walk you through
various theories of social development, interrogate their respective validity and allows you,
ultimately, pose intelligent questions not only on what should be done, but most importantly,
what can be done and the process by which it can be achieved. Development Studies (DS) uses
interdisciplinary approach to examine the development process. It provides a critical tool of
analysis thus will lead to understanding the socio-economic and political development in
developing countries, Africa in particular. For example, we will be asking ourselves what are our
options in the era of globalization (free market)? Since we cannot reverse the process, how do
we make use of the opportunities offered by globalization and avoid the threats offered by the
same.
The human species faces an apparent paradox. We have embraced economic growth as our
primary indicator of human progress. Yet as economic output and consumption grow the
number of people forced into lives of dehumanizing deprivation increases and the quality of life
of all but the wealthiest among us declines. The reason is as simple as it is disturbing. Sometime
toward the end of the Twentieth Century the human species passed over a critical threshold in
its relationship to our home planet. Humanity's collective demand on the regenerative capacity
of Earth’s ecosystem grew to exceed the limit of what can be sustained. The more the economy
grows the greater the demand, the more rapid the depletion of the living systems that are the
source of all real wealth, and the more intense the unequal competition between rich and poor
for what remains a competition the poor invariably lose (Korten, 2007).
Travelers on a living spaceship, humans continue to live like cowboys on an open frontier living
out an old story in a new era. In deep denial and captive to the imperatives of global
corporations and financial markets that value money more than life, those who hold positions
of institutional power remain resolutely committed to policies that enrich themselves, but
impoverish people, community, and planet. To create a world that works for all, public policy
must give priority not to aggregate growth, but to using the resources of planet and society
Shukrani K. Mbirigenda (Institute of Development Studies –IDS, University of Dar es Salaam) 1

equitably and sustainably to provide healthy, fulfilling lives for all people and other living
beings. It means reorganizing economic life to produce more of the things that people need,
like food, shelter, clothing, education, and health care and less of the costly things we do not
like military hardware, pollution, traffic jams, and crime.
Hope for the human future rests, therefore, not with institutions of power, but with the
millions of individuals all around the world who are awakening, as if from a deep trance, to the
reality of our collective crisis. Acting out of love, compassion, and a deep sense of responsibility
to people and planet, they are rejecting the disempowering mantra that there is no alternative
to a dysfunctional status quo, putting their bodies on the line to stall the forces of corporate
globalization, and living a new story into being. They see the human future as a matter of
choice, not destiny, and seek a world that works for every person and the whole of life (Korten,
2007).
Businesses have a major role to play in helping protect and enhance the environment, in line
with wider goals of sustainable development. In particular, business has a pivotal role in
meeting the Johannesburg goals (World Summit on Sustainable Development 2002) on
sustainable consumption and production, and corporate responsibility.
For example, In March 2005 the Government of Britain launched the UK Sustainable
Development Strategy - Securing the future. It highlights the need for business' approach to
corporate responsibility to extend throughout their supply chains, tackling issues at extraction
of raw materials through to engagement with consumers about the products and services they
buy and eventually discard.
Sound environmental management of processes and products is regarded as a core business

issue that can help promote a company's products and services, and improve its corporate
standing.
Government has a key role to play and has to work closely with business to encourage more
sustainable patterns of production and consumption:
 Encouraging wider take up of corporate responsibility practices, including

environmental reporting and management systems
 Enabling investors to deliver more sustainable consumption and production
 Providing information and advice to business on environmental issues
 Working directly with business sectors to improve environmental performance (Korten,
2007).

Module Materials:
COMPARATIVE CONCEPTS
Theories
Theory is a statement or group of statements established by reasoned/logical argument based
on known facts intended to explain a particular event. Social development theory therefore
aims at explaining process of social development. A good theory should be able to describe,
classify, analyze and most important of all is the ability to predict.
Theories have hypotheses as their statements. Hypotheses are intelligent ideas that tell about
speculative relationship of causality between variables; they make assumptions about different
phenomena. They are statements that need to be tested for their validity. Hypotheses can be
proved wrong or confirmed right. As we said earlier, theories explain phenomenon but good
ones should be able to predict. Theories are frameworks that help us organize ideas, interpret,
analyze and describe reality. Theories help one to collect data, thus in order to make empirical
analysis one need to be informed by theories. At this level we need to do critical analysis that
asks questions such as “why?” or “why not?” and to such questions; you cannot provide
answers as “yes” or “no”. In critical analysis we are emphasizing on causality, which is
interrelationship between different variables/factors. While we talk of theories, economists talk
of models and paradigms. A paradigm is simply an acceptable world view developed and
tested over time.
In studying social science we have to choose the unit we need to study and then the level at
which we will study the phenomenon. Professor Singer claims that when a scholar is confronted
with a system or a subsystem in his/her area of study, it should not be an accident. He/she
should have looked at the relative utility of the level of analysis he/she has finally chosen. For
example if one chooses to study world politics as his/her unit of analysis, the international
system and the national sub-system will be his/her levels of analysis. A scholar in search of a
level of analysis should keep in mind that any level he/she selects should have the following
characteristics:
I. An accurate description of the phenomena under study. Such a description should be
complete and undistorted picture, however, nothing can represent something
accurately as it is in reality.
II. A capacity to explain causal relationship among phenomena under investigation. It must
be made clear that the primary purpose of any theory is to explain, so when explanation
and description conflict, explanation should be given a upper hand even at the cost of
representational inaccuracy.
III. It should be able to give promise of reliable prediction.
THEORIES OF SOCIALDEVELOPMENT
What is Development?
Development is a term that often has different meaning for different people hence we have
different perspectives of development. Goran Hyden (1994) indicates that development as a

product of human efforts has architects and auditors. The architects are people with a vision
wedded more or less explicitly to a given ideology. The principle auditors of development are
the academics whose task is to assess, within a given theoretical perspective, how successful
the architects are in shaping the process of social change according to their own modules.
Development as economic development (economic growth) has been advocated by the
economists and the western liberal scholars. They take their perspective from classical
economists such as Adam Smith and David Ricardo who viewed increased per capita, increased
Gross Domestic Product (GDP), investment and market as indicators of development. In this
case developed economy refers to production with large investment, large machinery and
advanced technology. Therefore, places having little or slow development, their economy will
have relatively small amount of capital and usually with primitive, old techniques which then
result to low real incomes per head of population and low standard of living.
For some other scholars development is a process of class struggle, free man and slave,
patrician and plebian, lord and serf, guild; master and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and
oppressed stand in constant opposition in a hidden or open fight leading to revolutionary
reconstruction of society at large or in the common ruin of the contending class (The
Communist Manifesto). Marx and many others believed that development can only take place
in the context of this class struggle and that the exploitating class must be overthrown and a
socialist economic system be established. Yet for some development is viewed in the line of
politics i.e. as democracy and freedom (liberal democracy). In recent time the World Bank, IMF
and the Western countries being led by USA have been great propagators of this view.
Then, there are those who see development as social aspect, thus overall human process of
progress focusing on human being/society. Actually, development is a multidimensional
concept thus if we are to get a comprehensive understanding of it we cannot concentrate on
only one aspect such as economic development while ignoring other dimensions. When
studying development we are then to deal with it in a wider sense that includes economic,
social, cultural, and political aspects. In this topic therefore, we will be looking for the meaning
of the concept of development as revealed in several of the development theories that have
been at the centre of controversies over the last few decades and from there attempt to define
this concept of development.
Marxist Theory of Social Development

Karl Marx (1818-1883) formulated one of the leading theories in social development. It is a
theory directed at social change. It analyzes social relations in order to change the inequalities
and injustices created by capitalist economic relations that prevailed at the time and justified
by the iron law of wages which aimed at paying low wages to workers.
The main elements in Marxist perspectives are:
 Dialectical approach to knowledge and society which in turn defines the nature of reality
as dynamic and conflictual. For Marx changes happen because of class struggle and
work through contradictions that are inherent in social and political phenomena.

 Materialist approach to history: History is created through struggle over distribution of

social product/surplus. Thus Marx made class domination central to his conception of
social order, and class conflict a defining feature of change in society.
 Marx believed that at the end of the class struggle (historical development) a socialist
society is necessary and desirable. This will be achieved by the overthrow of the ruling
class and the establishment of dictatorship of the proletariat. Thus Marx theory is
capitalism turned upside down, with master as slave and slave as master.
 Marx argues that dynamism and conflicts define reality and the decisive contradictions
are economic contradictions that develop between the social forces and the social
relations of production. In turn intensifying class conflict that is generated between the
existing dominant class and the rising revolutionary class. He strongly suggests that the
revolutions should occur first in most economically advanced social formations of a
given mode of production.
Marx then continues to put down 5 stages of development in a society. Theses are:
1. Primitive communalism
2. Feudalism
3. Capitalism
4. Socialism, and
5. Communism
Critique on Marx
Marxist theory does very well in explaining world capitalism in terms of centre and
periphery and the dialectical process of development. For Marx the periphery is only
complementary to and dominated by the core/centre. In this case then development
cannot be gradual, steady movement towards equilibrium. It is a process characterized by
imbalances and social conflicts. This observation can be verified today as the gap between
the poor and the rich, developing and developed countries continues to widen. There is no
dispute that the periphery (developing/3rd world countries) is dominated and is only
complimentary to the core/centre (developed countries). The development agenda of the
developing poor countries is set by the developed countries through organizations such as
the World Bank, IMF and WTO. The introduction of multiparty democracy in Africa was also
and is still influenced by the core.
Marx theory does well in describing and predicting social life. It gives a descriptive picture of
socio-economic formations particularly of the capitalistic economic system. Its main
strength lies in its analysis of social relations that arise in the process of production and the
conflicting social classes that are eventually the motive force of development.
However, Marxist theory is criticized on the ground that:

1. It concentrates too much on class struggle and tells us little on what produces stability in
the society. It is also criticized on being ideological based. Whatever the case this
criticism fails to refute the existence of conflicts and class struggle in the society and its
reality of conflicts and class struggles characterizing the process of development.
2. Marx fails in providing essential knowledge on the characteristics of imperialism in
underdeveloped and the motive force of development in colonized countries, especially
those in Africa. This leads us to start questioning on the whole process of history, does
history only start with the development of the phenomenon of class and consequently
class struggle? If this is the case, it would mean denying history those societies that
were in primitive communalism!
3. Others say that Marxist analysis does not give particular attention to the classes that
existed in African situation (if any), the nature of the relations of production, the nature
of the class struggle, etc. Therefore, the Marxist theory of underdevelopment is a theory
left unfinished/incomplete. Neo Marxists attempt to address this and thus try to
complete the theory.
4. Marxist emphasis on the working class as the leading force of social economic
development leaves us to wonder the roles of other sections of society after the
establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat. We are also left with quest to know
who will lead the revolution in African countries which do not have any significant
working class/proletariat. It is difficult to relate the Marxist theory with a context of a
country like Tanzania with has majority of its population being rural peasants.
Marxist theory offers policy prescription for developing countries which is a radical break
from the global capitalist system thus permitting genuine development. Though this
prescription is valid it makes a claim of developing countries being homogenous which is
not true. Developing countries are unique and with varying situations. The claim of
universality makes it difficult to put the theory in practice in different developing countries.
However, Marxist theory remains significant in highlighting exploitation of capitalism. It is a
revolutionary theory advocating for social change away from exploitation, injustices and
inequality created by capitalistic social-economic relations.
Lesson for Africa
Marxist theory is very relevant to Africa as it influenced the development of political
ideology to overcome exploitation and oppression. Nationalist struggles in many 3rd world
(developing) countries were struggles against colonialism and colonial exploitation. Many of

these struggles were influenced by Marxism and socialism aiming at building a society based
on principles of equality and freedom. In this group we have Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana,
Nyerere of Tanzania with Ujamaa na Kujitegemea (Socialism and Self-reliance), Kaunda of
Zambia and Humanism, Obote of Uganda and Common Man’s Charter, etc. All these came
to be referred as African Socialism.
Bourgeois/Orthodox/Modernization Theories of Development

Most Bourgeois/Modernization theories argue that development is gradual process. It is an
advance/growth through progressive stages; from low stage to higher stage which is better
than the previous stage. In this progressive process many things are involved, these include
markets, resources, infrastructures, organization, entrepreneurship, and investment. All these
things do not stand alone but are related to one another. Bourgeois theories include Rostow’s
stages of Development and Nurkse’s vicious circle of Poverty.
Rostow’s Non Communist Manifesto Theory

Prof. Rostow in 1960 applied a stage approach to the course of development and came up with
stages of economic growth. Rostow’s presented both a political theory as well as a descriptive
economic study of pattern of growth and development. He argues in this theory that it is
logically and practically possible to identify stages of development and classify societies
according to those stages. He goes on to say that the stages depend on:
 Productive capacity and technology
 Manufacturing industry
 Transport
 Savings and investment and trade
Rostow gives 5 stages of growth, which are:

1. Traditional society: This has structures developed within limited production
function. This society is characterized by little production and subsistence living.
Such a society lived in a period of history when people had little knowledge of
the outside world, i.e. their world began and ended with themselves e.g. many
thought the world was flat. In these societies the science was low leading to
limited production, high proportion of their resources was devoted to
agriculture, their story was a story of endless change and family and clan/tribal
connection played a large role in social organization (decentralized power). The
unit of production was the family. Rostow argues that most societies emerged

from this stage under the impact of external challenge and aggression or
nationalism. Africa seems to be a unique continent as it appears to be moving
in the direction of traditional society rather than moving out of traditional
society towards the next stage.
2. Emergence of pre-conditions for ‘Take-Off’: This is what Rostow called the
transitional stage. At this stage the main economic requirement is that the level
of investment should be raised to at least 10 percent of national income to
ensure self-sustaining growth. In this stage there is advance of modern science
that has been translated into new production functions in both industry and
agriculture. Rostow claims that the direction of investment should be in
transport and other social overhead capital to build up society’s infrastructure.
The availability of people willing and able to be entrepreneurs, to innovate and
operate an economic system geared to the factory and the principle of the
division of labour is stressed. The new elite must channel the surplus product
from agriculture to industry and people must be willing to take risks and to
respond to material incentives. Due to the sheer size of the task of transition, the
establishment of an effective modern government is crucial. Britain was the 1st
country to develop fully the pre-conditions for take-off in 17th to 18th century.
3. The ‘Take-Off’: There appears little distinction between the transitional period
and the take-off which is the decisive transition in society’s history; a leap
forward. The Take-Off is a period when the scale of productive activities reaches
a critical level and produces changes which lead to a massive and progressive
structural transformation in economies and the societies of which they are part.
The beginning of the take-off can usually be traced to a particular sharp stimulus
that can take the form of political revolution which affects directly the balance of
social power and effective values, the character of economic institutions, the
distribution of income pattern of investment outlays and the proportion of
potential innovations actually applied. It can also be through a technological

innovation (including transport) which sets into motion a chain of secondary

expansion in modern sectors and has powerful external economic effects.
4. Drive to Maturity: This is a period when society effectively applied the range of
modern technology to the bulk of its resources. Here new leading sectors replace
the old and Rostow sees the development of the steel industry as one of the
symbols of maturity. In this respect America, Germany, France and Great Britain
entered the stage of maturity roughly together. Maturity stage is the period
when nations grow confident and exert themselves politically; this is witnessed
in Germany under Bismark and Russia under Stalin.
5. The Age of High Mass Consumption: During this stage there is increased
productivity to satisfy society’s demands. The economy produces those goods
and services that the population desires. The stage is characterized by society
with a wide range of choice in the market. Technology is highly advanced and
consumers’ sovereignty is highly expected. Free competition is the key to
economic development. The process of development is virtually automatic and
technically determined. Rostow then concludes that if development does not
occur then the reason must be that something interfered with this automatic
process.
Analysis/Critique of Rostow’s Theory

Rostow’s theory is weak as it bears little resemblance to Africa and other developing countries.
In addition it only deals with the obstacles to development but does not explain the nature,
causes and objectives of the whole process of development. Rostow does not make very clear
the distinction between the different stages of development he presents. Lastly, Rostow fails in
providing empirical data to make it possible in verifying the assumptions he makes in his
theory.
Rostow’s Theory on Underdevelopment

Rostow in his theory argues that all countries were underdeveloped at one time. This
assumption falls short in that we cannot equate today’s Low Developed Countries’ (LDCs)
stages to any of the early stages of the presently developed countries. The persistence of
underdevelopment in the world economy poses some refractory problems that were absent in
earlier cases of successful development. The developed countries’ take-off was facilitated by
looting and stealing overseas through slave trade, colonialism and imperialism, the question to
ask is, if the LDCs are to follow similar process of development where would they loot from? It

is after all difficult to situate African countries in Rostow’s stages of development; they are
neither in the traditional society nor in take-off stage. It can be argued that Africa does not fit in
any of the stages. In addition it has been debated with increasing substance that Rostow’s
stages and thesis is incorrect primarily because they do not correspond at all to the past or
present reality of the underdeveloped countries whose development they are supposed to
guide. Rostow does not take into consideration the historical experience of the underdeveloped
countries or the continuous exploitation of these countries by ruthless
multinational/transnational companies. However, we can conclude by saying that though
Rostow fails in providing an analytical breakthrough, he has aroused once again theoretical
interest in the history and causes of the growth of the wealth of nations.
Nurkse’s Vicious Circle of Poverty

Ragnar Nurke (1909-1959) was an economic professor who tried to examine the problems of
capital formation in underdeveloped countries. Nurke’s theory expresses the circular
relationship that afflicts both the demand and suplly side of the problem of capital formation in
economically backward areas. Nurke argues that society is poor because it is poor, since there is
low saving leading to low investment which in turn leads to low consumption. He goes on to say
that the reason for the underdevelopment of backward countries is not due to foreign
capitalists in search of raw materials but it is due to limitation of domestic market for
manufactured products which leads to vicious circle of poverty. Therefore if these countries are
to develop, they should enlarge their market by investing in different industries. Nurke
emphasis is on domestic savings versus foreign aid and the important role of state for balanced
growth.
Relevancy of Nurke’s Theory

Firstly, Nurke just like Rostow fails to highlight the historical causes of poverty. Secondly, he
does not present a realistic way for the underdeveloped countries to come out of poverty.
Critique of Bourgeois/Modernization Theories

Modernization theorists argue that planned development has a role of hastening the pre-
conditions to facilitate take-off. Bourgeois theorists grow out of model of competitive market
capitalism. For them an automatic, regulated mechanism will naturally spring up in history to
direct development. Free choice will overcome scarcity and result into progress through the
automatic adjustments of free exchanges in markets. Bourgeois theories isolate national
economy from the rest of the world and where it is stressed the international economic
relationship on developing countries is over exaggerated. The theories are both mechanistic
and tautological. To think that by simply expanding investment a country will be able to raise its
income or that by raising income the country will raise its savings and consumption is a highly
mechanical way of looking at things. In addition, there is little in common between the pre-
industrial internal economic and social condition of currently developed countries and those
currently developing countries. Thus it is not possible to follow similar path of development.
Surprisingly, Bourgeois/Modernization theorists do not explain that the same process that
developed the North has underdeveloped the South. As a result they only deal with the

symptoms and neglect the causes which leads to the failure of their theories in offering any
meaningful solution to the problem of underdevelopment.
Dependency Theories
The process of dependency has been described by different scholars such as Frank (1969),
Palma (1978), Evans (1979), Szentes (1970), Gilbert and Haralambis (1973), etc. These scholars
point out some features of underdevelopment, which include:
1. Economic system with dependency on foreign trade and foreign investment
2. An increasing imported technology and finance
3. Expression of relationship of exploitation
4. Underdevelopment also manifests itself in cultural, military and economic aspects.
5. General feature are poverty, low labour productivity, backward technology, inadequate
equipment, poor science and technology and dependency on agrarian sector.
What is Dependency?
Dependency is a conditioning situation in which the economies of one group of countries are
conditioned by development and expansion of others. Dos Santos (1970) argues that
dependency is a condition whereby the expansion of one country is a reflection of the other’s
expansion. Dependency school includes Furtado, Frank, Graffin, Sunkel, Dos Santos, Szentes,
and others. Dependency theorists are concerned with the relationship between developed and
developing countries. They argue that developing countries are incapable of following an
alternative path because their decisions are conditioned by the developed countries. They
therefore, suggest breaking the cycle of economic and political reliance on dominant capitalist
nations.
Some of the dependency theorists sprang from Marxist analysis and these are the Neo Marxist
being led by Paul Baron, who can be rightly called the father of Neo Marxism. They argue that
dependency is a result of capitalism and internalization of the conflicts in the developing
countries. For others the analysis started from the Latin America discussion on development
and underdevelopment. These are led by Furtado and Frank. Andre Gunder Frank claims that
developing countries cannot move from traditional society to high mass consumption because
they are no longer traditional because of capitalism which breeds dependency and exploitation.
The central argument of dependency school is that dependency generates underdevelopment.
This view is against the Western economists of 1950s such as Rostow. Dependency theorists say
that the existence of developed countries has affected developing countries, as a result the
latter are no longer at the same stages as the previous stages of the West (North). What the
Dependency school is saying is that the economies of developing countries cannot be analyzed
in isolation from the developed countries’ economies because the developed countries
determine the nature of economies in developing countries. Frank argues that
underdevelopment is not an original stage but a created condition; here he gives examples of

British de-industrialization of India, Slave trade, and the destruction of Indian civilizations in
central and South America.
Dependency theorists contend that to break the dependency is possible and it is here that they
differ with the Marxists who deny this possibility because the change at the Centre (Core)
would make change at the periphery too. Dependency theory is the most valuable contribution
to modern social science. It accomplished the mission it set out in criticizing the modernization
theory and has provided an alternative perspective which still functions as catalyst for
development today.
Critique on Dependency Theory

Dependency, world systems, underdevelopment theories neglect the role of contemporary
internal political and economic conditions. Thus the external dependency is not sufficient to
explain lack of development in the South. In explaining the process of underdevelopment the
role of internal politics should be looked at, but always with historical approach.
Dependency theory does not identify the ultimate causes of underdevelopment apart from
saying they spring from the centre/the core. It stresses much more on external obstacles to
development and neglects the highlighting of how to initiate development once the obstacles
are removed. Ultimately, we can say that dependency theorists disregard the anthropological
level of analysis (i.e. the local community).
The World Systems Theory

The Assumptions
The world system theory makes a number of assumptions. These assumptions are the
following:
1. The World System consists of a single market and its unit of analysis is the world market.
2. There are series of state structures which exist as subsets of the global market.
3. The world is capitalistic in nature
4. The world is hierarchically structured with the core countries at the centre, semi
periphery in the middle and periphery countries at the bottom.
The Core countries have the following characteristics: they are industrialized, they have highly
integrated economy, they manifest high level of productivity, they have skilled labour, they are
democratic and capital and labour relate in wage. The Periphery countries are politically
undemocratic, they are vertically integrated with the core countries, they have peasantry
economy, and they have weak and inefficient states and have coerced labour. The semi-
periphery countries are the intermediary countries that can fall back to the periphery or leap to
the core. These countries have capitalism as their mode of production, and dynamic economy
with rigid but negotiable wage.
The theory argues that the hierarchical structures interact by cooperation, competition,
conflict, domination and exploitation.

 Cooperation: Countries cooperate in trade, culture, sharing of security secrets and in

confronting common enemies together. That is the reason for having embassies to
increase cooperation between two countries. For example in Tanzania we have British
Council, Alliance Francaise, German Stiftungs i.e. Frederich Elbert Stiftung (FES) and
United States Information Services (USIS).
 Competition: Countries compete for global political influence, for global power, for
global wealth, etc.
 Conflict: Competition breeds conflicts and at times even wars. For example World War I
was a result of conflict on world borders. That is why different organizations were set up
to resolve conflicts e.g. World Trade Organization (WTO) was set to resolve conflicts on
trade.
 Domination: There is relation of interdependence for those countries that are more or
less at the same level of development and dependence relation between a developed
country and developing countries. For example Tanzania and USA, Tanzania and United
Kingdom. In such a relationship USA can threaten to withdraw its aid and Tanzania can
only plead. This is relation of domination, and sometimes domination can be combined
with exploitation.
Weaknesses of the theory

The theory claims that semi-periphery countries are intermediary countries that can jump to
the core or fall back to the periphery. However, the theory fails to tell us what makes these
countries jump to the core or fall to the periphery. Then, if the world is a single market and
nation-states are subsets of that global market; how do we explain American economy which is
an economy that consumes 80 percent of what it produces. Certainly that is not production for
the global market.
The World Capitalistic Theory

This theory centres more on the economic side. It is propagated by the liberalists (liberal
democracy) arguing on market versus trade. They maintain that market is the major
organizing/moving force in development. They continue to claim that politics and economics
have different logics; therefore for the sake of efficiency and productivity the two spheres
should not be mingled. The role of state should be in promoting law, order and enforcing
international conventions but the market should be left alone.
The units of analysis for this theory are the consumer, producer and the market
 Consumers: are argued to be Homo-economicus; that is rational beings who want to
satisfy their need at the lowest cost possible. Consumers’ decisions are based on means-
end calculus (cost-benefit analysis). Consumers will pursue their end until cost equals to
benefit, beyond that they leave the pursuit.

 All human beings are Homo-politicus (political beings) who will seek liberty and
democracy. Since human beings want to be free, the markets should be free; they
should be left to be run by the law of demand and supply.
Law of Demand: People will buy more of a good if its price falls, and buy less of a
good when the price goes up. Again people will buy more if their income rises
and buy less if their income falls.
Law of Supply: Firms will supply the same good if the demand is high and supply
less of the same good if the demand falls.
The government therefore, should keep away from the market. It should only
intervene when there is market failure as in times of disaster and calamities such
as wars, floods, etc. This theory argues that when markets are left free they are
more efficient and productive, and since human beings are rational actors, they
will be moved by the market law (but this presupposes access to market
information which is not the case in the LDCs).
 Rational actors act and mingle freely depending on the opportunity cost (trade-off).
When we talk of opportunity cost we mean the alternative in use of resources and time.
For example you can decide to use your money to buy a car or go to undergraduate
school.
At the international level, free market makes the welfare of the international community to
grow, and people of different nationalities can interact and thus reduce the chances for
conflict. The theory makes a claim that the market is more efficient and productive in
developing technologies, in skills and experience. Thus competition is good as it helps in getting
fair prices in the market and human being as homo-economicus will act according to the market
signals. For example USA could produce malaria vaccine but the market signal is that those
living in the tropical malaria infected areas are poor; they cannot afford the vaccine, therefore
USA being a rational being makes a decision that there is no need to go into the venture, you
cannot make profit anyway.
While the scale of the world economy increases as it expands, its organic structure gets larger
without fundamentally changing (plus ća change, plusta mĕme chose; the more it changes the
more it remains the same). To be capitalist and remain capitalist one has to expand, thus
constant searching for market, constant changing of products, technology, etc. Capitalism is a
law of the jungle where the poor/weak die before their time. In capitalism the actors are the
capitalists who owns the capital, labourers who own the labour power and the multilateral
firms. Production in capitalism is organised at three levels, national, regional and global level.
Overproduction of service and goods under capitalism leads to economic crisis. The core and
periphery countries trade unequally thus the poor suffer when they must. Unequal trade
however is necessary for the expansion of the world economy if the primary issue is profit.
While the world economy increases and expands there is nothing new, inequalities and
exploitation remains. At the level of ownership we have the capitalist owning capital and
workers owning labour, at the level of production, the production is for the market and not for
immediate consumption and that production is not for the national market but for global

market. The capitalism cycle of business, of boom, crisis, recession, depression and recovery
remains the same. This cycle happens because production under capitalism is largely not
planned. Thus relationship between capital and labour remains the same though the scale of
world economy expands from national to global. It is always production for the market and it
aims at maximising profit. The scale is the same, simple production and there is expanded
reproduction of machinery, organization and techniques aiming at re-investment. Interruption
of normal production and accumulation is a crisis due to overproduction in the business cycle.
While in our poor countries economic crisis is underproduction, in capitalism, crisis is caused by
overproduction. While capitalism claims that investment will take place in the core countries
because there is security, today we cannot explain why some big organizations are having their
headquarters in the periphery countries as they run away from taxes to come and enjoy tax
holiday (tax heavens) in the Bahamas, Caribbean, etc. Thus, we are seeing exceptions to this
rule that investment of capital will be at the centre of the world. Now, some of the multi-
national companies are investing in low tax regions.
Strengths of the theory

1. The theory explains very well how capitalism works i.e. market does well than states.
2. Firms have homo-economicus that do well in Research and Development (R&D)

departments. These firms will compete in research for both market and production so
as to satisfy customers taste and getting machines in order to produce at the lowest
cost possible.
3. Laws of Demand and Supply are best indicators of investments. Thus investment should
follow the changing taste of consumers.
Weakness of the theory

1. The assumption of homo-economicus and market competition is at times exaggerated.
Sometimes the markets are not competitive at all due to monopoly or monopsony.
2. There is no comprehensive view to understand the society. Human beings are more
than economic beings (homo-economicus). Thus the devastating error was to remove
economics from the rest of the sciences i.e. politics, for at times economic decisions are
political decisions.
3. The theory disregards justice and equity. According to this theory the poor will become
poorer and the rich will become richer. It is a system that rewards the rich and punishes
the poor; it rewards the efficient and punishes the inefficient.

Human Development
In our normal life experiences a concept can be universally accepted and popular than it can be
understood, and thus become a fashion than a practice or a slogan than a guiding principle. It is
therefore important in social science inquiries to now and then re-examine a basic concept and
its measurements. There had been a need in recent years to examine a link that human
development has with environment and global markets. The Human Development Report of
1990 defined Human Development as a process of enlarging people’s choices, and income is
one aspect of the choices but it is not the only aspect. The objective of development is that the
people can enjoy long, healthy and creative lives. Development as a rush to accumulation of
more possession and greater wealth forgets this simple truth.
Human Development is about the creation and distribution of wealth. The investment in people
that is stressed in Human Development theory does not remove wealth creation from the
picture but adds to it. Through productive employment, healthy, educated people can
contribute more to economic growth. Previous concepts of development gave exclusive
attention to economic growth on the assumption that growth ultimately will benefit everyone.
Human Development approach agrees that economic growth is vital, a society cannot sustain
the welfare of its people without it, but growth on its own is not enough. While developing
countries have increased their capabilities in life expectancy and basic education, the gap with
developed countries is widening in higher education, technology, informatics and labour
productivity. This calls for acquisition of more advanced skills needed at the new technological
frontiers in order to promote economic growth. Here the East Asia’s industrial tigers have
demonstrated how this can be done.
Human Development is not about basic needs (about poor countries); it is rather for all people.
In poor countries the people are concerned about staying alive while in rich countries they are
concerned about developing more advanced skills. Therefore, each country has its own human
agenda. However the basic principle is always the same: to put people at the centre of
development and focus on their needs and potentials (needs and ambition). Human
Development concerns all from production processes, to institutional changes, to policy
dialogues. It is development that is focused on people and their wellbeing, that is:
 The generation of economic growth and its distribution
 The basic needs, the human aspirations
 The human distresses of the people in the North and the deprivation of the people in
the South
The Human Development concept is broad and comprehensive, but guided by a simple idea
that people always come first.
Sustainable Human Development

Population and level of economic activities have increased more rapidly in the last 4 decades
than at any time in history. Since 1950 the world population has grown from 2.5 billion to 5.3

billion people. Much of the growth has taken place in the developing countries where 77
percent of the world’s population live. With the young people already born there is every
reason to fear that this population could double its size before it stabilizes. It is undeniable fact
that all people aspire to participate in the benefits from production and trade. However, it is
inconceivable that the world can support billions of people in the wasteful style to which the
better-off minority has become accustomed. To date, 23 percent of the world’s people living in
industrial countries of the North earn 85 percent of the world income. The strains of this level
of economic activity are felt in the loss of forests and species, pollution of rivers, lakes and
oceans, the accumulation of greenhouse gases and depletion of life-preserving ozone.
Industrial countries started to recognize the problem. In some quarters the proposed solution
was to institute measures to prevent the developing countries from participating in the
economic activities that put such pressures on the environment. Such solution would be
incorrect. However, there is recognition that developed countries have made major mistakes in
developing energy-intensive pattern of production and consumption. The human race cannot
continue to devour the world resources and dump its wastes in the ways now practiced by the
affluent minority. At times to equally or greater point than affluent life, poverty too has put
strains on environment. The poor depend on the soil for food, the rivers for water and the
forest for fuel. These people who are without assets or income have no choice but to overuse
and destroy world resources simply to survive, but in so doing they threaten their wellbeing
and that of their children.
The current situation can be reversed if the problems are acknowledged, responsibilities are
accepted and measures (including those very difficult ones) are taken. In the summit of United
Nations Commission on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Brazil in 1992, opportunity
was offered to address these issues and negotiate the kinds of changes and sacrifices needed to
reverse the negative trends that are now so painfully apparent.
Poverty, Environment and Human Development

If development is to widen human choices then it should do so not only for the current
generation but also for the future generation. In other words it must be sustainable. One of the
major threats to sustainable human and economic development comes from the downward
spiral of poverty and environmental degradation that threaten present and future generations.
In our present world, some 1.4 billion of the world 5.3 billion live in poverty. If we add those
who are living ‘along the subsistence margin’ the figure jumps to 2 billion. These poor are
threatened by environmental hazards and health risks posed by pollution, inadequate housing,
poor sanitation, polluted water and lack of basic needs.
Sustainable Development and Economic Growth

The call for sustainable development is more than simply a call for environmental protection.
Sustainable development implies a new concept of economic growth, one that provides
fairness and opportunity for the entire world’s people, not just the privileged few, without
further destroying world’s finest natural resources and without compromising the world’s
carrying capacity.

UNCED (1987) defines Sustainable Development as development that fulfils the needs of the
present without limiting the potential for meeting the needs of the future generations.
Sustainable development is a process in which economic, fiscal, trade, energy, agricultural and
industrial policies are all designed to bring about development that is economically, socially and
ecologically sustainable. This is to say that the current consumption cannot be financed by
incurring debts that others must repay in future.
The minimum requirements for achieving sustainable development therefore are:
1. Elimination of poverty
2. A reduction in population growth
3. More equitable distribution of resources
4. Healthier, more educated and better trained people
5. Decentralized, more participatory government
6. More equitable, liberal trading systems within and among countries, including increased
production for local consumption
7. Better understanding of the diversity of ecosystem, locally adapted solutions to

environmental problems and better monitoring of the environmental impact of
development activities.
The question to ask at this point is should economic growth be curbed to conserve
environment? Yes, could be the obvious answer. However, this would mean avoiding the
serious issues in developing countries that have more than 1 billion people in absolute
poverty and another billion in the margin of poverty. In summation, the poor cannot accept
that their past and their present should be projected into indefinite future. Nor can they
accept that the industrial countries are entitled forever to an 85 percent share of the
world’s income and a perpetuation of their energy-intensive pattern of consumption. There
are a lot of more potential conflicts being highlighted by environmental awareness. It would
be naïve to suggest that they can all be resolved. These debates will continue long into the
next decades. But the concept of Human Development can offer a few guiding principles:
1. Sustainable human development should give priority to human beings.
Environmental protection is vital. But, just like economic growth it is a means of
promoting human development.
2. For developing countries there can be no choice between growth and environmental
protection. Growth is not an option, but rather an imperative. The issue is not how
much but what kind of growth, and there can be nothing as detrimental to
environmental as rapid growth.
3. Each country should set its own environmental priorities which often will be
different in industrial and in developing country.

Review:
In this module we have looked at the concept of development as developed by different
schools of thinking. We have dwelt more on the world systems and world capitalism theories
while contrasting them with the Human-centred Development theory as the culminating point
of sustainable development.
Discussion Activities:
“If the primary issue of any business is profit then the poor suffer when they must.” Discuss this
contention in relation to expansion of world economy under capitalism.
Resources:
Dudley Seers ( 1972) “The Meaning of Development” in International Development Review XIX (2). pp.
2 -7.
Korten, D. (2007) People-Centred Development Forum. Retrieved on 23rd July 2007 at www.pcdf.org
Ronald Chilcote (1982) Theories of Comparative Politics, Westview Press. Chapter 1, pp. 1–24
UNDP (1992) Human Development Report 1992. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 1 – 33
Wallerstein, I. (1974) The Rise and Demise of the World-Capitalist System: Concepts for comparative
analysis in Comparative Studies in Society and History, 16. pp. 387-415.
Walter Rodney (1981) How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. Howard University Press, Washington, DC.
pp. 3-29.

TOPIC 2: STATE POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT AND GOVERNANCE IN

AFRICA
An Overview:
In this module we will go through the African history from the period of pre-colonial to post
independence. In doing so we will reveal different state systems that existed and are in existing
today and how they affect African and other Developing World politics, security and
development in general.
Introduction:
The history of African state formation is a history of states in the making. It runs from pre-
colonial period to post independence time. To understand the state and political development
in Africa calls for revisit of Africa’s past. Before the African continent was colonized one could
find development of diverse systems of political organizations. By the 19th century the most
common social formations included communalism and high community modes of production.
Feudal relations of production had already developed in some parts of the continent, while
slavery relations had cropped up in some city-states. Development of states and political
systems was greatly based on these social formations. The aim of this module is to take the
student through this history so as to understand how some historical factors point to persistent
states’ crisis in Africa.
Module Materials:
Concept of State and Evolution of State Systems in the World

Concept of State
State is a formal group that is sovereign over its members and occupies a well defined territory.
Therefore, state is a political organization system.
Evolution of State
In order to explain the evolution of state we will follow social formation approach, thus the
transition from communalism, feudalism, slavery to the modern sates. We will therefore decide
period under study into pre-colonial and colonial period.
1. Pre-colonial Africa
Pre-colonial period is all that period to the last quarter of the 19th century. Since this is a long
stretch, we will limit ourselves to the 19th century.
1.1 Communalism
During the middle of 19th century the political organization was based on social formation
development. Africa at this time was in the advanced communal relations of production. We

can divide this period into primitive communalism and advanced communalism. Primitive
communalism was a period in which the social formation development was based on the
appropriation of nature (hunting and gathering). While in the advanced communalism it was
appropriation of the soil (crop cultivation and pastoralism). In Tanzania 70 percent of the
societies were already in advanced communalism and a considerable number were in more
advanced social formations like high community and feudal community. Advanced
communalism had clan or kinship organization as political organization. These were people with
common origin or common ancestors. In this formation the head of the clan was the political
leader assisted by a council of elders, and together they formed the decision making body. In
advanced communalism, labour was communally owned and used for the survival of all
members. They practised participatory democracy and division of labour was based on age sets.
1.2 Centralized Political Systems
These were states covering large territories, thus comprising different clans and kinships. Here
too we have two groups, the centralised and advanced centralised. The centralised political
systems emerged as a result of power exercise over peasant communities resulting into control
of land and livestock. The mode of appropriation in this system was through surplus just like in
the high community relations. However, there is no clear line between advanced communalism
and centralised or highly centralised political systems. In the highly centralised systems we have
the emergence and development of feudalism in which the control of land and livestock was
coupled with private ownership of the land. The rulers were the powerful kings. Only few
societies in Africa south of Sahara had developed the slave mode of relation, these were in
West African coastal areas and the sultanates in East Africa. The sultans controlled trade, land
and financial institutions like custom houses.
Colonial States, One Party States and Military States and their Implications on
Political Development in Africa
Colonization
Colonial system imported administrative methods of the motherland. The states as we know
them today were started during this time (after the Berlin Conference that partitioned Africa
among the colonial powers). European states started with the Westphalia treaty (1648) that
ended 30 years of war (1618-1648). It was the Westphalia treaty that recognised the
sovereignty of states in Europe. In the treaty of Westphalia three norms were agreed upon:
1. Formal equality of states (all states are equal)
2. No intervention into another state’s internal affairs
3. State consent (No one can force a state to enter into an agreement).

Westphalia accepted the legitimacy of national borders, sovereignty of states and consent of
states (symmetry). In reality experience will show that at times these norms are broken and
violated, e.g. conventions such as human rights, contracts such as those forced on poor
countries by IMF, WB and some big NGOs, etc. The paradox is that the poor states are
champions to these norms while the big powers are able to violate them at will and get away
with it, e.g. Britain and USA on Iraq and Afghanistan. It has been a trend that the big powers
adhere to these norms when they serve their interests. However, these norms serve as
reference points.
The states during colonialism were exploitative; freedom at this time was about exploiting
Africa
Nationalism
Nationalism started in Europe and the word is from a latin word nasceno which means a group
of people born in the same place or similar origin. European nationalism came as a result of
capitalism which wanted a break from the church and the Pope. In Africa, nationalism was part
and parcel of colonial domination, exploitation and oppression. It came as a result of the crisis;
World War I, the great depression and World War II which weakened the colonial powers.
Factors for the Rise of Nationalism in Africa

a) Historical Factors
 Resistance against colonial administration
 Resistance against colonial economy and social resistance: people formed trade
unions, strikes were waged and religious movements were established.
b) The Pan-African Movement
This started in Europe and it had two phases.
Phase 1: 1900-1945
This was under the leadership of Afro-Americans Garvey, Dubois and Burker Washington.
Garvey advocated for the back to Africa movement and arranged for all Africans in America to
have an exodus back to Africa. This movement failed after the travels were impounded. Dubois
advocated for Africans to fight for their rights within America. Burker supported the idea of
Garvey on back to Africa movement.
Phase 2: The Manchester Conference in 1945

The most important conference was the 5th conference which had one its agenda as liberation
of Africa. In this conference Kwame Nkrumah who was a student in England at the time became
assistant secretary. Others who attended were Hastings Banda and Kenyatta. It was after this
conference that Nkrumah decided to go back to his country Ghana and form a political party in
1947. By the year 1963 about 30 countries in Africa got their independence. In the same year
they met in Ethiopia to form Organization of African Unity (OAU).
c) The Role of USA and Socialist Countries (Soviet Union)

USA and the socialist countries put pressure to the UN to coerce colonial powers to give
independence.

Forms of Struggles
Practically there were 2 ways that were used, either one or the other and sometimes both were
used.
1. Constitutional means
In this there was no armed liberation struggle. This was used in those countries that had no
settler economy or it was not strong enough. These countries included Tanganyika that had a
weak settler economy, Uganda, Ghana, Nigeria, and Malawi that had pure peasant economies.
The national political parties were used to mobilize the masses to demand constitutional
changes. The educated elites were the leaders who did the mobilizing; they mobilised all classes
to fight against colonialism, so there were workers strikes and peasants’ resistance, rallies and
meetings. In Tanganyika, for example, TANU presented its demand to the United Nations (UN).
The disadvantage of this means is that the new constitution laid basis for neo-colonial
relationships.
2. Armed Liberation
This was used in countries that has strong settler economies and in most Portuguese colonies
like Mozambique, Angola and Guinea Bissau. Portuguese was the oldest colonial power in
Africa; it had existed for 5 centuries. There were people of Portuguese origin but were born and
lived in Africa as settlers These settlers took the colonies as their permanent homes and
Portuguese government regarded colonies as provinces of Portugal.
One Party and Military State Systems

In the 1990s we hear about democratization in Africa, this can only mean one thing that after
independence Africa developed undemocratic institutions, which were one party and military
states.
Independence and the Multi Party System

Most African countries achieved their political independence with a multiparty system. In
Tanganyika, between 1954 and 1960 different parties were formed, these included TANU, ANC,
AMNUT and UTP. Some parties were even formed soon after independence in 1962. Zanzibar
too had a number of parties such as ASP, ZNP and ZPP. Kenya had KANU, KADU and some
others. Similar development took place in other African countries. Although these different
parties in a country differed in ideologies, they were fighting for a common enemy. Due to the
different ideologies strong competition resulted in the process of struggling for state power at
independence. It is obvious therefore that either one or two or more parties jointly had to form
the new national government.
Factors for the Establishment of One Party System

The question we are asking ourselves is that, if most of the African countries had multi-party
system after independence, how come that after a few years most of these countries had
abandoned the system and established one party system. Tanzania, for instance adopted the
one party system in 1965, four years after independence. Kenya began with de facto one party
system and ended up with de jure one party system. In short by 1970 most independent African

countries had adopted a one party system. We can identify two major categories of factors
which facilitated development of one party system. One category tends to emphasize internal
factors, and the other category emphasizes external factors.
1. Internal Factors
Here three factors have been identified. The first factor is the nature and character of political
competition to state power. Political competition took place at two stages, first at the stage of
struggling of independence and second at the stage of consolidating state power after
independence. At the stage of consolidating state power after independence you had the ruling
party and the opposition parties. The interest of the opposition party was to take over state
power from the ruling parties during subsequent elections, while the interest of the ruling
parties was to consolidate and perpetuate their position of power. The tendency was for the
faction in power to consolidate and perpetuate its position of power by elimination of the
opposition parties.
The second important factor was that the class that took state power at independence had no
economic base, the economy was under the control of foreigners and most members of the
ruling group were from economic poor background. This means that the struggle for political
power was also struggle for economic power. Therefore, political competition was also
competition for the scarce resources. To ensure this those already in power had to perpetuate
their state office.
The third factor was colonial legacy. The colonial system was by nature non-democratic system
as it was an imposed state not based on democratic institutions and practices. Under
colonialism pre-colonial democratic institutions and aspects of democratic culture were
destroyed and new ones could not be developed.
2. External Factors
One source says that there was influence of Ancient Greece, and in particular the political
philosophy of Plato. Plato is argued that in his political philosophy become authoritarian and
hostile to democratic ideas. Plato developed the theory of rule by few who are good and wise,
to rule over many who are bad and ignorant. He called democratic rule as rule of the mob. It
therefore said that most of the African leaders adopted Plato’s ideas and thus becoming
Platonic. It is thus claimed that the establishment of one-party political systems by these
leaders was due to platonic tendencies and attitude. Another source of influence is said to have
been communist influence from China, the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe Cuba and even
North Korea. It is claimed that some ruling parties in Africa such as TANU in Tanzania by the
1960s had developed association with Mao’s China and later Eastern Europe. This is given more
weight more it is argued that some countries in Africa were even supported by socialist
countries in their armed struggles against colonialism. While this contribution of external
influence cannot be denied, we would like to argue that internal dynamics appear to have
played a more significant and predominant role. To start with, both external sources of
influence seem to be based on weak foundations. On the influence of Ancient Greece, nowhere

is it clearly shown under what conditions and circumstances were most African leaders who
adopted one party system in the 1960s and 1970s influenced by platonic philosophy resulting
into the development of platonic attitudes. The education background of most of them was
characterised by liberal ideas of multi-party democracy which they acquired under colonial
education.
On the influence of communism from China, Eastern Europe and Soviet Union, etc there are a
number of facts which seem to water down the magnitude of its contribution. First the ideas on
one party system began to be developed by some African leaders such as Nyerere and Nkrumah
long before contacts and relations were developed with the communist countries. For example,
Tanzania began to establish friendly relations with China in 1965, while Nyerere’s ideas on one
party began to be developed as early as 1962. Secondly a number of African countries that
established one party system were ideologically hostile to Marxism, Leninism and Maoism.
Kenya and Malawi are typical examples. Thus we can argue that rather than being important
factors, these external influences merely facilitated the consolidation and the nature and
character of the functioning of the one party political system in Africa.
The Position and Role of African Nationalist Philosophy

One of the important indicators of the significance of internal dynamics in the development of
one party political system in Africa is the development of African nationalist philosophy. The
philosophy is regarded as nationalist because it is a philosophy developed mainly by nationalist
leaders in the process of struggling for nationalist independence and in process of creating and
consolidating new independent nations. It is regarded as African because it is a philosophy
which claims to draw its experience from the traditional African past. Soon after independence
philosophy was an instrumental factor in the creation, consolidation and development of the
new independent nations. Ideas on African unity were developed at two levels: at the level of
the continent and at the level of each African nation. At the regional level we have regional
groupings such as PAFMECA in East and Central Africa, and the Monrovia and Casablanca
Groups in West Africa. At the continent level there was a movement towards the creation of
one African nation by uniting all the newly independent nations. The movement facilitated the
birth of OAU whose initial objective was to play a role of uniting the African nations into one
nation. At national level African unity meant the forging and development of national unity.
This meant the eradication of colonial legacy of ethnicity religionism, racialism, regionalism and
even class differences and antagonism. In forging this unity different ideologies came into use,
for example in Tanzania it was “Freedom and Unity”, in Zambia it was “One Zambia One
Nation”, and in Kenya it was “Harambee”. Unity was also viewed as a necessary aspect in order
to ensure fast socio-economic development.
Creation and Development of One Party and Military State Systems

1. The One Party System
The idea of establishing a one party political system was contained within the nationalist
philosophy. African as well as national unity was conceive to be achieved under conditions of
absence of absence of political competition and therefore such condition could be achieved

through one party system. African democracy was all about advocating a form of democratic
participation through consensus and harmony and absence of political competition.
In Tanzania, the National Executive Committee of the ruling party, TANU had already passed a
decision to establish a one party system as early as 1963. In 1964 the president formed a
Presidential Commission of Inquiry to look into the possibility and modalities of implementing
the party decision. In 1965 the Commission came out with a report that confirmed the Party’s
decision that a one party system should be established. Constitutional changes were made and
one party system was officially declared in that year. The new constitution outlawed all existing
opposition political parties and prevented new ones to be formed. This transformation from
multi-part to single party in Tanzania mainland did not face strong opposition because the
ruling party TANU had strong mass base, while the other political parties had few followers. The
United Tanganyika Party (UTP) was a political wing of the Europeans and was therefore
associated with colonialism, thus it could not win mass support. The African National Congress
(ANC) which was formed in 1958 attacked the moderate position of TANU towards the White
and Asian minorities had not managed to mobilize strong support by the time of independence.
While TANU has 498 branches by 1960, ANC had only 9 branches. It was the All Muslim National
Union of Tanganyika (AMNUT) that at least posed a bigger challenge to TANU, but it was
weakened by the fact that it was a religious party and it advocated postponement of
independence on religious ground. As a result in the elections of 1958/1959, 1960 and 1961
TANU won nearly 99 percent majority. In Zanzibar the Afro-Shiraz Party emerged as a single
party through the Zanzibar Revolution of 12th January 1964. The Revolution that had been
organised by ASP against the Arab minority regime under the hegemony of the Sultan put an
end to opposition parties like Zanzibar Nationalist Party (ZNP), Zanzibar and Pemba Peoples
Party (ZPPP), etc.
This process of establishing one party system took place in many other African countries. For
instance, Kenya started with a defacto one party system and ended up with a de jure one party
system. Malawi abolished opposition parties soon after independence in 1964 and Zambia
which also achieved independence in 1964 soon created a one party rule by mid 1970s. This left
few exception countries like Botswana and Senegal that continued with multi-party system. Yet
quite a number had later established military state system.
2. The Military System

The main factors that led to establishment of one party system were almost the same, that is
competition of political power which in turn was a means for getting access to the control of
economic resources. In addition the one party state pushed other factions of the petty
bourgeois out of democratic competition for political power. The only option left for the other
factions was to establish alliance with the military to plan coup d’état. In some cases the
members of the military themselves developed ambitions for state power. In overthrowing one
party government, one of the main excuses had been that these regimes had proved dictatorial,
tyrannical and ineffective in terms of development and bringing the fruits of independence to
the people. Thus they ideated to restore democracy which was fought for during the struggle

for independence. Successive military coups were made in a number of African countries during
second half of the 1960s and early 1970s. Ghana in 1966 Nigeria in 1967 and Uganda in 1971
are just among few examples of military takeover of the governments. Since then Ghana and
Nigeria have not experienced a return to civilian government. One coup has been followed by
another such that to-date Nigeria has experienced not less than nearly seven military coups.
The Democratization Process in Africa since around 1990s

Factors for Democratization movement
Origin
Societies in Africa practised different forms of democracy long before the arrival of foreigners in
the continent However, democracy as a concept was developed in Greece 400 years before
Christ. Greek societies was organised in city states like Athens, Sparta, Corinth, etc. In these
cities participatory democracy was practised. Socrates, Plato and Aristotle are the philosophers
who are renowned for conceptualizing the idea of democracy and laying foundation for
philosophy and the principles of state
Europe in the middle ages and the Roman Empire did not have highly developed the concept of
democracy. The Roman Empire’s discussions were on the relationship between of the Roman
laws and the state, while the Medieval period discussion were on the relationship between the
church (Pope) and the feudal lords. It was in the 18th and 19th centuries that Europe started to
conceptualize democracy as the effect of industrialization that brought the proletariat
movements; the class struggle between the bourgeois class against the feudalism. It is the time
when the working class started to rise against capitalist exploitation and socialist ideas started
to emerge. From the 19th century the concept evolved and was accepted as a good one. Thus
most struggles against exploitation and oppression are characterised as democratic struggles.
Essence of the Concept

Due to long development of democracy over the years, it is hard to identify real essence. As a
result of this long development we have many versions of democracy such as liberal
democracy, socialist democracy, African democracy, etc. The essence of democracy is about the
basic, fundamental principles and general principles of democracy. The basic principles are the
principle of participation and the principle of emancipation. The latter can be emancipation
from authoritarianism, oppression, domination and exploitation. Other people argue that
democracy is also about people’s empowerment, free and fair election, rule of the law,
freedom of speech, freedom of press, freedom of worship, freedom of movement and
association. It is also about government with fair distribution of powers between the executive,
the legislative and the judiciary system. Democracy is also about observance of human rights.

Forms of Democracy
There are two sets of forms of democracy. The first set consists of direct and indirect
democracy and the second se consists of state and stateless form of democracy. Direct
democracy is a form where by people with accepted qualities and qualifications participate in
political and government processes. This is only possible where you have only few numbers of
people like in the Greek city states that comprised of about 3000 to 5000 people. Worse still
not all adults were allowed to participate in politics. It was only a class of people known as male
citizens. Slaves, women and foreign settlers did not enjoy that right. Under current conditions
direct democracy can only be exercised at the level of villages and small towns where you have
small communities of people. It is difficult to exercise this form of democracy where you have a
large number of people.
Indirect form of democracy is the one commonly known as representative democracy. Where
you have large populations you cannot have all qualified people to participate in decision-
making processes and governance. Therefore, people in terms of localities, groups and
institutions elect representatives to represent them in various fora such as in parliament and
councils. It is thus expected that the representatives will represent the interests of the people
they represent, though this is not always the case.
The second category is that of state and stateless based form of democracy. State based
democracy takes the state as central to the democratic process. Thus all the basic and other
principles of democracy are seen in relation to the position and the role of the state. It is the
state that is supposed to play the role of ensuring participation and emancipation. It is also
supposed to ensure basic human rights, basic freedoms, the rule of law and free and fair
elections. The stateless based form of democracy places due emphasis on the role of the civil
society and social movements in the development of democracy. The civil society and civil
movements should be central to the democratic process. Even if the state is to play a role, that
role should be within the context of civil society and social movement institutions. It is argued
that this form of democracy which should characterise the democratization process in Africa.
Struggles for Democracy and Democratization in Africa

Struggles for democracy and democratization in Africa began in 1980s and continued during the
1990s. However, the danger of internalising such is that we tend to forget that struggles for
democracy had been going on from pre-colonial period.
The Pre-colonial era: During this era the struggle for democracy was against slavery, against
authoritarian and dictatorial rulers and above all against external interventions.
Colonial era: As we have seen in the previous lectures, the struggle for democracy was against
colonial system. Thus all the social, economistic and nationalist struggles were forms of
democratic struggles against colonialism.
Post-independence era under one party and military state systems: This we have already
discussed in the previous topics.
The last phase is the current democratization movement: This is a new wave of struggles for
democracy with new features and arising out of specific historical factors and circumstances.

Factors for Current Democratization in Africa

The factors for the current democratization process in Africa are both internal and external. The
internal factors include political, ideological and socio-economic crises. Political crisis include
the collapse of one party and military states systems as a result of struggles for power among
the petty bourgeois groups as well as factions and partly due to struggles of the masses.
Ideological crisis has been due to the collapse (disintegration) of ideology of developmentalism
which in some countries took the form of African socialism. The ideology failed to facilitate the
process of development as it created structures of development that were characterised by
development policies from above.
For the past two decades Africa had been experiencing socio-economic crisis. Although this had
been experienced in nearly all African countries, for some countries such as Tanzania the
situation reached a serious state by the mid of 1980s. People failed to get the minimum basic
necessities of life such as food and clothing. This was viewed as a result of authoritarian state
systems in Africa, and therefore the need for political change in terms of fighting for the
creation of democratic regimes.
The external factors include the collapse of communist regimes and democratisation in Eastern
Europe, the role of the donor community (WB and IMF). It is argued that the establishment of
the one party system in Africa had some influence of the communist model of centralised state
systems. Thus the collapse of such regimes in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe associated
with democratization movement had considerable impact in Africa. The waves of change did
not end in Eastern Europe but reached Asia, America and Africa. The collapse of communist
regimes in Europe went together with collapse of the Cold War between Eastern and Western
blocs. This resulted into the change of approach on the part of the Western powers in their
relations with the developing countries and Africa in particular. Unlike during the Cold War
whereby the Western powers supported dictatorial and authoritarian regimes, after the Cold
War they began to turn against them and pressure them to democratise their states. Thus one
of the conditionalities from the donor community in the Structural Adjustment Programmes
(SAPs) had been the necessity to democratize the African political systems. However, it is
important to note that the pressure to democratise Africa is backed by imperialist motives. One
of such motive is to direct African democratization process to take the form of bourgeois liberal
democracy. Another motive is to further integration of African economies into the world
capitalist system. All these make the process of democratization in Africa rather complex.
Features of Democratization in Africa

1. Multi-Partyism
Political competition bring about political participation and political participation results into
efficient and responsible governance, it brings accountability and transparency. The process of
multi-party in Africa started by initiation of debates to talk about the process, then
establishment of multi-party commissions and culminated in the changing (amending) of the
constitutions. Tanzania initiated the process in the 1990s, however the pressure groups
demanding for multi-party system started in 1983. Interesting to note is the fact that it was

Nyerere, the architect and exponent of single party system who initiated the debate on multi-
party. The argument he put forward was that thirty years after he started one party system in
Tanzania he was fast realising that democratic change in Africa was inevitable and he wanted
the ruling party to be able to control and guide the course of transition to multi-partyism.
In 1991 a commission under Chief Justice Francis L. Nyalali was formed and in 1992 it gave out
its report known as the Nyalali Report advising the Party and Government to introduce multi-
partyism in Tanzania. In July 1992 multi-partyism was declared in Tanzania. Soon after that
Tanzania like other African countries experienced a proliferation of numerous political parties,
it had as many as 50 parties. However, only 13 were able to get registration by the Registrar of
political parties. Studies show that most of the new parties are statutory parties that have no
real roots in the African societies, with exception of parties like UMMD in Zambia which has its
roots in the trade union movement.
Again most of the parties are urban based without any roots among the rural populations.
Furthermore, studies in Tanzania reveal that most of the new political parties do not have new
and independent agenda in terms of ideology and policy perspectives in comparison with the
old ruling parties. However there is one important contribution of multi-partyism in Africa and
that is the creation of space for political competition. After the creation of multi-party system,
countries prepared for the first multi-party elections Kenya went into the election in 1992 and
the ruling party KANU won. Zambia had its first multi party election in 1991 and the ruling party
UNIP lost to UMMD. In Malawi, Banda lost in 1994 and in Tanzania, the ruling party CCM won in
1995.
2. Civil Societies and the Media

The use of the concept civil society has become so popular in recent years and has been greatly
associated with the era of democratization process in Africa. The concept of civil society is as
old as the concept of democracy in its historical development. It was first developed by Greek
philosophers such as Aristotle when they analysed the position and role of the state and
developed its theory. The concept was further developed during the 18th and 19th centuries
with the development of theories of liberal democracy in Europe. Philosophers like John Locke,
Rousseau, Hegel, Hobbes, Marx, Gramsci, and later Lenin were among those who contributed
to the development of the concept. The use of the concept has mainly emerged and been
popularised from 1980s to 1990s through the debates on democracy and democratization
process. However, this does not mean that the civil society had not developed before this
period. The civil society in Africa emerged and began growing with development of state
systems from the pre-colonial period. Development of the civil society became more rapid and
conspicuous during the colonial and the post-independence periods, culminating with the era
of democratization.
2.1 Civil Society and the State
Development of state systems among societies has necessitated the development of the civil
society. This is because the development of the state systems has resulted into the process of

polarization between the state and the non-state society. On one hand the non-state society
needs the state for various society services, for protection and for defence. On the other hand
the non-state society also needs defence from tendencies of domination, oppression,
exploitation, and abuse of human rights by the state. It is out of such contradictory relationship
that the need for the development of the civil society has arisen. The civil society constitutes
institutions or organizations which emerge out of the non-state society to fill the space
between the state and non-state society. It is the civil society that plays the role of resolving the
contradictory relationship between the state and the non-state society. One of the central
functions of the civil society organizations is to protect the non-state general society from
domination, oppression, exploitation and abuse of human rights by empowering people. They
are expected to play the roles of representation and buffer between the state and the citizens.
Civil society is also expected to function as an agent of change thus civil society is central in the
process of democratization.
Most of the current civil society organizations began to emerge from the early periods of
colonialism. The period of 1920s and 1930s saw proliferation of such organizations in African
colonies. In Tanganyika for example separatist churches, sports associations, peasants and
workers associations and civil servants associations began to be formed during this time.
Besides serving as forms of anti-colonial struggle most associations had objectives that served
immediate interests of their members. In 1922 Tanganyika Civil Servants Association (TCSA) was
formed, which was transformed into Tanganyika African Association (TAA) in 1939. Again in
1954 TAA was transformed into a political party, TANU.
In most African countries at independence and a few years later civil society organizations were
free and autonomous despite the fact that they had joint hands with political parties in the
nationalist struggles against colonialism. Their relationship was such that these organizations
preferred not to be controlled by the governments or the ruling parties. This was short lived as
soon their autonomy in carrying out their activities appeared to be a threat to the new
nationalist governments and their ruling parties. These activities included the trade unions
demanding for rights of workers through labour strikes, peasant cooperatives demanding for
better prices of their crops and were taken as threatening the peace, security and unity of the
new nations. Therefore in the military states these organizations were abolished. In other
countries various steps were taken to make sure that they were placed under strong state
control and subordination.
Tanzania started by making sure that all trade unions were registered under Tanganyika
Federation of Labour which was formed in 1955. Then it was made illegal for trade unions to
organize strikes and lastly the registrar of trade unions was given powers to withdraw the
registration of any trade union including TFL if it was found to have problems. In January 1964
more than 200 trade union leaders were detained because their trade unions were suspected
to have connection with the army mutiny that took place that year. This culminated into the
abolition of TFL and its place taken by a new trade union called National Union of Tanganyika
Workers (NUTA) imposed by the government, and all trade unions were forced to register
under NUTA. NUTA then became an instrument of the government as nearly all its top leaders

were appointed by the government. Its secretary general besides being appointed by the
Government was also to be the Minister of Labour. With the establishment of one party system
in 1965 and transformation of NUTA into JUWATA in 1978 the trade union organization came to
be affiliated to the party. Thus trade unionism was completely subordinated to the Government
and the ruling party. The story of cooperatives went into similar line.
Democratization process as multi-partyism alone cannot bring real democracy because real
democracy is about empowering people. Empowerment is an important aspect of human
centred development. The process of empowerment can be done through the civil society
organizations such as trade unions, cooperatives, NGOs, the media and the whole process of
strengthening local governments. The first development was done through transformation of
the old organizations which were subordinated and controlled by the ruling classes under one
party and military state systems. For example in Tanzania; JUWATA was transformed to OTTU in
1991 and Tanzania Federation of Free Trade Unions (TFFTU) in 1995. Baraza la Wanawake
Tanzania was formed to provide an alternative and autonomous women organization, away
from the UWT which continued to be affiliate to the ruling party CCM.
The second development has been formation of new type of civil society organizations
commonly known as NGOs. Here too just like the political parties, we witness proliferation of
many NGOs, some of which are not viable. This proliferation necessitated the establishment of
umbrella NGOs, the most prominent being The Tanzania Association of NGOs (TANGO). Some
of the problems and weaknesses of NGOs is the lack of internal democracy, control by external
donors, lack of commitment to provide services they are expected to provide, lack of viable
membership and participation, and tendencies of using NGOs merely as means of soliciting
donor funds for personal interests. Despite all these, the proliferation is also an indication of
the process of democratization taking place in the African societies.
In addition to the civil society organizations, empowerment is also facilitated by a variety of

social movements which have emerged as a result of the democratization process. These have
taken the form of gender, human rights, socio-economic and even cultural movements.
Activities, movements and networks concerned with gender issues and particularly concerned
with the emancipation of women have developed very fast and are progressively empowering
women. Legal and human rights movements have also become widespread, providing legal aid
and legal education to the poor and marginalised. In Tanzania we are experiencing the
“Machinga” movement of the young urban unemployed immigrants who are struggling for
economic survival through petty trade and who are also fighting for the rights to have access to
national resources. Others include district development associations, cultural and religious
associations and movements. The proliferation of the media is another success story in the
freedom of speech, which is one of the principles of democracy. The significance of
empowerment lies in the fact that it provides a serious challenge to the tradition of top-down
authoritarian approach to governance, policy making and development strategies. Through
empowerment of the people conditions are created for popular participation and development
of bottom-up approach.

Problems and Prospects

Problems
The democratization process in Africa is experiencing many problems. Some are:
1. Legacy of one party and military rule which wants to ensure close guidance of the
process or democratization from above. The ruling class want to manipulate the process
of democratization so as to prevent strong political opposition party and even trying to
rig elections at times.
2. Most of the political parties are small and weak that cannot really offer serious
challenge and competition, worse is the fact that they cannot unite or even form
alliance during elections time.
3. With the exception of South Africa, civil societies in Africa are less developed, a fact that
is facilitated by poor economies.
Prospects
1. Some serious opposition parties are learning from experience and struggling to develop
base among the masses so as to be strong and viable.
2. Even if the civil society is weak and less vibrant, yet there are promising indications of
transformation, and one can observe considerable tendencies of dynamism and growth.
3. The proliferation of NGOs and social movements is an important indicator that the
process of democratization is not limited at the political level more and more it is
gaining root at the social, economic and cultural levels. To put it in other words,
struggles are on the way to ensure that the process is people centred or bottom-up;
rather than state-centred and top-down.
Relationship between Democracy and Development

Recently there had been a continuing debate on the relationship between democracy and
development, which should come first. There are those who argue that socio-economic
development is a pre-requisite of democracy. They argue that it is difficult to advance and
develop a democratic culture and practice under conditions of poverty and low level of social
and economic development. Under such conditions democratic practices will delay fast
decision-making and implementation processes which are necessary for rapid development. In
such low level of development you need dictatorial political system which can effect rapid
development and then democratization process can begin. Here examples of Nazi Germany
under Hitler, and some South-East Asia countries and even Latin America are cited as examples.
The other view is that democracy is a pre-requisite for socio-economic advancement in Africa. It
is argued that African countries have experienced three decades of one party and military
dictatorships and the consequence has been growth of social and economic crisis, stagnation
and even decline. Thus, there is little possibility that these types of dictatorship can perform
wonders. Africa cannot be compared to any of the East Asia countries or Latin America as their
concrete conditions have been different. The dictatorship regimes in Africa have been
characterised by strong neo-colonial relations and have developed parasitic tendencies. The
ruling classes do not have an agenda for national development and most of them are
characterised by corruption. Therefore, socio-economic development can only be realised
through democracy.

Self-Reliant and Human Centred Model of Development

It is difficult to assess the validity of two contrasting views on the relationship between
democracy and development. However, it is easy if we examine democratization relation to
self-reliant and human centred model of development to the neo-liberal model of
development. The self-reliant and human-centred model of development had been worked out
and developed by the Economic Commission for Africa (ECA). The self-reliant model was the
basis of the Lagos Plan of Action (LPA) of 1980 passed by African heads of states. In recent years
the theory resurfaced again in the light of the wave of democratization.
The self-reliant and human centred model of development advocates a type of development in
Africa that will ensure the development of economies that can raise the standards of the
majority of the masses and ensure that development is indigenous based. Neo-liberal model of
development which is embedded in SAPs advocates outward-oriented, free-enterprise and free
market; a form of development that integrates more and more African economies in the world
capitalist system. It is a form of development that is under strong criticism due to the failure of
SAPs. While the self-reliant and human-centred model is taken as the most appropriate for
Africa, such development is closely linked to the process of empowering people. As we have
seen previously the process of empowerment is an important feature of democratization
process in Africa. Thus, people-centred or human-centred development requires human-
centred democratization in the sense of empowering the people. Under such circumstances
democracy comes first and facilitates socioeconomic development.
Conflicts, Conflict Resolution and Peace Building in Africa

Africa has been experiencing conflicts since independence while peace building started in 1980-
1990. The study of conflict resolution is a recent phenomenon that came hand in hand with
democratization process.
Phases of Conflicts in Africa

The phases of conflicts in Africa depend on the changing nature of conflicts. However, we can
group the phases into three:
1. Conflicts of Independence Struggle and soon after Independence (1950-1960)
a) Struggle for independence: This was struggle between the colonised people and the
colonial powers. The conflict took the form of latent and violent. Latent form is
whereby the conflicting sides would engage in battle of words abusing each other,
etc. At times this would develop into violent conflict which would involve physical
fighting.
b) Between political elites fighting for power: In 1959-1961 we have the war between
the Hutu and Tutsi in Rwanda and Burundi. The history of this conflict could be
traced back to the colonial days when the colonial power of Belgians educated the
Tutsi, but after being educated the Tutsi started to oppose the colonial power. The
Belgians decided to set the Hutu who had always been slaves of the Tutsi against the
Tutsi who had always been the rich and masters of the Hutu. The Belgians
engineered the process of independence in such a way that they handed power to
the Hutu in Rwanda. However, in Burundi, the Hutu failed to take over power. In

Congo too we have conflicts that saw the death of Patrice Lumumba and in Nigeria
the Ibo wanted to form their own sovereign state.
2. 1970s-1980s struggle between single party and multi-party systems
As we have seen that multi-party in most countries in Africa were banned soon after
independence through constitutional change or coup d’état in Nigeria, Ghana, Uganda
under Amin and Museveni, Sudan under Garang, etc. In countries they fought for
ideological differences, for example Mozambique under RENAMO sponsored by the
Imperialist Boers in South Africa which was fighting against FRELIMO because the latter
was Marxist.
3. From 1990 to the present
Here the conflict is about who is to come into power. Burundi in 1982 went into
multipartyism, Tanzania in 1992 and in 1995 had its first multi-party election which
resulted into conflict in Zanzibar. Kenya experienced conflicts in the Rift Valley region in
1992 election and again in 1997 election. Angola experienced civil wars and then had its
multi-partyism election in which Savimbi lost and once again went to the bush!
Factors for Conflicts

The factors for conflicts in Africa can be divided into the following:
1. Historical roots
1.1 Pre-colonial and Colonial periods
The pre-colonial Africa had ethnic groups’ enmity that resurfaced after
independence. For example in Rwanda and Burundi, you have on one hand the rich
Tutsi who were the rulers and poor Hutu who were ruled on the other hand.
Colonial period added to that enmity as colonial powers divided people according to
races and ethnicity in the system famously known as divide and rule.
2. External factors
2.1 Neo-Colonialism
The Colonial powers wanted to continue to rule and exploit Africa even after
independence, thus at times they instigated conflicts in Africa, for example during
the Cold War era the East and West steered up wars and conflicts in a number of
country i.e. the conflict that saw the death of Lumumba in Congo. The interest of
donors (IMF and World Bank), imperialism and globalization are some of the sources
of conflicts in Africa.
3. Political factors
It is not rare in Africa to see political elites struggling for power, the struggles that lead
to conflicts. Here we have two types of conflicts, genuine and non-genuine.
a) Genuine conflicts are those that in which change cannot be brought without
violence e.g. in South Africa.
b) Non-genuine conflicts are those in which that change can be brought without
violence but some people with personal interests know that they will lose if change
comes without violence.
4. Economic factors
In 1995 Nyerere became the mediator of Rwanda and Burundi conflicts; after he studied
the situation he came up with a conclusion that the causes of conflict in Rwanda and

Burundi are economic (poverty). If Rwanda and Burundi were to develop the conflict
would cease. The conflict is about people wanting to get rich fast e.g. the Congo conflict.
5. Ethnicity factors
Africans are divided into ethnicity i.e. regional, racial, religious, etc. Ethnicity factors do
not ignore other factors, it only say that the form of conflict at times is conflict as some
malicious politicians use ethnicity to get into power. Prof. Walter Oyugi in “Ethnicization
of Politics” talks of some politicians in Africa making politics along ethnic grounds.
Ideas on Conflict Resolution and Peace Building

Conflict resolution is all the measures and steps taken to ensure that peace is restored,
established and consolidated. Peace building is about creating conditions to make sure that
peace is sustained and conflicts do not erupt again. Prof. Rechler identifies two types of
resolutions reactive and pro-active. Proactive resolution is taken to prevent conflicts before
they erupt, while reactive resolution is used to resolve conflicts that have already erupted.
Steps to resolve conflicts usually start with peace negotiations, signing of peace agreement and
lastly the implementation of the agreement. There are things that are to be considered in
conflict resolutions:
a) Roles of different institutions

The initiatives from organizations such as OAU, ECOWAS, EAC, Great Lakes, SADEC, or it
could even be an NGO such as in the case of Mozambique and the religious NGO called
St. Elgion (FRELIMO and Dhlakama), Nyerere started the Nyerere Foundation as an NGO
to initiative conflict resolution. Other institutions are commonwealth and international
community like the UN and donor community. The idea is to facilitate in creating
environment for the conflicting parties to come together and discuss and not making
decisions for them, it is the conflicting parties that have the mandate to make decisions.
b) Nature and character of negotiating parties
The big weakness of conflict negotiations is the fact that political parties take major role
leaving aside the civil society organizations. After the signing of agreement a period of 2-
3 years is set aside for changing of constitution, restore election and peace. This is called
the period o implementation. It was a period in which Habyarimana was murdered by
the Rwandan extremists who did not want change.
Tanzania after the 2000 election the constitutional change was never implemented,
which led to conflict. Other of such conflicts can be traced to Somalia and the UN
troops. Mozambique shows a success story with RENAMO accepting defeat. In Tanzania,
we hope the MUAFAKA II between CCM and CUF will succeed.
The Peace Building Process

The peace building process begins with implementation of the agreement. This is about the
social-economic reconstruction and transition.

 It involves transition period and period to ensure factors that started conflicts are
eliminated
 The process of building democratic society is established.
 It is also argued that there is a strong need for regional integration because the
presence of small and poor states in Africa is a cause of conflicts. The process of regional
integration should start with economic integration leading to political integration (refer
EAC to EA Federation).
 There should be also good international relations, good neighbourhood; peaceful

relationship and avoidance of external forces and influence.
 There is a need for ideological transformation such as religious, ethnic, etc. People
should start to think as a nation, not as Christians, Moslems, Luo, Chaga, Haya, Pogoro,
etc. This is not about condemning identity but it is about unity. Unity does not kill
identity.
Refugees and Internally Displaced People (IDPs)

Refugees and IDP as an impact of conflicts
Refugees are people who have run away from their home country and cross borders due to
conflicts. IDPs are those who do not cross borders but are displaced from their home areas.
International and Legal Instruments

The international and legal instruments are more concerned with refugees than the IDPs.
a) UN Convention of Refugees in 1951: The World War II left many refugees in Europe
which necessitated the formation of this refugees’ body. Latter it was a body that is to
be responsible the whole globe.
b) Africa realized that UN Convention left a gap so it came up with OAU convention in 1969
which considered the conditions of Africa.
c) Later UN started an institution called UNHCR with a mandate of providing education to
the refugees’ kids and providing services and putting procedures on how refugees are to
be received within a host country.
d) Particular countries also started passing policies and laws on refugees’ issues, for
example Tanzania in 1998 passed a comprehensive law on refugees.
Refugees Integration
There was a necessity to put procedures on how refugees are to be handled and integrated in
the country hey run to. For instance Tanzania in 1998 received around 800,000 refugees from
Rwanda and Burundi.
i) Set up entry centres and refugees camps: At these centres the refugees need to be
scrutinized to see if they are real refugees.
ii) Refugees’ settlements: In these settlements houses are constructed, plots are divided
and people (refugees) are given mandate to build. Some refugees are integrated by

the local communities who are clan members, tribe members, etc. However, such
diffusions are discouraged today but were common in the past.
Refugees’ Basic Rights

1. Right to Life: Refugees have rights to basic of life such as food, clothing, housing, etc.
Right to livelihood and right to survive and these rights are taken care by organizations
such as UNHCR, TAMOFA Oxfam, etc.
2. Right to employment: this right is especially if one has skills. This is a right that is at
times problematic.
3. Right to social services such as education, water, food, etc. The refugees have a right to
basic education. Here we have 2 types of education, one that involve local curricula and
the other involving home country curricula. The second type is problematic as
sometimes it is hard to get teachers, for example French teachers for refugees from
DRC. There is also a problem of gender biases from their home country. The most
serious problem is that of health provision which include water problem resulting into
diseases such as dysentery, typhoid, etc.
4. Right to voluntary repatriation: Refugees have a right to go back to their home country;
however they can decide not to go as well. This right sometimes brings trouble to the
host country like it happened with Tanzania and the Rwandan/Burundi refugees.
Refugees have a problem of being reintegrated in their own country. Usually they return
they see that their houses, land, etc have been taken by other people. Therefore some
would be like to be integrated in the host country.
Note: Naturalization is a form of integration in which refugees who want can be made
citizens of the host country.
Brief Survey of Refugees in Tanzania

Tanzania has been living in a rather relative peace atmosphere. This, it is more a refugees
receiving country than a refugees producing country (with exception of 2001 Shimoni incident).
First phase: As a result of Southern wars of liberation (1965-1975) Tanzania received a lot of
refugees from Mozambique, and once again after liberation when RENAMO decided to take
into the bush after it lost in the multi-party election. It had received refugees also from
Zimbabwe, Botswana, South Africa, Rwanda and Burundi.
Second phase: As a result of internal conflicts after liberation leading to civil wars.
Third phase: As a result of genocide of Rwanda and Burundi, DRC, Iddi Amin and Uganda,
Sudan, Somalia, etc. Some of these are also as a result of multi-party conflicts.
Tanzania policy on refugees has changed drastically; it is more strictly now that it was before.
For example it had to agree with Rwanda that all the refugees should return to their home
country.
It is more stressed o IDP than refugees; that we should create places within the same country
and not let people cross borders. It is stressed that let the country that produces refugees bear
the burden itself.
Possible solutions
1. Solve the problem of conflicts so as not to create refugees and IDP
2. Encourage regional integration so that people can move freely.

HUMAN RIGHTS, GOVERNANCE AND DEVELOPMENT

Through its ratification of numerous treaties and conventions, the international community has
undertaken to realise human rights worldwide. The universal Declaration of Human Rights,
adopted by the United Nations in 1948, is the basis for human rights protection worldwide and
is the foundation document for some 60 other United Nations-sponsored human rights treaties
and declarations. Together, these documents form a comprehensive body of international law
with specific standards for women, children, the disabled, minorities, migrant workers and
other groups. Every person has civil, political and social rights. Respect for these human rights is
as important a prerequisite for sustainable development as fair trade or debt relief. Democracy
gives people the scope they need to develop their own skills and thus actively assert their
concerns and their rights. Good governance, which respects democratic rules and facilitates
political participation by civil society, is a key prerequisite for development. Fostering
democracy and good governance and combating corruption are therefore important priorities
in international cooperation.
Promoting democracy is an important step towards the realization of the Millennium

Development Goals. In the Millennium Declaration, the international community affirmed that
the individual’s right to life in freedom and dignity is best assured by democratic governance.
Democracy is one of the systems that guarantee people’s political and civil liberties and the
right to participation. A democratic state and government contribute to human development.
Promoting democracy is therefore a priority in development. Established democracies are
embroiled less often in military conflicts, and the exercise of democratic control over the
government by the public makes it more difficult for regimes to violate human rights or abuse
their authority. In the 1980s, the lack of progress in the field of development forced
international organisations such as the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund and the
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) to acknowledge that financial assistance
alone is not enough to achieve the desired outcomes. The importance of sound policy
frameworks and public and administrative structures was increasingly recognised. Together,
they are known as "governance". Good governance means an efficient, accountable and well-
functioning government and public administration.
Originally, the term "good governance" referred to efficient public sector management,
accountability and controls, decentralisation and transparency. Today, the concept of good
governance relates not only to government action but also to the interplay between the state
and civil society. Strengthening good governance - meaning democratisation, the rule of law,
anti-corruption measures and the participation of civil society - is the key prerequisite for
poverty reduction and sustainable development. Promoting good governance is therefore a
priority in international development cooperation. If politics and administration act in the
public interest and manage public funds and natural resources responsibly, if every individual -
even the poorest - can assert their rights, if private entrepreneurs are able to count on stable
economic conditions, then sustainable development is possible.

Review:
In this module we have discussed the development of state systems in the world and in Africa
in particular. We have seen how Africa struggled against imperialism forces and how it plunged
itself into undemocratic structures which culminated into democratization movement of the
1990s. We went further to look into the problem of refugees and internally displaced people,
and the human rights. All these affect the concept of development and its problems Africa is
facing today.
Show how countries in Africa developed undemocratic structures soon after independence and
how this affected the strength of civil society organizations.
Resources:
Mpangala, G.P. (1997) Political and Social Development in Africa. Dar es Salaam: Open University of
Tanzania.
Mpangala, G.P. (2004) Conflict Resolution and Peace Building in Africa: Case Studies of Burundi and
Democratic Republic of Congo in Tanzania Journal of Development Studies, Vol. 5(1), pp. 51-64.
Mwagiru, M. (2001) Conflict Management in Africa: Lessons Learnt and Future Strategies. Nairobi:
Centre for Conflict Research and Fredrich Albert Stiftung.
Nnoli, O. (ed) (1998) Ethnic Conflicts in Africa. Dakar: CODESTRIA.
Shivji, I.G. (1989) The Concept of Human Rights in Africa. London: CODESTRIA.

TOPIC 3: ETHICS, CORRUPTION AND DEVELOPMENT

An Overview:
Corruption is a big problem and enemy of development all around the world. While corruption
is at its peak in developing countries the developed world is not free from it as well. Amid
scandals of corruption in our nations is the unethical behaviour of our leaders as well as citizens
in general. The solution of combating corruption does not lie on the fight against corruption
alone but on campaigns of population education about the knowledge of their rights to have
access to the benefit of public goods and services that the state produces. This promotion of
rights is not solely more effective through media and publicity panels, it is more effective on the
spot where the public services and goods that citizens have right of access to are delivered.
However, what is more important is that we need to be ethical before finding ways to reduce
corruption.
Introduction:
Ethics aims at helping human beings to understand and appreciate what they are. The ultimate
end of ethics is the absolute truth or absolute goodness. This study of ethics will lead us to
understand how a human person ought to act; to project than human being is a rational being.
Thus ethics is a practical science. The “ought” has to go with decency i.e. someone cannot
decide to put a pair of pants on his/her head. It ascertains how a human being should assume
responsibility and do what a human person ought to do. Customs also help in this “ought” in
our society. Ethics is a major branch of philosophy encompassing right conduct and good life. It
is significantly broader than the common conception of analyzing right and wrong. A central
aspect of ethics is "the good life", the life worth living or life that is simply satisfying, which is
held by many philosophers to be more important than moral conduct.
Ethics is defined as the study of the moral value of human behavior. Ethics as a division of
philosophy uses the methods of philosophy, not the methods of religion. In other words, it is
not faith in the writings of religious figures which is used to develop ethical positions, it is the
application of human reasoning to ethical issues.
The questions of ethics are many:
 What method do we use to determine moral standards?
 Why be moral at all?
 Are there moral standards which are common to all humanity?
 Is free will a necessary condition for moral praise or blame?
 Is the language of ethics different from other uses of language?

Module Materials:
ETHICS
Basic Concepts of Ethics
Standards-Based Ethics
Under this theory you determine if an act or rule is morally right or wrong if it meets a moral
standard. This is sometimes called the "deontological" theory or "duty ethics" or simply duty-
based ethics or deontological ethics. The Greek word deon means duty or obligation. The main
proponent of this ethical framework was the German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804).
Kant was a German philosopher who developed a "universal test" to see if a rule could be a
universal standard. If a rule can be made universal without contradiction, then it is morally
good; if a rule cannot be made universal without contradiction, then it is morally bad. He
believed that there are higher principles that are good in every time, every culture, and every
situation. Not keeping your promise is morally wrong because you cannot make it a universal
law that everyone can knowingly make promises with no intention of keeping them. Kant felt
this was a contradiction in terms. When you say "I promise." while you are thinking you do not
intend to keep your promise, you are contradicting yourself. When faced with an ethical
dilemma, he believes we should ask ourselves: “To whom do I owe an obligation (duty) and
what obligation (duty) do I owe them?”
To answer these questions, Kant proposed that we use reason to identify the higher principles we should
live and act by. He named two principles, or categorical imperatives, that would guide all our actions in this
ethical framework:
• Universal applicability. We should not act one way in some situations or with some people and another
way in others. Our actions should be consistent across the board.
• Respectful of others. In Kant’s view, the fact that human beings can reason gives us greater value than
anything else. Never treat people as a means to an end, even if you believe the ends are positive. For
example, if you acted in accordance with duty-based ethics, you would never lie about one candidate
in a political campaign because you believed the other candidate is a better person and should be
elected.
Result-based ethics
How do you determine if a rule or act is morally right or wrong? This theory states that the
moral goodness or badness is determined by the results or consequences of an act or rule. This
theory is sometimes called "consequentialism" ; it is similar to some definitions of "teleological
ethics". Telling a lie is morally wrong because of the damage this lie will cause; both to the liar
and to society which depends on honest relationships. One example of this theory is called
"utilitarianism". It was started by Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) an Englishman who, in trying to

reform some of the unfair laws in England developed his theory that the morally correct rule
was the one that provided the greatest good to the greatest number of people.
Ethical-Intutionism
Under this view an act or rule is determined to be right or wrong by appeal to the common
intuition of a person. This intuition is sometimes referred to as your conscience. Anyone with a
normal conscience will know that it is wrong to kill an innocent person.
Ethical-Egoism
This view is based on the theory that each person should do whatever promotes their own best
interests; this becomes the basis for moral choices.
Virtue Ethics
This is ethical theory that ethics should develop character traits or virtues in a person so that
person will do what is morally right because they are a virtuous person. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
was a famous exponent of this view. Aristotle felt that virtue ethics was the way to attain true
happiness.
Emotivism
This ethical theory is based on a study of the type of language used in ethical sentences and
discussion. Notice, for example, how people get emotional about ethical issues. On this view
ethical pronouncements are a type of language which attempts to evoke similar emotions in
the hearer that the speaker has.
The Origin of Ethics and Critical Thinking

Etymologically, the word Ethics is from a Latin word ‘Ethos’ which means customs, practices,
laws or usages. Customs and practices and continues usages developed to laws leading to
customary morality and reflective morality. Ethics comes from the history of human persons
who looked at themselves and are still looking at their own selves, their experiences and ask
questions like who are we? How best can we live our lives? Is this the right way? Is there no
better way of living? It comes from Socrates’ adage of “man know thyself.” The systematization
of the answers to these questions projected itself to customs, practices and usages. When it
came to the level of reflection where people systematised those customs, practices and usages
to laws, they moved from being customary morality to becoming reflective morality. Thus
Ethics is the same as moral philosophy or moral theories which is a result of collective human
experience and functional (critical) thinking. It is a common experience of being human with a
human dignity which is ethics in its right context. Human dignity prompts a human person to do
“good” and avoid “evil” and ethics informs the person what is the right to be done and wrong
to be avoided and it is from this process that laws are formed to deter people from doing the
wrong. This process realises individual’s freedom and personal choices, however it is also aware
that freedom runs from individual to the group (society) thus it has a limit. The experience of
human freedom without a limit is no longer freedom but a licence.

Purpose of Ethics
From common experience people organized the mores, customs, habits, etc thus systematizing,
structuring so that people could distinguish the right from wrong. We are aware that qualifying
conduct of behaviour is not easy in the present world as human being is not static; different
factors push human being for better or for worse. However, the purpose of ethics is the desire
of man to make the “ought” clear: DO GOOD and AVOID EVIL; and that is the right conduct.
Ethics wants to systematize the human experience so as to define what is good and what is bad.
Thus the point of view of ethics is always “rightness” and “wrongness”, the “oughtness” so that
human beings can live according to their dignity.
The Sphere of Ethics

The subject matter of ethics is human conduct. The sphere of ethics changes, individuals know
what is good in the family and as they go to a large society, the sphere of ethics widens. For
example, children learn what is good or bad in their families, but as they grow up they go to a
large society and the sphere of good and bad widens. It can widen for the better or worse
depending on what is going around on that society; whether it affirms the ethics learnt at home
or disregards it. If it affirms it, those individuals will be more grounded in their ethics otherwise
they will be challenged by the society and if they are not strongly grounded, their ethical norms
will slowly be eroded.
SUBDIVISIONS OF ETHICS
Ethics is related to other human sciences but it has a different method and objectives. Ethics
touches all the spheres: social, political, economical, environmental, etc. That is why we have
social ethics, environmental ethics, medical ethics, etc. which means the conduct of that
particular science. This is what is referred as professional ethics. Professional ethics could be
defined as the analysis of the nature and social impact of a certain profession and its
corresponding formulation and justification of policies for the ethical use of such profession
(modified from Moor, 1985). This sense of the word ‘ethics’ is linked directly to the original
sense of the Greek word ‘ethos’ which meant ‘customs’ as did ‘mores’ in Latin root of ‘morals’.
Ethical problems arise most often when there are differences of judgment or expectations
about what constitutes the true state of affairs or a proper course of action. Professionals may
be faced with contrary opinion from within the firm, the client, from other firms within the
industry, or from government. Individual makes ethical decisions, in their capacity as members
of different groups. Therefore, when faced with a moral/ethical dilemma, a professional must
be able to make rational and well-motivated decisions. Courses in Ethics can help professionals
by offering tools and methods helpful in such situations.
There are a number of specialties in ethics which deal with specific problem areas.
- Medical Ethics: This specialty, often called biomedical ethics, or bioethics, focuses on ethical
issues that arise from the application of the biological and medical sciences.
- Business Ethics: There are a number of ethical issues and problems that are found in the
workplace. Issues of honesty and equity are discussed here. There are internal ethical issues
such as those that occur in the relationships between employers and employees. Then there

are external ethical issues which concern the relationships between a company and the society
of which it is a part.
- Environmental Ethics: This specialty deals with a cluster of problems that relate to the use of
the environment. There are ethical issues involved in pollution and waste; and there are ethical
issues involved in the conservation of natural resources for future use.
The basic principles of ethics are constant, no matter in which area they might be applied. The
principles of medical ethics, legal ethics, computer ethics, environmental ethics, etc are not
different from one another. Similarity is always relative. Two things that are similar are always
similar in certain respects. Uniqueness is a matter of focus and context. Looking at the set of all
possible ethical problems, different patterns can be recognized permitting their grouping into
medical ethics, political ethics, legal ethics, business ethics, etc. It is therefore the social
importance of a certain profession together with its specific features that give rise to new
ethical problems. Professional ethics will be dealing with special ethical problems and issues
that arise for practitioners of professions.
As noted, the principles of ethics are the same, what usually change is the context in that
regard teaching of specialized ethics will not only guide candidates in their profession, but it will
add to the stock of ethics knowledge in the society. Individuals who are well versed whether
professional ethical values will always know what to do and not to do outside his/her area, for
example:
 Confidentiality,
 Observing standards,
 Following order and principles
 The effects of underperformance, etc.
It is important to note that all sectors, sub areas, etc in the Economy/society are connected or
related in a way. If all observe their respective codes of ethics, the response is that the stock
will be different. Therefore, we will address the problem that the country is experiencing in
many forms like corruption, lack of patriotism among the citizens, lack of commitment to
particular ethical values in different professions like medicine, learning-teaching, engineering,
etc. just to mention a few. Ethics is different from experimental sciences, though it is a science
itself. In real life you cannot experiment life. Its quality of science is from being a systematized
body. Similarity lies in that it weighs, assesses, analyses and draws conclusions just like any
other science. If we compare with arts, ethics too considers the sense of beauty (aesthetic), it
has some tastes: good and bad conducts. It is also normative in that it establishes criteria for
judging things.

Responsible Citizenship
Ethics and pluralistic society
If we all search for the good, then the good can only be one. As rational beings, we can have
different approaches but we will arrive at the same good. We have variations of the good but
still it is the good. Different values contribute to the good. Variations are for mutual help,
enhancement, strength and use. Variations are thus source of unity. Ethics is a pure natural
science, a purely philosophical science; pluralistic is thus a strength and not weakness. Ethics
uses human rationality to arrive at the good. Using our rationality we can understand what is
good and what is bad. Actions and judgments flow from the nature of the being and human
being’s nature is rationality.
Human acts and choices

Conducts or behaviour are the actions we do every day from morning to evening, the
recurrence of the pattern is what we call conduct or behaviour. At this level of doing, we are
not different from other animals. It is pattern of responding to different impulses. At the level
of acts of man, we are no different from animals, at the level of human acts, we use of
reasoning power which other animals do not have. Actions both voluntary and involuntary
together form a human conduct. At the level of acts of man, like any other animal we are
responding to external stimuli, an instinctive response of self-preservation (i.e. self defence)
e.g. we are hungry, we look for food just like any other being. At the level of human acts, we
deliberate the acts; we weigh the actions before taking a decision to undergo the act. Thus
human acts are reasoned human deliberations.
Voluntary acts are those acts that a human being consciously and deliberately perform and thus
can be held responsible. They are acts that involve our intellect and the will, so they are done
with full knowledge. These are consciously decisions we make. Involuntary acts are those acts
that we do without our consciousness and deliberation so we cannot be held responsible.
It is clear therefore that choices we make have to do with voluntary acts. Choice is responsible
to transform involuntary acts to voluntary. Human acts a result of the interplay between will
and intellect. It is the integral human person discerning, asking what is good and what is bad,
decides (making a choice) to do the good and avoid the bad.
Voluntariness of human acts and freedom

An act is human in so far as it is known and willed. When there is knowledge and will in a
particular context, we can begin to consider the degree of accountability/answerability, thus we
can either blame or praise an individual. A voluntary act is one that proceeds from the will with
full knowledge of the end or goal to which the act leads; in this case the will acts in full
knowledge and full consent. Therefore full knowledge in goodness and full consent in goodness
will magnify the degree of praise, while full knowledge in evilness and full consent in evilness
will magnify the blameworthiness. Though partial knowledge and partial consent will reduce
the degree of praiseness or blameworthiness (thus degree of accountability); one cannot let
him/herself be misinformed or inattentive because that is already a sign of irresponsibility.

Norms of morality
Norms govern our ethical life. Norms of morality are extremely valuable source of ethical
wisdom, serving as source of ethical life. These can be considered as summaries of human
moral experience which have developed gradually over the centuries. Norms of morality
promote the values and behaviour that enhance the human well being while prohibiting those
that seem destructive. Norms offer shortcuts to the values and behaviours consistent or not
consistent with authentic human lifestyle. Norms can be positive as “do this” or negative as
“avoid that” consistent or not consistent. While norms do not resolve all moral dilemmas, they
do provide the moral agent with some guidelines. Some norms are general guidelines while
others are specific guidelines e.g. Take care of the marginalised (specific), do not use filthy
language (general).
Put it in another way, norms of morality play a much larger role than just simply being a
summary in the life of an individual and community at large. An individual finds out in the moral
norms growth-points and incentives for ethical development. In the norms one finds dynamics,
the individual solves the dilemma of if I should not do this, what should I do? What am I doing?
Norms of morality are not just principles which serve to identify certain actions as right or
wrong, but which give ethical colour and direction to one’s life. Thus a just person is not the
one who happens to perform just actions but one who acts from a sense of justice.
Norms of morality introduce order and pattern into person’s life and correct arbitrariness and
tendencies to bend with self-interest. Above all they act as beacon drawing the person forward
to become a person he/she should be. It avoids the tendency of “even the pope (priest, sheikh,
minister, president) does it! Pope is just a person like any other. A thing is bad despite the fact
of who does it. This conviction should be distinguished from the pharisaitic self-satisfaction.
Civil Ethics and National Development

Virtue and vices in the society
Virtue has something to do with ethically good acts; it applies to something good, rightness that
is why the opposite is a vice. Virtue refers to repetitive acts, successive acts and not just a single
act. Virtue is a process, building up gradually and thus becoming a habit. The first stages will be
difficult but later it becomes easier and thus come spontaneously. Aristotle understood virtue
as a constant, habitual inclination towards ethically good life. It is an operative habit which
disposes a human person well towards the performance of ethically good acts. Virtue is
therefore a permanent inclination and facility to perform ethically good acts. Facility is the
power, a potential to perform what is ethically good. Virtue is not a habit given by nature but
an acquired habit. It results from repeated acts which produce in the human person permanent
inclination and facility towards the good. Virtue is potency; therefore it needs to be activated.
There are two categories of virtue, theological virtues and cardinal virtues. Theological virtues
are faith, hope and love while the cardinal virtues are prudence, justice, temperance and
fortitude. It is not the aim of this paper to discuss theology; therefore we will only look at the
theological virtue of love as it is involved in the family life.

Let us start by talking about the cardinal virtues.

 Prudence is the intellectual virtue which enables the intellect to judge correctly in
matters patterning to ethical order. Here a person is able to judge correctly in each
individual case what the ethical order demands of him/her. Prudence is concerned with
the adaption of the proper means required to realise the ends of human person in all
his/her relationships. Prudence inquires into the nature of the end sought and the
various means capable of realising it. Prudence then judges the best means under the
concrete situation of the case. Prudence then commands the will to employ those
means with precision and promptly to realise the end in question. For example, the
lining of the former East African Community workers at Salander bridge area and the
means used to disperse them. Was it prudent? Was it the proper means to realise the
end of removing them from the road? The grudges citizens have against the state affects
national development, as it makes people lose morale for the course.
Note: the wide usage of the term prudence has nothing to do with ethics. Popularly
prudence is used to mean cunning, it can even be misleading to mean evade the law.
 Justice is the ethical virtue which inclines the will to render or give to each one what
his/her due in every conceivable respect. It is about giving people their rights. Justice
has two dimensions. The first dimension takes justice as a virtue which extends to all
cases where one gives another his due. The second dimension conceives justice as a
virtue which has as its object the due which is given in equivalent of value e.g. if I am
given money to teach, I should teach for a time equivalent to the money I was given. In
this part it is important to point to a popular term, social justice. Today, society has
become complex and so are the matters patterning to it. Due to the complications of
our time ethics scholars have come up with a new classification of justice focussing on
social issues. This is ethics discussing questions or matters patterned to our social life. It
is justice with particular reference to the economic, social, political, cultural welfare of
the society in the cooperation with various social groups and classes active within the
framework of the state. It is concerned with the share of all in the fruits of their social,
economic, cultural and political activities. It simply means equitable share of social
benefits of the society. Three things are involved in justice. First is that justice must be
directed towards another person, it is concerned with people. Second is that justice
must render to another person what is strictly his/her due. For example, human rights
and duties are some of these dues. Third is that there must be a real equivalency
between what is the due and what is rendered. When parents sacrifices for his children
what is their due, is a temporal suspension. A worker who is sick is given a day-off but is
not taken out of that day’s salary. A man who is sent to buy a new aeroplane from
Europe, he takes 10 percent of the money and buy an old one, is he just to the fellow
citizens?

 Temperance is an ethical virtue which makes a person ready to submit the desires for
sensible pleasures to the control of reason. For example in national development the
immediate cost of self-reliance and greater economic independence and transformation
will not be necessarily slower but less current consumption. Thus there bound to be
higher taxes, high prices for relatively inferior domestic goods and services, and the
luxurious consumption for the few will be deliberately cut short. But reason would tell
us that this is both necessary and desirable for future prosperity and sustainability.
 Fortitude is an ethical virtue which regulates the human sensible pleasure (nature) to
the demand of human reason in the face of obstacles which endanger the ethical good.
One might be faced with a situation whereby he/she is called to sign a bogus contract
for his/her country and get a powerful, expensive car or sign beneficial treaty and
continue using the bicycle he/she has. The ethical good would be to sign the contract
that benefits the country; therefore the individual will be called to forfeit the human
sensible pleasure of luxurious car.
Love
Human love in its fullest sense is an experience of intersubjectivity (I-You relationship). It goes
beyond the “I-It” to “I-You”. Love is thus for a person and it focuses on that person. There is
also refocusing as love is two way traffic (reciprocity). Love is being present for the other, thus
love is personal as the whole person is in it. In this case the person cannot be an object. Love
has the following qualities:
1. Love is silent: There are times when we cannot give reason why we love. Love is for
its own sake i.e. you are my friend come what may.
2. Love is communion: It unites two lovers (I-You) without destroying any one’s
identity. The two (I-You) make an effort to make the other realise him/herself. In
love the two complement each other (love is not a fusion), love makes one grow by
acquiring from the other what he/she lacks.
3. Love is presence: It is a living experience of being present for the other. And deeper
implies “I” going to penetrate the “You” and live there, and the” You” too
penetrating the “I” and staying there.
4. Self-giving: Love makes the “I” a gift to the “YOU”. It is directed to the completion of
the other and in the process the “I” fulfils itself. Far from subjectivity the other to
the self, love helps the “You” to become the self in the full exercise of self directing
freedom.
5. Love is creative: It is vigorous commitment towards the fulfilment of the other. It
influences and helps the other to grow.
6. Love is reciprocal: It brings the “I” and the “You” in communion and the two become
“We” or “Us” of love.

7. Love is supreme value: All values fuse without losing their identity. It animates all
other values i.e. a worker who works for love accomplishes the task better and more
than the worker of salary.
Family
It is generally agreed that all people accept that family is an institute basic and fundamental to
human beings. Human being is asocial being and this aspect starts here in the family institution.
Our being already presupposes a family which is well founded reality. Human sexuality inclines
to a union of man and woman in love. This union called marriage is not an accident; the union
leads the two to have children who further strengthen the union of husband and wife. On this
ground marriage has been considered as a natural institution. Today, this natural institution is
widely questioned, the phenomenon of divorce alone is a proof that people’s attitude towards
marriage has vigorously changed.
Traditional understanding of marriage is between man and woman; this can be a man and
many women (polygamy) or one woman and many men (polyandry). Traditionally, there were a
number of reasons for marriage:
1. To control sexual activities and relations.
2. To provide a stable setting for the generation of children and for the
continuation of the society.
3. Marriage was to raise and integrate the children into the society.
4. Marriage was to nourish and develop the adults emotionally (maturity). It is
believed that celibate people are so aggressive because they miss what is in
marriage and thus load it on others. It was believed that celibates can be so
uncharitable as a result of their missing marriage life.
5. Marriage was to furnish the settings of the economic activities. The two
collaborate in the economic activities.
6. Marriage was to assign social status to its members i.e. Mr and Mrs.
Today these functions are challenged and subjected to change. The factors that contribute to
this challenge are:
1. Movement of the society: A married man from Tanzania working in South Africa
is temporarily separated from his wife.
2. Questioning of sex roles: A person is born a man and wants to become a woman
or a woman wants to become a man. A woman conceiving marriage as
submission to the man.
3. Urbanization.
4. Industrialization which brings urbanization.
5. Technological advancement: contraceptives, cloning, bottle children (sperm
banks, test tube children).

Recently, we have witnessed new forms of families which include families in which both
parents and their children live together in the same home (house). Single adults without
children as a family: a single man without a woman or a child, a single woman without a man or
a child and they call it a family. Single parents: a woman or a man with a child or children
without a partner. This can be deliberate act or a result of divorce. Remarried couples: either
both or one is after a divorce, without children. Childless couples: can be deliberate or a result
of sterility. Experimental family forms: two families sharing the same household also called
integrated family.
In our society today, marriage is becoming more of a personal choice rather than a societal
imperative. Traditionally marriage was understood as a societal imperative and never a
personal choice. Today, there is a deliberate search for alternatives to the traditional image of
monogamous marriage and nuclear family. More women and more men are choosing to
postpone marriage or to remain single due to various factors. Many young adults live together
prior to or instead of marriage (trial marriage). There is a growing trend towards having fewer
children or a tendency towards deliberate child-free marriage. Some couples reject sexual
exclusiveness as essential to marriage and seek intimate sexual relationship within a limited
group as positively supporting both their marriage and personal growth.
Ethical Evaluation: Our contemporary search for the new understanding and forms of marriage
and forms of family must be evaluated carefully bearing in mind that history is an ongoing
process that includes institutional changes resulting from human decisions in response to
differing human beings. But, let us also not mistake change for process. From an ethical point of
view marriage is a contract and a state. As a contract is an agreement in which a man and a
woman on the basis of their personal love relationship exchange vows or promises publicly and
formally to love, to honour and cherish one another exclusively and permanently. Marriage is
also a state resulting from the contract which is a means to arrive at the state. Marriage is a
voluntary contract (meeting) of two minds concerning the transfer of rights and assumptions of
duties. Marriage contracts a husband and wife, transferring obligations and rights. The essential
rights in marriage are: the right to perform sexual intercourse exclusively with the other, co-
habitation, mutual support and sharing of goods. Failing these rights invalidate the contract and
by its very nature contract requires mutual free consent and absence of error and fear.
Marriage assures or rather safeguard responsible parenthood. The need and duty of
responsible parenthood has never been so urgently as in our time, and it is recognized by all
cultures at all times. Parents are obliged to give care to their children so that they can cope with
the material and spiritual need. Irresponsible parenthood brings a burden to the state/society
as they are a number of kids in the streets who are raised without ethical codes. The health of
the parents, spiritual and material welfare of the family and interests of the society also serve
as a basis for responsible parenthood. The reasons are vast, some are: the danger to the
mother’s health and life, considerations of serious genetic disorder in cases of hereditary
defects or inability of the mother to deliver a live child, economic difficulties such as low
income in the family, continuing danger of unemployment, lack of housing space, the long
lasting dependence of children on account of ever increasing length of the education period,

pedagogical difficulties i.e. costs of higher education demands of industrial society (now even
LDCs). National needs, conditioned by limited resources. Some nations are already too densely
populated, others (esp. LDCs) may find it impossible to support rapid increasing population with
sufficient means and social assistance. Thus responsible parenthood includes the policy of
prudent spacing of the birth of children.
Means to responsible parenthood

We have two means, natural and artificial. Natural Family Planning (NFP) includes calendar,
rhythm Method, temperature method, etc. Artificial means are divided into four categories,
mechanical, hormonal, operative and Abortion. Mechanical includes devices like condoms,
intra-uterine devices (IUD –coils, loop), vaginal diaphragm, chemicals such as antiseptics (e.g.
the spermicidal jellies, suppositories –pills inserted into the vagina). Hormonal means which
include the combine pills, the mini pills and the Norplant which is inserted by surgery under the
woman’s skin. Operative means include temporary or permanent tubilogation for women and
vasectomy for men. The last means is abortion which any ethical standard is murder and thus
unacceptable.
The Relationship between Demography and Ecology

The preoccupation here is the numbers, that we have things to use and we need to keep them
in existence but how many are we? Can we use and still keep for those who will come after us?
Our technology uses nature, are we over-using nature or not? Demography explosion or also
known as population boom (or simply the baby boom) is considered a serious threat to
humanity future. Since when population increases it comes with more demands in forms of
questions such as where are going to live? What are going to wear? What are going to eat? and
many more. It is argued that population is increasing due to the fact that infant mortality rate is
going down. we want more food production to cater for the increasing population, so we use
fertilizers which in turn destroy the small living organisms and ultimately destroy the soil. We
get sick, we take drugs which later introduce hypertension in us. Production in industries
pollutes the environment, so are our dumping of wastes. The problem of ozone layer, the
change of climate, the rising of temperature, desertification, etc. The question is what are
ethical decisions to be taken? Do we reduce the population? Do we stop marriage? We stop
relating? Take the road to homosexuality (gays and lesbians)?
The population is growing and the environment is degrading, ethical decisions would demand
that we rectify the mistaken policies e.g. avoid the evils of industries, build only less hazardous
industries, in production use only recycle materials, replace the trees that we cut, correct
consumption patterns of everything (not only food), use non polluting techniques of production
(use leguminous plants, manure to enrich the soil fertility, stop the use of poisonous chlorine to
purify water and use boiling and sand, adaptation of appropriate technologies e.g. African and
Chinese herbs in treatment. Ethics would call for responsible use of natural resources e.g. trees,
mining, extensive farming, etc.

Leadership Ethics
Work
Generally work implies any human activity whether manual or intellectual. In this human
activity there must be freedom and an inclination of self-determination (self-realization). In this
sense then work includes all that a human person does as free and responsible subject. In strict
sense, work can be divided into two levels, human labour and work of human hands and mind.
Work as labour connotes pain, suffering, sweat, toils, etc. We labour to satisfy our needs such
as food, clothes, shelter, etc. However, work is not all that negative. Work is also work of
human hands and mind as referring to more creative activities (foresight, Insight and Creativity
–FIC). This would imply to turn the simple into a complex one using our hands and mind e.g. In
computer, the ability to turn from IBM PS 1 to Pentium processor, the bullet trains, the
supersonic jets, etc. This more creative activity is aiming at bringing about the products so as to
meet our human needs.
Participation of workers in work

Workers have the right of and duty to participate fully in social, personal economic concern of
their places of work. Workers should not be reduced to simple, silent performers in their places
of work without any say to decisions that regulate their activities and without incorporating
their views concerning decisions that are made and thus affecting them.
Partnership and co-determination

Social ethics clearly distinguishes between two different forms of co-determination by workers
in their places of work. These are co-determination in the social sphere and question of
personnel and co-determination in the economic sphere. Most workers are generally not
interested with the second co-determination but more in the first form of co-determination.
They wish to have more say in the organization of their work place, transactions of their work
and the personnel concerned with continuous professional training, monetary and non
monetary policies, salary increment, the retrenchment, promotion possibilities, social security
and retirement benefits. Workers are very much interested in being included in the proceedings
which directly concern the above mentioned matters. The second form of co-determination is
strongly controversial. The main argument is that economic decisions involve property
ownership and workers cannot demand control of another’s private property of which they do
not own. The workers just want to be paid; they do not care where the money comes from. If
employers are granted such right it is necessarily means infringing on the owners right of
disposal which is protected by the principle of natural laws regarding ownership. Economic co-
determination is with harmony with the principle of natural law in the following instances:
 Co-determination is freely agreed upon by the owners of the undertakings and the
groups comprising them (management). This has proved to be very successful.
 Co-determination is based on capital investment and thus participation by the workers

in their ownership of their undertakings. The invitation to buy shares is for the workers
and not outsiders (economic co-determination).

In all instances of co-determination, workers must clearly realise that these rights also imply an
obligation. Co-determination is co-entrepreneurship (co-management). People tend to avoid
taking duties. Workers participation in the property of the enterprise implies sharing in the
economic risks that are related to such property. Concretely workers are more interested in
capital that is at their direct disposal than in owning shares in the enterprises. Workers
participation in the capital of the enterprise would change their role and positive affect their
wage and would also limit their vocational mobility due to increase job satisfaction. They would
also have to abandon the wage to pay for what they did not make; they cannot even go to
professional training for their promotion as they are the ones running the enterprise. Workers
participation in ownership is not possible at all in services sector like police, army,
governmental offices, health sectors, etc.
The Purpose of co-determination

The purpose of co-determination is the increase of production. It is not primarily the increase of
material productivity, but the management while striving to increase productivity it equally
considers to increase the welfare of the co-workers. There are two spheres, the material
production sphere (the quality and quantity) and the welfare of the workers sphere. If the
management considers workers welfare, the workers most likely will not mind leaving the
purely commercial side of the business to the competence of their management. For smooth
running we need leadership though it is co-responsibility; leadership working together with us.
This requires management leadership quality which is deeply rooted in the spirit of service and
has a higher regard for the welfare of the workers and profitability of the enterprise.
The idea of the trade union comes in and the unions should emphasize in production and
welfare of the workers, artisanship-partnership and co-determination. The trade unions and
cooperation should not only look for money and do not consider where the money comes from
e.g. strike is a right for workers but should be for a just course and considering the end result;
negotiations made earlier.
Right to property
By property here we mean private property. The right to private property derives from the
human person nature and the needs for the society. What we are, already belongs to us,
individuation. Right to property is a natural right. The right to property can justly be called a
natural right on the following reasons:
1. Property is an important means for a person self realization and creative development.
In work there is satisfaction and self realization. Ownership of material good contributes
to the expression of personality. The person who does not own property cannot use
material good necessary for his/her work. He/she has no experience of taking care of
the material good e.g. in the US a president should be a rich person and must have been
a leader before i.e. a senator. This is so because it is believed that not owning material
goods would negatively affect his initiative and creativity.
2. Private property secures a person a realm of independence and protects his/her
freedom. If you do not own anything you will depend on others and you will lose your

independence and freedom. As a result you will only want to please the other part; you
cannot even speak out your mind. Those who are deprived of material goods are to
large extent dependent on others. They are compelled to seek favour on those in
power. Ownership controls the concentration of power on the hands of the few.
Ownership is a source of security; it enables a person to meet his/her daily needs thus
becoming independent from the uncertain will of others.
3. Private property brings about the better use of the goods available for the use of all. The
hope and possibility of acquiring property fosters responsibility, diligence and thrift.
Ownership counteracts the temptation to misuse what one owns and to place
consideration of prestige above the prospect of success therefore private ownership of
property manages with the least economic loses.
4. Private property serves to maintain peace in the society and prevent disputes. While
common property raises a problem of who is entitled to control it, private property
provides a demarcation of clear competence. It has to be noted that private property is
not an absolute right. It is right which is conditioned by the needs of the individual and
the need of the community.
Social functions of Private Property

1. Private property has to serve the common good by making it available for the work of
charity, creation of job opportunities, etc.
2. Private property has to assume a minimum of participation of all in earthly goods
according to their respective personal vocation of each.
3. All property must be subordinated to the good, thus to serve the social, moral,
intellectual, spiritual and religious needs of all people and enable them to realise their
existential ends as well as their ultimate ends.
The political community

Meaning
Political society or community is a lasting or enduring union/association of people who are
ethically bound to cooperate for the common good. The term society and community are often
used interchangeably with no definite distinction between them. The term community is
preferably used for association of people who are primarily concerned with the inner
development of the group, the building up of values that are important for the growth of their
members and growth of natural ties of solidarity e.g. family as a community.
The term society designates associations of people which are characterized by systematic
organizations and external institutions (laws, administrative policy, governing officials) for the
attainment of their common good e.g. the state as a society. The building force of a society is
the shared commitment, ideals and values of their members. They guarantee the dignity of the
people and their freedom, equality, solidarity, etc. The stronger the affirmation of these values,
the stronger the cohesion of the community.

The state and the common good
The State
The state means the independent or a sovereign political community (social-political-economic
community). It is distinguished from the many smaller communities which depend on the
projection and assistance of the state. State is geographically the delimited society entrusted
with supreme authority for the establishment of universal common good. In its quality as
supreme public authority possesses the power of ultimate decision which has the primacy over
all other temporal societies in the territory.
The state is termed as a perfect society (in the existential sense of society) because it possesses
all the means necessary for the attainment of its needs and ends and it is thus independent of
other societies.
The Common Good

The common good is the sum of those conditions of social living whereby people are enabled
more readily and freer to achieve their ends (goals) therefore it comprises of schools, hospitals,
social services, energy supply, road network, the legal order, etc. It also encompasses such
conditions as a sound state of physical and mental health, a sufficient degree of education and
schooling of society members, income opportunities for all, a favourable atmosphere of
religious, moral and cultural life, social justice, freedom and equality of all.
Functions of State
The state has the function of promotion of the common good. It has the ordering function and
the welfare function. State has to establish order and protect the legal order. It also has the
welfare function which consists of the promotion of the general economic, sanitary, ecological
and cultural welfare of all the citizens. The state therefore exists for the people; it has
responsibility/accountability to the people/society.
The Person and State/society

The state is for the people, the people are not for the state. However, individuals are often
obliged to sacrifice their personal/private good for the sake of the common good. This based on
the principle of totality. Individuals, therefore have responsibilities and duties to the state so
that the attainment of common good is possible.
The leader and the society

Leaders are caretakers/guardians of the common good. They exist only for the common good
or else, society would not need them. The Common Good stresses the need for leadership
committed to promoting social welfare, justice, and opportunity for all. It is here that the
understanding that leaders should be held responsible when they sacrifice the common good
for selfish interests comes from. Even laws should be directed towards the fact of safeguarding
the common good. This is why law is said to be an ordinance of reason directed towards the
common good and promulgated by the one who is entrusted of the care of the community
(Thomas Aquinas). An ordinance means that a law is not a plea but a command, but that
ordinance has to be rational; what it commands has to be in line with rationality. If a law is
contrary to reason, it has no binding force. Law should be meant to serve the common good; it
has to safeguard, to cherish, and to protect the wellbeing of the people as a whole (each and

every individual in the society). The one who is entrusted of the care of the community (in this
case is the leader) is called to be knowledgeable, volitive (will) and promulgator. He should be
knowledgeable in that what he enacts must be rational, thus he/she cannot enact law to favour
his/her interests or those of his/her friends only.
Amidst scandal in our religious institutions, political chicanery to serve ulterior motives, and
constant reminders of the corruptive influences of power, we want to illuminate emerging roles
and responsibilities of today's leaders. A leader must display courage, integrity, humility, and
the wherewithal to consider the long-term impact of their decision and actions. Most
important, they must engage in dialogue and recognize that creative solutions to complex
problems require collaboration across sectors and cultures to achieve common goals. In
Tanzania now, we should engage ourselves in provocative and multidimensional exploration of
leadership in troubled and troubling times--but with a hopeful note that individuals,
organizations and country as a whole will rise to the challenges.
CORRUPTION
Like ignorance and environmental degradation, corruption is a great enemy of development.
Helping member countries fight ignorance and improve the environment has been part of the
World Bank’s mandate for a long time. By contrast, the subject of corruption was regarded as
too difficult and controversial to deal with outside the context of Bank funded projects, or as
not important enough to warrant the Bank’s explicit attention. It was officially placed on the
Institution’s agenda of development only seven years ago. This historic decision has already
generated important operational changes and stimulated much practical research on the
subject.
According to the World Bank Institute (WBI) more than $1 Trillion dollars (US $ 1,000 billion) is
paid in bribes each year (WBI, Kaufmann: 2004). Daniel Kaufmann, the director of Governance
of WBI, says that this is not just a developing world problem. It also concerns the developed
world. He adds that this figure does not include the embezzlement of public funds. These
enormous amounts of diverted money are hurting the economies of the developing countries
greatly. Kaufmann continue to say that, “…countries that tackle corruption and improve their
rule of law can increase their national incomes by as much as four times in the long term, and
child mortality can fall as much as 75%.”
Clearly something must be done, but what? The World Bank, The Asian Development Bank
(ADB) and several international organisations such as the Organization for Economic Co-
operation and Development (OECD), Transparency International (TI), and the International
Chamber of Commerce (ICC) have proposed several solutions, such as creation of laws against
corruption, enforcement and sanctions so as to make the laws effective, self-regulation by
having codes of conduct and ethics and transparency which would include a free and open
press. Since most corruption occurs and indeed flourishes in private, by the press bringing
scandals to the public, laws are created and changed, perpetrators are revealed and in some
cases prosecuted, even governments are changed.

Corruption takes many forms, such as bribery, kickbacks, fraud, extortion, third party payments,
and money laundering. Bribery here refers to any payment made to influence a decision that is
not disclosed: the OECD says that bribery is the promise or giving of any undue payment or
other advantages, whether directly or through intermediaries to a public official, for himself or
for a third party, to influence the official to act or refrain from acting in the performance of his
or her official in order to obtain or retain business. (OECD Convention: 1997). Corruption can be
seen coming from two directions, supply side (those offering bribes) and demand side (those
requesting bribes). Most public sector and international efforts, World Bank (WB), Asian
Development Bank (ADB), OECD, International Commerce Commission (ICC), are focusing on
the demand side. They are looking for both individuals who are seeking payments and
structures requiring payments: special licensing required permits or permissions. There also
movement for control of the supply side through organizational policies: codes of ethics,
transparency policies, and advocacy groups such as Transparency International, that have
created anti-corruption toolkits.
There is also a distinction made between large or high-level corruption involving political
leadership and small or facilitating payments. While high-level corruption is the target of all
international efforts at combating this issue, facilitating payments are not considered a major
problem. The causes of corruption are usually complex and rooted in a country’s policies,
bureaucratic traditions, political development and social history. Corruption tends to flourish
when standards are lax or poorly defined, regulatory institutions and enforcement practices
weak, and government policies generate economic rents. Tanzania as one of the countries that
are in the periphery probably making a transition from developing to semi-developed country is
mostly hit by corruption have taken a number of measures to curb the problem. Far from being
over, corruption is so elusive that it finds new ways to survive. However, it can be reduced and
may be in a long run eliminated all together.
Concept of corruption
Even the dictionary definitions of corruption suggest that it is a tricky term. The Oxford English
Dictionary gives nine basic definitions of corruption, but there is an element common to all: a
notion that something pure, or natural, or ordered has decayed or become degraded.
Corruption was used in medieval times to denote physical processes such as infection or
decomposition. Corruption is thus a loaded term; you cannot call something corrupt without an
implicit reference to some ideal. James Scott divides attempts into three approaches: legal
norms, public opinion and the public interest. A legal norms approach focuses on the laws and
formal rules of a given society in determining what is corrupt and what is not. After all, we can’t
very well refer to the rules of our society when the issue is what those rules should be. The
public opinion approach is similarly problematic. It may seem sensible to define what is corrupt
by finding out what most people in a given society consider corrupt, but on most of the
interesting questions public opinion is likely to be ambiguous. As some scholar point out, there
is no clear, non-arbitrary way to decide what level of social consensus is necessary before we
declare a given act corrupt. Should a mere majority be sufficient, or should unanimity be

required? Should the opinions of the more educated, those better informed, or those more
interested in politics, be given more weight?
Finally there is a public interest approach, which involves defining some ideal against which
corrupt conduct can be measured. This approach merely argues what is corrupt in terms of an
even more contested concept, the “public interest.” Political scientists, the group that has
thought the most about the concept of corruption, have had trouble even agreeing there is
some such thing as the public interest, much less defining what that interest involves (Thomas
F. Burke: 2003). Paul Edwards develops the quid pro quo standards of corruption and claims
that this is a much broader definition of corruption. The quid pro quo standard is simply that it
is corrupt for an officeholder to take money for some action. The money may be a bribe for a
personal use or a political campaign contribution. Here the root idea is that, it is corrupt for
householders to perform their public duties with monetary consideration in mind. The
influence of money is corrupting under this standard even if no explicit deal is made. There is
another standard of corruption which is distortion. The idea behind this standard is that, the
decisions of officeholders should closely reflect the views of the public. The three standards of
corruption: quid pro quo, monetary influenced and distortions have been jumbled together in
the corpus of campaign finance.
The World Bank defines corruption as “the abuse of public office for private gain.” Public office
is abused when an official accepts, solicits, and extorts a bribe or when a private agent offers a
bribe to circumvent public policies and processes for competitive advantage and profit. Public
office can also be abused for personal gain even if no bribery occurs, through patronage
(cronyism) and nepotism, under-pricing of State assets, collusion to divert public resources, or
outright theft. Bribery occurs also in the private sector, but, because of its function, the World
Bank is mainly concerned with corruption in the public sector (Bottelier, 1998).
Kinds of Corruption
Available indices of corruption are general and do not distinguish between high-level corruption
(such as kickbacks [aid to a defence minister in exchange for his country’s purchase of
expensive jet fighter aircraft) and low-level corruption (such as petty bribes paid to a junior civil
servant for expediting the insurance of a driver’s licence). Nor do they distinguish between
well-organised corruption and chaotic corruption. When corruption is well organised, the
required amount and appropriate recipient of a bribe are obtained. Therefore, we still do not
know which kinds of corruption are more deleterious and should be tackled first. Country-
specific studies and anecdotal evidence suggest that high-level and low-level corruption tend to
coexist and reinforce each other. Thus, this distinction may not be relevant. On the other hand,
the distinction between well-organised corruption and chaotic corruption may be more
relevant, since a fairly convincing theoretical case can be made that the latter has worse effects
than the former. However, small corruption, when tolerated or condoned by society, creates
uncertainty and often leads to big corruption.
Under a well-organised system of corruption, entrepreneurs know whom they need to bribe
and how much to offer them, and are confident that they will obtain the necessary permits for

their firms. It is argued that well-organised corruption is less harmful because, under such a
system, a corrupt bureaucrat will take a clearly defined share of a firm’s profits, which gives him
an interest in the success of the firm. In contrast, under chaotic corruption, entrepreneurs may
need to bribe several officials, with no guarantee either that they will not face further demands
for bribes or that the permits they seek will actually be delivered. In addition, if multiple agents
request bribes from the same entrepreneur without coordinating bribe levels among
themselves, they are likely to make excessive demands, with the result that entrepreneurial
activity comes to a halt. While chaotic corruption seems a priori to be more deleterious than
well-organised corruption, there is currently little empirical data available to test this
hypothesis.
Causative factors in corrupt practices

An important body of knowledge was acquired through theoretical research done in the 1970s
by Jagdish Bhagwati, Anne Krueger and Susan Rose-Ackerman, among others (Mauro, 1996). A
key principle is that corruption can occur where rents exist, typically, as a result of government
regulation and public officials having discretion in allocating them. The classic example of a
government restriction resulting in rents and rent-seeking behaviour is that of an import quota
and associated licences that civil servants give to those entrepreneurs willing to pay bribes.
Since this theory says that the ultimate source of rent-seeking behaviour is the availability of
rents, corruption is likely to occur where restrictions and government intervention lead to the
presence of such excessive profits. Examples include trade restrictions (i.e. tariffs and import
quotas), favouritist industrial policies (such as subsidies and tax deductions), price controls,
multiple exchange rate practices and foreign exchange allocation schemes, and government-
controlled provision of credit. Other causes of corruption are given as low salaries, culture, the
absence of rules, regulations, policies and legislation; range of discretion, the absence of
transparency, the absence of accountability, the absence of watchdog institution and others.
a) Low Salaries
Corruption is often attributed to the low salaries of civil servants. This differentiates between
need-driven (satisfying basic requirements for survival) corruption and greed-driven (satisfying
desires for status and comfort that salaries cannot match) corruption. It may be true that it is
more difficult to stay honest, hard-working, trustworthy on a low salary, but it is also true that
most people in high, responsible positions, earning good salaries. In conjunction, corrupt
practises flourish in systems where employees have high job security; where the level of
professionalism in the public service is low; and hence officials rather serve their own interest
than perform their duty to serve the public. However, low salaries are not valid reason for and
do not justify corruption.
b) Culture
A gift culture exists, particularly in Africa, in which it is tradition that a small reward is paid for
services rendered. In Africa, this was traditionally seen as awarding special honours to the chief
and, in this light, it is often regarded as acceptable and normal for politicians to accept such
rewards. In some countries it is common practice in the commercial arena for business
transaction to be accompanied by giving of personal gifts or benefits, ranging from a Christmas
bottle of whisky to much more elaborate and extravagant items. In essence, the root of

corruption is greed rather than culture, public life requires a standard of its own; and those
entering public office must be made aware of this from the outset.
c) The absence of rules, regulations, policies and legislation

All organisations, whether public or private sector, must have rules, regulations and policies
that guide management and other employees in terms of acceptable behaviour and conduct
within the organisation. In order to be effective, such rules and policies must be clearly
communicated to all individuals in order to be understood and applied objectively. Corruption
is more likely to flourish in an organisation that does not have a wide range of rules, regulations
or policies that guide employees in their work. However organisation and countries must strike
a reasonable balance in terms of policies and legislation; whilst corruption flourishes in an
environment without clear rules and regulations that restrict business and economic activities.
Such a climate creates industries dependence on individual civil servants to engage in economic
activity; thereby circumventing bureaucratic red tape trough corrupt offers.
d) Range of discretion
Corruption takes place in institutions where public officials:
- Have great authority
- Can exercise discretion with respect to interpretation and application of regulations
- Are not required to be accountable to anyone; and
- Are driven by greed
Therefore, an environment with a higher range of discretion without accountability is more

conducive to corruption. In conjunction, political office is one of the primary means of gaining
access to wealth in developing countries. If corruption occurs on the top level and the political
leadership of the country does not set a good example with respect to honesty, credibility,
transparency, integrity and persecution of offenders, citizens become disillusioned and
offenders are not deterred from entering into corrupt practices.
e) The absence of transparency

Where there is no transparency in an organisation, i.e. where tasks and functions are
conducted in secret and are not open to examination by other government officers or the
public, the opportunity for corruption increases. It is therefore vital that citizens in general and
the media (radio, television, newspapers) in particular are guaranteed the right to freedom of
speech; the media can inform citizens of any action by civil servant that might be corrupt in
nature and appropriate calls for action can be made. A transparent system deters corruption as
the conduct of civil servants is under constant scrutiny.
f) The absence of accountability

In a democracy, public leaders and civil servants must be accountable to the people they serve.
Accountability means that public leaders and officers must provide logical and acceptable
explanations for their actions and decisions to the people they serve. However, accountability is
dependent on the enforcement of rules, regulations and policies, if there is a lack of effective
institutional mechanisms civil servants cannot be held accountable and corrupt practices can
flourish.

g) The absence of watchdog institution

If there are no internal or external institutions or bodies that investigate cases of corruption or
that act on complaints relating to corruption, employees may take advantage of the fact that
the chance of being caught doing something corrupt is remote. Even if the offender is caught,
the consequences would probably be minimal if the system has no watchdog function.
h) Corruption in less developed countries

Although corruption is a universal phenomenon and exists in all countries, it is more serious
matter in less developed countries. The socio-economic conditions in low income countries are
more conducive in growth of corruption. Corruption is a symptom of deep-rooted economic
and political weakness and shortcomings in the legislative and judicial system of the country. To
aggravate the situation, accountability in these countries is generally weak, the chances of
being caught are small and the penalties when caught are light. What empirical studies have
been done to support certain hypotheses: namely, that there is less corruption where there are
fewer trade restrictions; where governments do not engage in favouritist industrial policies;
and perhaps where natural resources are more abundant, and that there is somewhat less
corruption where civil servants are paid better, compared with similarly qualified workers in the
private sector (Van Rijckeghem and Weder, 1997).
Consequences of Corruption on Development

From economic theory, one would expect corruption to reduce economic growth by lowering
incentives to invest (for both domestic and foreign enterprises). In cases where entrepreneurs
are asked for bribes before enterprises can be started, or corrupt officials later request shares
in the proceeds of their investments, corruption acts as a tax, though one of a particular
pernicious nature, given the need for secrecy and the uncertainty as to whether bribe takers
will live up to their part of the bargain. Corruption could also be expected to reduce growth by
lowering the quality of public infrastructure and services, decreasing tax revenue, causing
talented people to engage in rent-seeking rather than productive activities, and distorting the
composition of the government expenditure. Some people argue that government employees
who are allowed to exact bribes might work harder and that corruption might help
entrepreneurs get around bureaucratic impediments.
One area where corruption may harm economic performance is by distorting the composition
of government expenditure. Corrupt politicians may be expected to spend more public
resources on those items on which it is easier to exact large bribes and keep them secret, for
example, items produced in markets where the degree of competition is low and items whose
value is difficult to monitor. Corrupt politicians might therefore be more inclined to spend on
fighter aircraft and large-scale investment projects than on textbooks and teachers’ salaries,
even though the latter may promote economic growth greater than the former. Empirical
evidence based on cross-country comparison does indeed suggest that corruption has large,
adverse effect on private investment and economic growth. Regression analysis shows that a
country that improves its standing on the corruption index from, let us say 6 to 8 (0 being the
most corrupt, 10 the least) will experience a 4 percentage point increase in its investment rate
and a 0.5 percentage point increase in its annual per capita GDP growth rate (Mauro,1996).

These large effects suggest that policies to curb corruption could have significant payoffs. The
association between corruption and low economic growth remains broadly unchanged when
estimated for group of countries with extensive red tape. Therefore, there is no support for the
claim that corruption might be beneficial in the presence of a slow bureaucracy.
The most important channel through which corruption reduces economic growth is by lowering
private investment, which accounts for at least one-thirds of corruption’s overall’s negative
effects. While it is difficult to disentangle other channels, there is some evidence that one of
them, the distortion of government expenditure plays a significant role. It seems corruption
alters the composition of government expenditure: specifically, corrupt governments spend less
on education and perhaps health, and probably more on public investment. This is a matter for
concern, because there is increasing evidence that educational attainment fosters economic
growth. However there are issue that need to be treated with caution and here two issues
merit special attention in the context, these are those of causality and the possible role of other
forms of institutional inefficiency. The question to ask is why do countries judged to be corrupt
experience slow economic growth? Is it that corruption harms growth or simply those low
growth leads consultants to give bad corruption grades to a country? To deal with this issue,
one can take variables (such as a country’s colonial history or the extent to which its population
is divided along ethnolinguistic lines) that happen to be correlated with corruption but have no
effect on economic growth or government spending other than through their impact on the
efficiency of institutions, and use them as instrumental variables in the regression analysis.
Through this statistical trick, it is possible to get around problems relating to the subjectivity of
the corruption indices, and it can be shown that corruption together with other forms of
institutional inefficiency causes low economic growth.
Corruption is most prevalent where there are other forms of institutional inefficiency, such as
political instability, bureaucratic red tape and weak legislative and judicial systems. Regression
analysis provides some evidence that if one controls for other forms of institutional inefficiency,
such as political instability, corruption can still be shown to reduce growth. Nevertheless, it is
hard to show with certainty that the cause of the problem is corruption alone, rather than the
institutional weaknesses that are closely linked with it. The truth is probably all of these
weaknesses are intrinsically linked, in the sense that they feed upon each other (for example
red tape makes corruption possible, and corrupt bureaucracy may increase the extent of red
tape so they can extract additional bribes) and that getting rid of corruption helps a country
overcome other institutional weaknesses, just as reducing other institutional weaknesses helps
it curb corruption.
Corruption invariably increases transaction costs and uncertainty in an economy while lowering
efficiency. It leads to a misallocation of scarce talent to rent seeking activities while distorting
investment priorities and technology choices. There are significant variations in the form and
intensity of corruption across and within regions. Some developing countries have less
corruption than many industrialised nations. Corruption reduces the transparency of economic
transactions by both state-owned and private sector firms while undercutting the State’s ability
to raise revenues. Corruption is therefore often associated with fiscal weakness which in turn

may force the State to levy ever-higher tax rates on fewer tax payers, while reducing its ability
to provide essential public goods and services. Corruption weakens the State and its ability to
promote development and social justice. Corruption is a double jeopardy for the poor and
unprotected. They pay a high share of monopoly rents and bribes, while they are often
deprived of essential government services. It also undermines the State’s legitimacy and in
extreme cases, may render a country ungovernable and lead to political instability or even war.
Financial fraud is pernicious kind of corruption that undermines the soundness of financial
institutions and contribute to systematic crisis. The Asian financial crisis has underlined that
successful participation in global capital market requires the enforcement of rigorous
regulatory standards with zero tolerance for corruption.
Corruption in Tanzania
The fight against corruption has rightly been given a central place in Tanzania’s reform and
modernization effort. Tanzania’s goal is to become a prosperous free market economy, while
maintaining stability, but it cannot do so if corruption is allowed to take over. Like in other
many countries corruption is a malice which is a big headache to the Tanzanian Government
and its peace loving citizens. As a result all efforts are being exerted to fight it. At some point in
the history of post independence, Tanzania was somehow totally free of corruption. In the late
seventies and early eighties, the country went through a period of acute shortage of almost
every basic need. There was rationing and long queues for one to get basic needs. Permits were
introduced. The shortages and permits of that period seriously fuelled corruption in our
country. It has now almost become the normal way of life.
What has been done and what else could be done?

Many countries and institutions have paid increasing attention to the problem of corruption,
and the debate on possible policy options is still ongoing. In deciding how to allocate funds,
some donor countries have begun to give more importance to recipient countries’ actions to
curb corruption. Member countries of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and
Development have acted to criminalize the bribery of foreign public officials. International
institutions, which have always played an important role in reducing the scope for corruption,
are now giving more prominence to the issue. For example, the IMF has always encouraged
countries to liberalize their economies (e.g. by eliminating trade restriction) terminate off-
budget operations, and ensure budget transparency. The guidelines on governance, which were
approved by the IMF’s Executive Board in August 1997, formalize the IMF staff’s involvement in
such tasks.
In the heart of corruption crisis lays its solutions. The elimination of the things that cause
corruption might be a solution but if people are not aware of their rights, they will still be
cheated and used by corrupt officials. A state is supposed to be a non-profit organization, that
people freely gets equipped with in order to solve major problems that isolated individuals
could not solve themselves. However, Africa missed its start because its current state, far from
being a construction by the people to solve the people’s problems, is instead an organization
for the control and exploitation of indigenous populations, bequeathed by the leaving colonial
occupant to his local henchmen. Fight against corruption should start with campaigns of

population education about the knowledge of their rights to have access to the benefit of public
goods and services that the state produces. The promotion of rights is not solely more effective
through media and publicity panels, it is still more effective on the spot where the public
services and goods that citizens have right of access to are delivered. An example is that, in an
office for public assistance to victims, the office personnel should have the obligation to explain
and give to the service applicants the law that give them right to the service, as well as all the
procedures of free appeals they can have recourse to in the event the service was refused
them. The right is a fundamental condition to fighting domination and corruption. All means of
positive terror over the populations should be used to discourage anyone from having recourse
to corruption in order to obtain any advantage in a public or private organization. However, the
success of an anti-corruption operation passes especially by full powers granted the magistrates
in charge of fighting the vermin. These magistrates would have special police force units under
their orders, with the capacity to order the arrest of anyone, without consideration of “do you
know whom you are dealing with?” (Sene, 2003).
One of the most difficult policy issues is how to prevent corruption from distorting government
expenditure. This goes to the heart of donors’ concerns about the possible misuse of aid funds.
Donors find it difficult to ensure that aid funds are spent wisely, because resources are fungible.
For example, a donor may give aid funds to enable the recipient country to build a school,
which the recipient may indeed use for that purpose; however, the availability of aid funds to
build school makes it possible for the recipient to use the resulting savings to buy sophisticated
weapons, whose purchase may provide more scope for illegally diverting funds into individuals’
pockets than school construction could. How should this problem be addressed? Clearly, donor
countries should pay attention to the overall composition of government spending and not
focus narrowly on how their own funds have been spent, but many donors may not have
sufficient resources to do this. One possible solution is by having an international institution to
monitor the overall composition of government expenditure, as a service to both the recipient
country’s citizen and the donor community. This approach, however, would not be easy to
implement. Recipient countries would resist attempts by the rest of the world to play a role in
determining the composition of their public spending. In addition, as a practical matter, it may
be difficult to ensure that spending items are not simply relabelled, with no real improvement
in the composition of government expenditure.
Tanzania to date has had four phases of government, the last of which we cannot speak much
amid the many corruption scandals, from Richmond to BOT-EPA. We have had the Nyerere era,
the Mwinyi era referred to as the second government phase and now since `1995 the Mkapa
era referred to as the third phase government and the Kikwete era referred as the fourth
phase. Each government phase had its unique feature as follows:
1st Phase Liberation of the African continent and consolidation of the nation.
2nd Phase Privatization of state institutions and opening up of the economy.

Seriously attention to the economy and fighting corruption and

promoting good governance, through accountability, transparency,
3rd Phase
more disciplined civil service, enhanced tax collection with a
corresponding austeric spending measures.
We therefore see the 3rd phase government seriously committed in fighting corruption and
spearheading good governance.
In 1996, the 3rd phase government of President Mkapa established the Warioba Commission
which was given full mandate to extensively inquire into the problem of corruption in the
country and come up with recommendations on the way forward. The Warioba Commission
came up with a very detailed report pinpointing ministries; department and institutions
involved in rampant malpractices and corruption and with recommendations of what should be
done. This report has been the blue print on corruption in Tanzania. Every government
ministry, independent departments and public institutions were in 1999 required to identify
sources of corruption in their institutions and work out an action program to root out or
minimize the incidences of corruption in their working places. Corruption was a high agenda in
the parties’ election manifest during the election campaigns and the subsequent general
multiparty elections that were held in October, 2000.
The government has put in place a number of institutions charged with the responsibility of
fighting corruption in the country. Among such institutions is the Anti Corruption Bureau (PCB)
and the Ethics Commission headed by William Maina, a retired High Court Judge. The Tanzania
parliament has enacted a number of legislation to assist society fight corruption resulting from
all these efforts, a number of Chief Executives; public servants have been sacked from their
employment, pending court cases on corruption. It is evident that these efforts have started to
have effect on the corruption issue as the penalty for corruption is now very high. Public
awareness of corruption has also greatly assisted. The Good Governance Office was formed
with the vision to create Tanzania that observes the rule of law, protects human rights and
which is politically, economically, and socially peaceful, stable and dynamic by year 2025, has
the following functions:
 monitoring of public leaders' ethics and abuse of power accountability and
transparency;
 coordination of state organs of prevention of corruption and ethics and capacity

building;
 strengthening of legal regime, prevention of corruption laws, ethics, and regulatory

framework; and
 Interfacing the Government and the Civil Society, participation, education, prevention of
corruption programmes and mass media.

The accountancy profession was the first eye opener on corruption in the country. It was in
1994 when jointly NBAA and TAA organized the first ever national workshop on corruption. The
workshop deliberations received lists of press coverage and that is when the evils of
corruptions were fully brought into the public attention.
Review:
In this topic we have discussed the meaning of ethics, how different it is from morality and how
an individual can be instilled with ethical values and trained to act ethically against all forms of
corruptive inhuman behaviours. We also looked at one of the greatest vices in our society
today, the vice of corruption, how it affects investments and development in general, and what
can be done to curb the problem so that we can develop our economy.
As you went home yesterday you met a friend of yours who was proudly boasting that he
apportioned 3 million shillings out of 21 million shillings allocated for famine relief in Mtwara.
He proudly argued that it was fine to take the money since even the director took 6 million of
the same fund. What would be your argument to show your friend that what he did was
unethical and his argument is faulty?
Resources:
Rijckeghem, C. and Weder, B. (1997), Corruption and the rate of Temptation: Do Low Wages in the Civil
Service Cause Corruption? IMF Working Paper 97/73. Washington: International Monetary Fund.
Composta, D. (2000) Moral Philosophy and Social Ethics. Rome: Urbaniana University Press.
Goulet, D. (1995) Development Ethics. London: Zed Press.
Khamis (2003) Can Tanzanians Living Abroad Contribute in Reducing Corruption in Tanzania? Retrieved
on 7th May 2005 at www.esrf.kabissa.org/corru/final1.html
Sene, N. (2003) Six Months to Get Rid of Corruption. Retrieved on 7th May 2005 at
www.africanindependent.com/corruption_sixmonth_getrid.html
Oruka, O. (1998) Ethics. Nairobi: Nairobi University Press.
Mauro, P. (1996) The Effects of Corruption on Growth, Investment and Government Expenditure. IMF
Working Paper 96/98. Washington: International Monetary Fund.
Mauro, P. (2004) Corruption: Causes, Consequences, and Agenda for Further Research. Retrieved on 7th
May 2005 at www.worldbank.org/fandd/english/pdfs/0398/010398.pdf
Bottelier, P. (1998) Corruption and Development. Retrieved on 7th May 2005 at

www.icclr.law.ubc.ca/Site%20Map/Publications%20Page/Pieter_Bottelier.htm
Others:

Aristotle (350 B.C.E.) Nicomachean Ethics. Translated by W. D. Ross at Nicomachean Ethics.doc
Gichure, C.W. (2008) Ethics for Africa Today. An Introduction to Business Ethics. Nairobi: Pauline
Publications Africa.
TOPIC 4: GENDER ISSUES AND DEVELOPMENT

An Overview:
Gender and development is the major agenda in the world trying to disapprove the interested
structure relationship between men and women of which development processes have been
hindered. The world has come to realize that there is gender imbalances in many societies, men
having more say while women became marginalized. In this topic we want to discuss about the
two concepts sex and gender and how gender relationship can affect development and
achievement Millennium Goals.

Introduction
Women account for more than half of the population in developing countries. They participate
in development process in myriad ways, but their contributions to economic and social change
continue to be inadequate, and greatly undervalued because male dominated cultures have
given them an inferior position in society and custom taboos and sexual division of labour keep
them subordinate to men. The mobilization of women as equal partners in all development
process therefore needs the priority attention of policy makers and the means to achieve this
have been outlined in recommendations adopted at different conferences at both national and
international levels. It needs to be recognized that development policies designed to ensure
equity and fuel participation in society should be given priority o raising social and economic
status of women. Therefore the concern should be to incorporate women, as men are, with
framework of national development policies in a comprehensive manner, where necessary legal
subjects should be made or modified so as to facilitate the integration of women in the
economy.
A gender sensitive approach to development is not just a political imperative, but a basic
condition of sensitizing economic and political and social program. It requires changes
particularly n societies in which traditional perceptions of women as inferior to man continue to
prevail and which the preservation of their cultures continues to be invoked to justify the
subordination of women. In the process such perceptions must be weakened and make women
themselves change their attitudes so that they become active conscious of their rights and work
to safeguard them.
DEFINITIONS
A good number of people have failed to distinguish between sex and gender concepts. As a
result they take them as being synonymous words with the same meaning. In this presentation
study we want to clarify the two words as well as to explain the importance of explaining these
concepts for better future planning with regard to issues affecting both men and women.
Sex:
When we talk of sex, we always mean being a woman man. This means that we differentiate
human beings by their sexes. The different between man and woman is shown by their sexual
organs and the morphology. So the major morphological makeup between man and woman is
called sex. This difference is associated with the organs and the ability to deliver. Any questions
with regards to morphology, the answer should be this is a man or woman. So in that sex
means being a man or a woman.
Sometimes it is hard to understand exactly what is meant by the term “gender”, and how it
differs from the closely related term “sex”. "Sex” refers to the biological and physiological
characteristics that define men and women. To put it another way: “Male” and “female” are
sex categories, while “masculine” and “feminine” are gender categories. Aspects of sex will
not vary substantially between different human societies, while aspects of gender may vary
greatly.

Some examples of sex characteristics:
 Women can menstruate while men cannot

 Men have testicles while women do not
 Women have developed breasts that are usually capable of lactating, while men do
not
 Men generally have more massive bones than women
Gender:
Gender is defined as a socio-economic and political relationship between man and woman. This
definition emanates from the fact that the relationship that exists between man and woman is
built within the community. So gender is the community outlook on social, economic and
political issues between man and woman. Gender in other words is kind of situational built-in
behaviour of people socially and culturally. This built-in behaviour is not the morphology or sex,
but from early periods of upbringing to maturity which he or she is occupying a certain job. One
important characteristic is that this behaviour is subject to change given time perspective.
“Gender” refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviors, activities, and attributes that a
given society considers appropriate for men and women.
Some examples of gender characteristics:
 In the United States (and most other countries), women earn significantly less money
than men for similar work
 In Viet Nam, many more men than women smoke, as female smoking has not
traditionally been considered appropriate
 In Saudi Arabia men are allowed to drive cars while women are not
In most of the world, women do more housework than men
Sex and gender issues:

In order to ensure that these differences are well under stated it is better that we spot some
basic roles that belong to sex and gender. For instance when we talk of women becoming
pregnant, deliver and breast feeding babies, then we are talking of sex. But when we talk of
women cooking in the kitchen or fetching water and firewood, one must be referring to gender
roles; roles, which were given to her by community from traditional point of view. Basically, sex
and gender roles must be distinguished and that there are issues or roles that are directed or
controlled by sex of a person biologically and there are issues or roles that are directed or
controlled by traditional customs and norms.
Gender relations:
The situation of man or woman in society can be understood if situated in the context of
relations involving both men and woman that is gender relations. Gender relations are social
relations found in community or society, and produced on daily basis by the actions, idea and
discourse of individual and groups. Gender relation have their origins in society not nature .they

are social constructs, involving historical processes of conflict and change; they are therefore
changeable as a result of contestation, resistance, and struggle. They also differ in locations of
nationality, class, ethnic or race and imperial north south relations. Women differ from each
other more than they differ from men, in many circumstances, because of locations noted
above, different individual personalities and different history. Gender relations cut across
different sectors of society; economic, cultural, and psychology; multi disciplinary analysis and
multi sectoral strategies of actions are potentially the powerful means to understand and
change them.
GENDER ISSUES
A group of women in the name of Tanzania Gender Networking Programme (TGNP) carried out
voter education in some districts and regions of Tanzania, using gender analysis and animation
methodology and came up with four major issues by people of all levels:-
 Self-employment and income
 Social services especially water, health and education
 Patriarchal oppression and exploitation of woman and youth at all levels
 Corruption, mismanagement and expression of citizens.
Underlying these concerns was a desire for economic and political democracy, such that all
citizens participate fully in planning development policies and managing resources at all levels.
TGNP has an ideal vision which sees the future society transformed in power relations between
man and woman, young and old, rich and poor, North and South and dominant and
marginalised ethnic groups at all levels from individuals, household and community to the
national and global level. Therefore this would mean:-
 Equal access to and control of economic resources -e.g. land, income and employment.
 Equal decision making, education and health in quantitative and qualitative terms.
 Recognition and full enjoyment of rights of women and men, girls and superiority boys,
including their basic human and citizenship rights; abolition of negative gender cultural
values and practices; abolition of attitudes of inferiority at individual and group level.
Genuine North-South partnership in economic, politics and culture.
Gender in traditional culture

Today gender relations between men and women have changed a lot. The changing situation
and different position of women and girls in society depend on the interaction varieties of
factors in society economic, legal, political, cultural, health and individual psychology.
In tradition cultural there was no gender balance. The absence of gender balance, which led to
the marginalization of women and giving power to men, has cultural and economic
underpinnings. More often than not, women find that they have no room to make themselves

heard, they cannot occupy any official recognized position in society and influence policy
making.
In traditional society men were regarded as masters and superior to women by virtue of their
sex. Women were supposed to serve and obey men slavishly. Women never challenge men in
public. Women and girls were taught to serve men most and the best food. Men have been
routinely harassing their wives through abuse and beating which is not considered illegal in
some cultures. In some societies wife beating is considered a sign of love and men have the
right o beat their wives whenever they feel like doing it. Almost all over the country, women do
the daily work. There was no clearly defined gender based division of labour and therefore, no
reciprocal obligation to work exists between men and women. In many cases, failure on the
pact of women to fulfil her marital obligations to her husband can be enough reason for a
family dispute.
GENDER ISSUES –TANZANIA CASE STUDY

The issues of gender imbalances in Tanzania like many African countries should be handled with
great care. There is a need of cooperation among the actors in both at the international and
domestic levels to tackle the problem of gender imbalance. Strategies should be taken to
incorporate women in socioeconomic and political structures, which previously were under the
state imbalance. In Tanzania, development vision 2025 aims at achieving a high quality
livelihood for its people, attain good governance through the rule of law and develop a strong
and competitive economy. In order to attain the gender equality and the empowerment of
women in all socio-economic and political relations and culture are supposed to be considered.
Gender should be mainstreamed in all aspects of development to promote national economy,
political, socio and culture.
In Tanzania it is estimated that women especially the rural women provide 80 percent of labour
force in rural areas and producing 60 percent of food production. Though they are the main
producers of cash crops, the environment does not allow them to own their wealth. Women do
not have decision on the reproductive issues, for example women cannot decide on the
numbers of children in a family. Gender patterns in many aspects have changed in Tanzania
during the last ten years, as an increasing number of women have become active in socio
economic and political activities.
a) Gender and employment:
Women and men have been found to enter the labour force in different ways, and
different terms, not only in Tanzania, but worldwide. Differences are found between
men and women, as well as among different groups of women (rural-urban; rich-poor;
educated-non educated) and men. Certain kinds of work have been stereotyped as
being ‘male’ or ‘female’, because of socialization process on the division of labour,
which stipulates different roles for men and women. Most rural women carry water,
firewood, and farm produce on their heads; take care of children, cook and farm.

Gendered assumptions, however, contribute to a process whereby most women are

allocated low paying, unskilled or lesser skilled work in both formal and informal sectors
of the money economy. Wider social relations, including cultural, economic, and
political arenas set the terms upon which women and men compete for employment.
These include the assumption that a woman’s primary commitment is to care for a
family at home, in the reproductive sphere of life, and that each woman depends on a
male for cash needs the skills label itself is arbitrary, and culturally defined. Skills
associated with women tend to be undervalued, and defined as unskilled, even when
they entail complex actions and tough processes, such as child care, subsistence
farming, and the like. However, now the trend in Tanzania has been decreasing as there
are great numbers of women employees in formal sectors such as in the army,
industries, universities, etc. There is also decrease of wage gaps between the two.
b) Gender and legal capacity:
In Tanzania and Africa in general, women’s legal and human rights were constrained by
inadequate legal literacy among women, the reason being that the existing legal system
does not reach the majority of women who live in rural areas. There is also
discriminatory application of statutory laws, inadequate legislative protection
mechanism such as protection orders, barring orders and safety order in the legal
system and insensitive investigations and prosecution of cases involving violence against
women and children. Like many societies in Africa, customary laws and practices remain
discriminatory against women on issues of property inheritance particularly land, as
institutionalized violence against women e.g. house beating, rape, female genital
mutilation and existence of a multitude of statutory, religious and customary laws that
might be conflicting.
To get away with this situation, the government should commit itself to improve
women’s legal capacity through legal literacy schemes and mass campaigns to educate
people on women’s rights. The government with collaboration with NGOs should work
to remove discriminatory provisions in existing laws, which do not grant the rights and
freedom of women. The government currently has established a Commission on Human
Rights and Good Governance. The aim is to promote ways of fighting against violation of
human rights. Government also has passed several laws in favour of women i.e. Sexual
Offences Special Provisions Act of 1998, the Land Law Act of 1999. The first law repeal
and replace previous legislations on land matters thus enabling women to enjoy equal
rights with men in access, ownership and control of land. There is also mushrooming of
women’s NGOs aiming at protecting women’s rights, such as TGNP, TAWLA and the like.
c) Gender and economic empowerment of women and poverty alleviation
In Tanzania about 60 percent live in absolute poverty. This is a result of increasing

poverty among the rural and urban population, the growing gap between the poor and
rich; women and men; and among women themselves. In rural sector and poor urban
suburbs, women carry a heavier burden because by tradition, women lack property
rights and they also lack adequate knowledge on existing credit facilities. Due to their

low educational level, their knowledge and skills on how to manage their work is
generally low. Most of women also depend on poor technology, which consume their
time and energy.
To overcome this problem the government of Tanzania should commit itself to enhance
women’s economic capacity through making credit facilities available to majority of
women. Building and support women entrepreneurial skill, improve their management
capabilities and increase training and access to technology. The NGOs for credit to
women have increased since the 4th women conference in Beijing. A number of NGOs
and donor agencies have made serious efforts to advance credit to women at village
level. Women have been trained on credit management in general. These efforts have
increased participation of women in income generation projects. Yet there are still
constraints such as lack of financial resources for monitoring utilization of funds,
educating society about changes and how women can benefit from these changes. The
major change lies in the traditional norms and culture whose beliefs that women cannot
carry commercial activities. There are improvements in empowering women through
the passing of laws that make access and equitable control of means of production
possible to women. The enacted Land Law of 1999 enables women to own clan and
family land on equal rights with men.
d) Women political empowerment and decision making
Traditionally the position of women in Tanzania has been low compared to men.
Women were not expected to influence the decision-making processes from domestic
level to national level. In the family attitudes that consider men as heads of households,
exists. These attitudes are rigidly based on patriarchal structures, which limit women
voices from influencing allocation of domestic resources. At national level, the existing
attitudes influence the election and appointment of women to high profile positions and
hence limit women’s voices from impacting decision-making and the planning process.
Other problems to women including lack of resources to run for campaigns in politics,
abuses from male politicians at the platforms, lack of support from fellow women, and
the tendencies that politics is the duty of men.
The government therefore has seen the need to achieve gender equality as an
important aspect for adherence of human rights and a condition to social justice.
Tanzania has to some extend enhanced women’s rights for national and word progress.
The government has ratified the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). The government has reaffirmed its
commitment to the Beijing Platform for Action that upholds the convention for total
elimination of all kinds of discrimination against women and all other international
human rights instruments calling for gender equality.
Tanzania has changed regulations and taken affirmative action to include women in
decision-making. The parliament passed a Bill in 2000 to increase the seats for women.
In local government councils women are assured of 33 percent of seats while in the

Union Parliament women are assured 2 percent of the seats. There is increasing number
of women in decision-making positions in other public sectors; these include cabinet
ministers and deputy ministers, board of directors, heads of institutions and
commissioners. There are many women NGOs and CBOs alongside women wings in the
political parties that provides forum to women to address not only social and economic
issues but also political issues. The constitutional reform exercise going on in the
country provides yet another opportunity to include women’s rights in the supreme law
of the land.
e) Gender and women’s access to education, training, employment and health
Education is the key to liberation and important tool to alleviate socioeconomic

problems. Women face numerous constraints to access education and training at all
levels. The problems include the unfriendly pedagogy especially in teaching of math,
technical and science subjects, which require competitiveness and some degree of
assertiveness which girls often lack. Truancy, pregnancy, economic hardships and early
marriages constrain girls from completing their schooling. Existing social attitudes
favour and promote boys’ education and pay less interest in education of girls.
There is a need to take actions on all behaviours that segregates women from access to
education, health and employment. The government should commit itself to increase
women in education in order to narrow the gap between boys and girls in primary and
secondary schools as well as in high learning institution, e.g. while the enrolment of girls
in primary schools is 50 percent, in secondary schools girls are 46 percent of total
enrolment less and less girls enrolled in higher learning institutions (at the university
girls are 17 percent of total enrolment).
One of the major constraints facing women in gainful employment is low education and
inadequate economic productive skills. The focus should be to increase women
enrolment into vocational, tertiary and higher education. Tanzania has taken several
actions, such as:-
 Establishment of girls’ vocational training centres and technical schools.
 Increase of female trainers in vocation and technical schools.
 Identify and remove gender-stereotyping materials in textbooks and other

learning materials.
 Training instructors to gender sensitive.
 Sensitize parents to encourage and facilitate girls to join schools.
 Expose aspiring girls to successful professional women role models and study
tours.
 Introduction of courses and training in skills potentially for providing gainful

employment to women.

 Increase boarding facilities for girls.
 Reform of curriculum to include a wider range of skills, technical

entrepreneurship skills and cross cutting issues.
 Introduction of short courses, open colleges at flexible hours and location so as

to meet the employment promotion demand of women who have time
constraints.
 Establishment of training nurseries and or workshops so as to offer

apprenticeship facilities for women.
 Establishment of training fund for women to increase their managerial and

decision-making capabilities.
It is a fact that girls and women including those who complete schooling and training
do not get equal access to employment opportunities. Constraints facing women in
employment include lack of childcare facilities both day and nursery schools. Specific
health and industrial safety provisions tailored to the realization of women’s
practical gender needs. There are also women related health issues that need to be
addressed and need special allocation of resources. Such issues are raping,
kidnapping; beating, overworking, female genital mutilation, delivery diseases and
over child bearing have great threat to women’s health. To overcome such health
threats there is a need to improve women health facilities such as hospitals and
health centres, improve and monitor sanitation facilities in work places with gender
perspective. Private sector should allow breast-feeding breaks, review current rules
and regulations that are unfavourable to women in formal and informal sectors.
Educate civil servants on the scheme of services, rule and regulations and
improvement of job opportunities.
Review:
Summing up the above explanations we can see one part gender relations form the nucleus of
the family since production, reproduction and consumption depend on women. They are
responsible for the care of the young, elderly, and the sick. All these activities that are crucial to
the present and the future development impinge on the women’s health, time for leisure and
self-actualization.
Differentiate gender from sex and discuss how family, education and religious institutions
perpetuate gender inequalities in Tanzania.
Resources:
Ostergaard, L. (1992) Gender and Development Approach: A Practical Guide. New York: Westview
Press.

Scott, Catherine V. (1995) Gender and development: Rethinking modernization and dependency
theory. Boulder: Rienner Publisher.
TOPIC 5: CONCEPTION OF DEVELOPMENT IN DIFFERENT ERAS

Overview:
In this last topic we want to kind of make a summary of what we have discussed about
development since the concept started to spring up after the Westphalia Treaty (1789). The
notion of development has been changing over time depending on different eras, for example
the concept of development during the bi-polar world is different from the time of uni-polar
world under the leadership of USA. The changing conception has affected development efforts
in the Developing World. However, one thing is for certain, none of these conceptions have
been instrumental in bringing development to the South.
Introduction
Development is an old idea but part of modern project i.e. ideological tradition that society is
an object to be changed by rational, purposive human action. We can start by defining what

discourse, world order and security are. Discourse is a broader academic and public debate on
an issue i.e. problem of development and underdevelopment, a debate reflecting a particular
historical context. World order is the rules of the game in which development includes trade
and investment takes place internationally. These rules increasingly include the issue of
intervention by force in countries suffering security crisis (humanitarian emergencies), often
closely associated with development crises. Security refers to reasonable level of predictability
at different levels of social system, from local communities to the global level. It includes
change but not chaos.
Discourses of Development
Current world order is in transition from Westphalian international system originated in Europe
in the 17th century. From the 17th century new political order grew out of the king’s power and
led to the sovereign, territorial state which meant to the end of local power centers. State came
to be responsible for what came to be called development and nation-state territory were now
places for development to place and welfare created. The logic of Westphalia was anti-
hegemonic principles based, though there were several efforts to create hegemony or
dominion, thus provoking anti-hegemonic wars. Hegemonic attempts came from once
dominant nations such as France and Germany, while England and Holland have been guardians
of the principle of balance of power. This was marked by state competition.
The second historic perspective is associated with expansion and deepening of the market
followed by a political intervention in defence of society. During this time two movements
sprang up:
1. Institutionalization of market exchange on larger scale than before
2. Counter-movements caused by dislocations and disturbances (disorder) associated with
market penetration into new areas.
Development is quite different in the first and second movement. The critical and alternative
perspective (the counterpoint) became more prominent in the second movement as limitations
of mainstream development became more evident.
1. Development and Power

Development and power was in the context of capitalist development and mercantilist nation-
building, more particularly the economic and military rivalry among sovereign territorial states
in 19th century in Europe. This competitive context shaped the development problem of
development and power which was concerned on the problem of uneven development and
backwardness among sovereign states in competitive state system resulting into security
implications for individual countries and international system as a whole. The balance of power
at this time stimulated both national and international market expansion, industrialization and
welfare.
2. Geopolitics of Poverty
This era started after the Second World War. During this time it was conceived that global
poverty and underdevelopment is a threat to the post-war order in the context of emerging

Cold War and US hegemony. Development issue was subsumed under difference security
concerns:- the struggle for power between the superpowers (the USA and the Soviet Union),
and also competition between the two different socio-economic systems. This facilitated a
great compromise between national regulation and international free trade. None of the
theories proved to be of much instrumental value for development in the poor areas of the
world. These were ultimately replaced by orthodox forms of modernization, expressed in SAPs.
The counterpoint position can be best described as merger of leftist and environmentalist ideas
but inspired by earlier counterpoint positions.
3. Globalization and Chaos

This is concerned with the problem of development beyond the nation-state system. The key
question is:- what could be the meaning of development in a globalized world, where the
nation-state is declining, and people have to at in vacuum, where inequalities are increasing,
where “new wars” multiply, and poverty problem in the predominant aid philosophy is
contained rather than resolved?
Development aid has been reduced to a civil form of intervention in collapsing state and what is
called complex humanitarian emergencies that are fundamental security crisis. The
counterpoint is expressed by emerging global civil society that is critical of globalization in its
current, market-led form (globalism). Unlike in earlier times where governments have to
manage social consequences of market-driven economic development, they fail to do so in
globalized condition. Therefore:-
 To make sense of successive school of development theory, they should be historically
contextualized rather than understood as a linear evolution of ideas.
 Development is a security issue
 Distinction should be made between mainstream and counterpoint theories of
development.
4. Towards Global Development?

Standards applied in most (non-failed) domestic systems are increasingly taken as norms in
international system as well. The question to ask today is:- are there no alternative futures?
Can’t Africa think of its own development alternative except the standards of others? That the
role of the state in development has been under attack for the last two decades, the argument
being that state is detrimental to development. However, the fact that state can prevent
development is also a fact that it can facilitate development! Should we then start thinking
about bringing back the state in development? Amid these questions, development is still part
of unfulfilled modern project, defined as critical, reflexive and potentially universal.
Review:
In this topic we have discussed different eras of different in the world and their relationship to
the Developing World, from Westphalia to present day globalization. While the Westphalia
made Africa to be colonized, the bi-polar made Africa a fighting ground for the two
superpowers where at times the two powers financed wars and big projects of no or little

benefit to Africa. Globalization has further denied Africa to walk through the same path of
development that the North went through; it further denies Africa the ability to manage social
consequences of market-driven economic development. We, scholars are therefore called to
think of a viable path for Africa to develop away from the Northern capitalist way of thinking.
Africa’s path to development has been growing tougher and tougher. Account for the reasons
of this toughness of the journey over time.
Resources:
Haynes, J., ed., (2005) Development Studies. England: palgrave Macmillan

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DS 101: Development Perspectives I

TOPIC 1: CONTENDING THEORIES OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Shukrani K. Mbirigenda (Institute of Development Studies –IDS, University of Dar es Salaam) 1

Sound environmental management of processes and products is regarded as a core business

 Encouraging wider take up of corporate responsibility practices, including

Shukrani K. Mbirigenda (Institute of Development Studies –IDS, University of Dar es Salaam) 2

Shukrani K. Mbirigenda (Institute of Development Studies –IDS, University of Dar es Salaam) 3

Marxist Theory of Social Development

Shukrani K. Mbirigenda (Institute of Development Studies –IDS, University of Dar es Salaam) 4

 Materialist approach to history: History is created through struggle over distribution of

Shukrani K. Mbirigenda (Institute of Development Studies –IDS, University of Dar es Salaam) 5

Shukrani K. Mbirigenda (Institute of Development Studies –IDS, University of Dar es Salaam) 6

Bourgeois/Orthodox/Modernization Theories of Development

Rostow’s Non Communist Manifesto Theory

Rostow gives 5 stages of growth, which are:

Shukrani K. Mbirigenda (Institute of Development Studies –IDS, University of Dar es Salaam) 7

Shukrani K. Mbirigenda (Institute of Development Studies –IDS, University of Dar es Salaam) 8

innovation (including transport) which sets into motion a chain of secondary

Analysis/Critique of Rostow’s Theory

Rostow’s Theory on Underdevelopment

Shukrani K. Mbirigenda (Institute of Development Studies –IDS, University of Dar es Salaam) 9

Nurkse’s Vicious Circle of Poverty

Relevancy of Nurke’s Theory

Critique of Bourgeois/Modernization Theories

Shukrani K. Mbirigenda (Institute of Development Studies –IDS, University of Dar es Salaam) 10

Shukrani K. Mbirigenda (Institute of Development Studies –IDS, University of Dar es Salaam) 11

Critique on Dependency Theory

The World Systems Theory

Shukrani K. Mbirigenda (Institute of Development Studies –IDS, University of Dar es Salaam) 12

 Cooperation: Countries cooperate in trade, culture, sharing of security secrets and in

Weaknesses of the theory

The World Capitalistic Theory

Shukrani K. Mbirigenda (Institute of Development Studies –IDS, University of Dar es Salaam) 13

Shukrani K. Mbirigenda (Institute of Development Studies –IDS, University of Dar es Salaam) 14

Strengths of the theory

2. Firms have homo-economicus that do well in Research and Development (R&D)

Weakness of the theory

Shukrani K. Mbirigenda (Institute of Development Studies –IDS, University of Dar es Salaam) 15

 The basic needs, the human aspirations

Sustainable Human Development

Shukrani K. Mbirigenda (Institute of Development Studies –IDS, University of Dar es Salaam) 16

Poverty, Environment and Human Development

Sustainable Development and Economic Growth

Shukrani K. Mbirigenda (Institute of Development Studies –IDS, University of Dar es Salaam) 17

2. A reduction in population growth

3. More equitable distribution of resources

4. Healthier, more educated and better trained people

5. Decentralized, more participatory government

7. Better understanding of the diversity of ecosystem, locally adapted solutions to

Shukrani K. Mbirigenda (Institute of Development Studies –IDS, University of Dar es Salaam) 18

Shukrani K. Mbirigenda (Institute of Development Studies –IDS, University of Dar es Salaam) 19

TOPIC 2: STATE POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT AND GOVERNANCE IN

Concept of State and Evolution of State Systems in the World

Shukrani K. Mbirigenda (Institute of Development Studies –IDS, University of Dar es Salaam) 20

1.2 Centralized Political Systems

1. Formal equality of states (all states are equal)

2. No intervention into another state’s internal affairs

Shukrani K. Mbirigenda (Institute of Development Studies –IDS, University of Dar es Salaam) 21

Factors for the Rise of Nationalism in Africa

Phase 2: The Manchester Conference in 1945

c) The Role of USA and Socialist Countries (Soviet Union)

Shukrani K. Mbirigenda (Institute of Development Studies –IDS, University of Dar es Salaam) 22

One Party and Military State Systems