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Function parameters, as well as variables defined inside the function body, are
called local variables (as opposed to global variables, which we�ll discuss in a
future chapter).
1
2
3
4
5
6
int add(int x, int y) // function parameters x and y are local variables
{
int z{ x + y }; // z is a local variable too
return z;
}
In this lesson, we�ll take a look at some properties of local variables in more
detail.
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#include <iostream>
void doSomething()
{
std::cout << "Hello!\n";
}
int main()
{
int x{ 0 }; // x's lifetime begins here
return 0;
} // x's lifetime ends here
In the above program, x�s lifetime runs from the point of definition to the end of
function main. This includes the time spent during the execution of function
doSomething.
Local scope
An identifier�s scope determines where the identifier can be accessed within the
source code. When an identifier can be accessed, we say it is in scope. When an
identifier can not be accessed, we say it is out of scope. Scope is a compile-time
property, and trying to use an identifier when it is not in scope will result in a
compile error.
A local variable�s scope begins at the point of variable definition, and stops at
the end of the set of curly braces in which they are defined (or for function
parameters, at the end of the function). This ensures variables can not be used
before the point of definition (even if the compiler opts to create them before
then).
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#include <iostream>
int main()
{
// x can not be used here because it's not in scope yet
doSomething();
return 0;
} // x goes out of scope here and can no longer be used
In the above program, variable x enters scope at the point of definition and goes
out of scope at the end of the main function. Note that variable x is not in scope
anywhere inside of function doSomething. The fact that function main calls function
doSomething is irrelevant in this context.
Note that local variables have the same definitions for scope and lifetime. For
local variables, scope and lifetime are linked -- that is, a variable�s lifetime
starts when it enters scope, and ends when it goes out of scope.
Another example
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#include <iostream>
int add(int x, int y) // x and y are created and enter scope here
{
// x and y are visible/usable within this function only
return x + y;
} // y and x go out of scope and are destroyed here
int main()
{
int a{ 5 }; // a is created, initialized, and enters scope here
int b{ 6 }; // b is created, initialized, and enters scope here
return 0;
} // b and a go out of scope and are destroyed here
Parameters x and y are created when the add function is called, can only be
seen/used within function add, and are destroyed at the end of add. Variables a and
b are created within function main, can only be seen/used within function main, and
are destroyed at the end of main.
To enhance your understanding of how all this fits together, let�s trace through
this program in a little more detail. The following happens, in order:
Note that if function add were to be called twice, parameters x and y would be
created and destroyed twice -- once for each call. In a program with lots of
functions and function calls, variables are created and destroyed often.
Functional separation
In the above example, it�s easy to see that variables a and b are different
variables from x and y.
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#include <iostream>
int add(int x, int y) // add's x and y are created and enter scope here
{
// add's x and y are visible/usable within this function only
return x + y;
} // add's y and x go out of scope and are destroyed here
int main()
{
int x{ 5 }; // main's x is created, initialized, and enters scope here
int y{ 6 }; // main's y is created, initialized, and enters scope here
return 0;
} // main's y and x go out of scope and are destroyed here
In this example, all we�ve done is change the names of variables a and b inside of
function main to x and y. This program compiles and runs identically, even though
functions main and add both have variables named x and y. Why does this work?
First, we need to recognize that even though functions main and add both have
variables named x and y, these variables are distinct. The x and y in function main
have nothing to do with the x and y in function add -- they just happen to share
the same names.
Second, when inside of function main, the names x and y refer to main�s locally
scoped variables x and y. Those variables can only be seen (and used) inside of
main. Similarly, when inside function add, the names x and y refer to function
parameters x and y, which can only be seen (and used) inside of add.
In short, neither add nor main know that the other function has variables with the
same names. Because the scopes don�t overlap, it�s always clear to the compiler
which x and y are being referred to at any time.
Key insight
Names used for function parameters or variables declared in a function body are
only visible within the function that declares them. This means local variables
within a function can be named without regard for the names of variables in other
functions. This helps keep functions independent.
We�ll talk more about local scope, and other kinds of scope, in a future chapter.
Local variables inside the function body should be defined as close to their first
use as reasonable:
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#include <iostream>
int main()
{
std::cout << "Enter an integer: ";
int x{}; // x defined here
std::cin >> x; // and used here
return 0;
}
In the above example, each variable is defined just before it is first used.
There�s no need to be strict about this -- if you prefer to swap lines 5 and 6,
that�s fine.
Best practice
Question #1
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#include <iostream>
void doIt(int x)
{
int y{ 4 };
std::cout << "doIt: x = " << x << " y = " << y << '\n';
x = 3;
std::cout << "doIt: x = " << x << " y = " << y << '\n';
}
int main()
{
int x{ 1 };
int y{ 2 };
std::cout << "main: x = " << x << " y = " << y << '\n';
doIt(x);
std::cout << "main: x = " << x << " y = " << y << '\n';
return 0;
}
Show Solution
2.5 -- Why functions are useful, and how to use them effectively
Index
2.3 -- Introduction to function parameters and arguments
nascardriver
August 29, 2019 at 12:04 am � Reply
If they describe the same thing, they should have the same name. `x` and `y` are
bad names, unless they're used for coordinates where they're well established
names.
Local variables are a feature of many programming languages, anyone who knows a
language will understand them.
If this is your first language, it's ok to be confused, it'll pass.
Dan
August 30, 2019 at 3:39 am � Reply
Thanks!
Jose
July 29, 2019 at 6:31 am � Reply
Hi, when explaining the quiz code at the end I think
"doIt�s x and y are destroyed" and
"main�s x and y are destroyed"
should have the identifiers in reverse order to keep consistency with what�s been
explained previously.
Alex
July 29, 2019 at 11:27 am � Reply
Updated. Thanks for the suggestion.
Singh
June 18, 2019 at 8:46 am � Reply
I am getting below the result of running a shared program. Just curious to know
what made the malfunction while running below code whereas its working fine with
other two options.
OUTPUT:
"Please add both numbers.
A: 5
B: 6
Addition of both 5 and 6 is 116296576
Program Finished."
[code]
#include <iostream>
int main()
{
int a, b;
std::cout<<"Please add both numbers.\n";
std::cout<<"A: ";
std::cin>>a;
std::cout<<"B: ";
std::cin>>b;
std::cout<<addfunction(a,b);
std::cout<<"\n\nProgram Finished.";
return 0;
}
[\code]
Arman
June 19, 2019 at 2:48 am � Reply
Mistake 1:type of addfunction function must be void.because it doesnt return any
value and just print sth on screen.
Mistake 2:you shouldn't use cout<<addfunction(a,b); because addfunction doesnt
return any value.you should simply call the function itself without cout.
nascardriver
June 19, 2019 at 3:17 am � Reply
Correct. Your code tags will work if you close them using a forward slash (/). You
should always print a line feed as the last character of you output to avoid mixed
lines.
Prateek
May 3, 2019 at 4:39 am � Reply
In second snippet(above ) :
I am a bit confused here. I understand that 'x' and 'y' has been created but how is
it initialized?
Here 'x' and 'y'has not been assigned any value.
Please do reply
nascardriver
May 3, 2019 at 4:43 am � Reply
They're initialized from the values that are passed by the caller.
1
add(3, 1); // x = 3, y = 1
Cade
April 14, 2019 at 2:09 am � Reply
Under the local scope section it says: �Here�s program� instead of �Here�s a
program� or �Here is a program�. Not try a be annoying just wanted to help.
Alex
April 14, 2019 at 8:13 am � Reply
Thanks, appreciate you pointing out the typo. Fixed!
Michael Johnston
April 1, 2019 at 1:54 am � Reply
Great explanation for people new to programming; however, as someone coming from
another language where, by default, parameters are passed by reference, I got the
quiz wrong. It might be helpful to include another �for advanced users� snippet on
this which states this explicitly.
nascardriver
April 1, 2019 at 2:50 am � Reply
Hi!
Which language is it you're talking about? I only know languages where objects or
arrays are passed by reference by default, but none where all arguments are passed
by reference.
Dirk de Klerk
April 3, 2019 at 10:18 am � Reply
You seemed to have skipped 2.3. He explicitly states that when arguments are passed
to parameters when calling functions it is "passed by value". He even wrote it in
bold.
Saurabh
March 18, 2019 at 6:05 pm � Reply
https://www.learncpp.com/cpp-tutorial/introduction-to-local-scope/
This ensures variables can not be used before the point of definition (even if the
compiler opts to create them before them).
I think that this should be ... compiler opts to create them before then
Alex
March 19, 2019 at 8:35 pm � Reply
Fixed. Thanks!
Juan
March 3, 2019 at 10:58 am � Reply
The page is very good, I would just say: they can relax with the use of "astute
readers". It sounds to differentiate groups of people, according to their qualities
(which leads to discrimination). If this is a page to learn something without prior
knowledge, it is not necessary to assume anything that has not been explained.
Perhaps, instead of astute readers, less ambiguous explanations would be needed.
That is why the work of rewriting parts of the tutorials, to update their content,
is a good practice. Thanks for that hard work!
Alex
March 4, 2019 at 9:15 pm � Reply
Fair enough. All astuteness has been removed. I appreciate the feedback.
Hana
March 2, 2019 at 1:54 pm � Reply
The output of the solution's "doit" is "doIt" with a capital I instead.
Alex
March 4, 2019 at 9:08 pm � Reply
Thanks! Fixed.
Wilson
February 24, 2019 at 1:48 pm � Reply
First three code snippets has a small typo here:
int z{ x + y; }
Alex
February 26, 2019 at 7:35 pm � Reply
Fixed! Thanks for pointing out the typo.
GG
February 5, 2019 at 4:38 am � Reply
in another example: main�s b and z are destroyed should be.... main�s b and a are
destroyed
Alex
February 7, 2019 at 6:07 am � Reply
Thanks!
Hans
October 26, 2018 at 12:25 am � Reply
Helo there, first of all thanks for making this site. I learn so much here. I wanna
ask something about the answer for this quiz. Why does the variable x in void doIt
has value of 1? void doIt(int x) didn't give it value so shouldn't it become
unpredictable?
nascardriver
October 26, 2018 at 1:54 am � Reply
@x is passed to @doIt from @main. You might want to re-read lesson 1.4a, because
this is an important concept.
Hans
October 26, 2018 at 7:06 am � Reply
Whoa thanks nascardriver for the reply and enlightment. I understand it now. I miss
the little x inside the doIt there. My bad XD
Sourabh
October 18, 2018 at 10:45 pm � Reply
HEY
if nothing is initialized in int x= {nothing is assigned here to x}
what will be the value given by compiler to X???
nascardriver
October 19, 2018 at 2:55 am � Reply
1
2
3
4
5
int x; // Undefined
int x =; // Syntax error
int x = 0; // 0
int x{ 0 }; // 0 (Uniform initialization, lesson 2.1)
int x{}; // 0
Kio
March 7, 2018 at 3:58 pm � Reply
Hi Alex,
1
2
3
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7
8
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10
11
12
13
14
#include <iostream>
int main()
{
int x = 5; // main's x is created here
int y = 6; // main's y is created here
std::cout << add(x, y) << std::endl; // the values from main's x and y are
copied into add's x and y
return 0;
}
additional print address of the variable x and y (so beginners can see, that their
addresses are different). Or maybe this is confusing?
� Older Comments 1 2 3
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Presented to the Faculty of the Computer Engineering Program STI College Cubao In
Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree Bachelor of Science in
Computer Engineering Joshua Israel V. Albao Adrian S. Galsim Judah Emmanuel DG.
Gonzales Phil-Jay V. Igtanloc March 30, 2019
2
ENDORSEMENT FORM FOR PROPOSAL DEFENSE
NAME OF PROPONENTS:
Joshua Israel V. Albao Adrian S. Galsim Judah Emmanuel DG. Gonzales Phil-Jay V.
Igtanloc In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the degree Bachelor of
Science in Computer Engineering has been examined and is recommended for Proposal
Defense.
ENDORSED BY:
NOTED BY:
Ms. Annabelle S. Hernandez
Program Head March 30, 2019
3
APPROVAL SHEET
This thesis proposal titled:
Raspberry Pi-Based Fleet Telematics System
prepared and submitted by
Joshua Israel V. Albao; Adrian S. Galsim; Judah Emmanuel DG. Gonzales
; and
Phil-Jay V. Igtanloc
, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Science
in Computer Engineering, has been examined and is recommended for acceptance an
approval.
Engr. John Jericho C. Arquines
Thesis Adviser Accepted and approved by the Thesis Review Panel in partial
fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Science in Computer
Engineering Engr. Jayrold H. Baliwagan Engr. Ramil N. Madriaga
Panel Member
Panel Member
4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
APPROVAL
SHEET .............................................................................
......... 3
Introduction ......................................................................
............................... 5
Background of the
problem ...........................................................................
........ 5 Overview of the current state of the
technology .................................................. 5 Objectives of the
Study .............................................................................
............. 8 Scope and limitations of the
study ........................................................................ 9
Literature
Review ............................................................................
.............. 11
Theoretical/Technical
Background ......................................................................
11 Local
Studies ...........................................................................
............................. 11 Foreign
Studies............................................................................
......................... 12
Synthesis .........................................................................
..................................... 14
Methodology .......................................................................
.......................... 15
Requirement
Gathering .........................................................................
.............. 15 Quick
Design ............................................................................
............................ 17 Building
Prototype .........................................................................
...................... 17 Customer
Evaluation ........................................................................
.................... 17 Refining
Prototype .........................................................................
...................... 17 Engineering
Product ...........................................................................
.................. 18
Hardware/Software .................................................................
............................ 18
Hardware ..........................................................................
............................... 18
Software ..........................................................................
................................. 19 Block
Diagram ...........................................................................
........................... 21 State Transition
Diagram ...........................................................................
.......... 21 Calendar of
Activities ...............................................
Error! Bookmark not defined.
Budgetary
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.................... 25 Human
Resources ....................................................
Error! Bookmark not defined.
References ........................................................................
............................. 27
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START HERE ASK A QUESTION ANSWER QUESTIONS MCQ LIST ADVERTISE HERE
This is the summary notes of the important concepts in Chapter 1 of the book
�Introduction to Electronics Communications� by Wayne Tomasi. The notes are
properly synchronized and concise for better understanding of the book. Make sure
to familiarize this review notes to increase the chance of passing the ECE Board
Exam.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO
ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS
Items
Definitions
Terms
1
Its fundamental purpose is to transfer information from one
place to another.
Electronic Communication System
2
The transmission, reception, and processing of information
between two or more locations using electronic circuits.
Electronic Communication
3
Electronic Communications Time Line
1830: American Scientist and professor Joseph
Henry transmitted the first practical electrical signal.
1837: Samuel Finley Breese Morse invented the
telegraph.
1843: Alexander Bain invented the facsimile.
1861: Johann Phillip Reis completed the first
nonworking telephone.
1864: James Clerk Maxwell released his
paper �Dynamic Theory of the Electromagnetic Field�, which concluded that
light electricity, and magnetism were related.
1865: Dr. Mahlon Loomis became the first person
to communicate wireless through the Earth�s atmosphere.
1866: First transatlantic telegraph cable was
installed
1876: Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas Watson
Invented the telephone.
1877: Thomas Alva Edison invents the
phonograph.
1880: Heinrich Hertz discovers electromagnetic
waves.
1887: Heinrich Hertz discovers radio waves.
Marchese Guglielmo Marconi demonstrates wireless radio wave propagation.
1888: Heinrich Hertz detects and produces radio
waves. Heinrich Hertz conclusively proved Maxwell�s prediction that
electricity can travel in waves through the Earth�s atmosphere.
1894: Marchese Guglielmo Marconi builds his
first radio equipment, a device that rings a bell from 30 ft. away.
1895: Marchese Guglielmo Marconi discovered
ground wave propagation.
1898: Marchese Guglielmo Marconi established
the first radio link between England and France.
1900: American Scientist Reginald A. Fessenden
the world�s first radio broadcast using continuous waves.
1901: Marchese Guglielmo Marconi transmits
telegraphic radio messages from Cornwall, to Newfoundland. Reginald A.
Fessenden transmits the World�s first radio broadcast using continuous waves.
First successful transatlantic transmission of radio signal.
1903: Valdemar Poulsen patents an arc
transmission that generates continuous wave transmission 100-kHz signal that
is receivable 150 miles away.
1904: First radio transmission of music at
Graz, Austria.
1905: Marchese Guglielmo Marconi invents the
directional radio antenna.
1906: Reginald A. Fessenden invents amplitude
modulation (AM). First radio program of voice and music broadcasted in the
United States by Reginald Fessenden. Lee DeFrorest invents triode
(three-electrode) vacuum tube.
1907: Reginald Fessenden invents a high-
frequency Electric generator that produces radio waves with a frequency of
100 kHz.
1908: General Electric develops a 100-kHz, 2-kW
alternator for radio communications.
1910: The Radio Act of 1910 is the first
concurrence of government regulation of radio technology and services.
1912: The Radio Act of 1912 in the United
States brought order to the radio bands by requiring station and operator�s
licenses and assigning blocks of the frequency spectrum to the existing
users.
1913: The cascade-tuning radio receiver and the
heterodyne receiver are introduced.
1914: Major Edwin Armstrong develops the
superheterodyne radio receiver.
1915: Vacuum-tube radio transmitters
introduced.
1919: Shortwave radio is developed.
1920: Radio Station KDKA broadcasts the first
regular licensed radio transmission out of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
1921: Radio Corporation of America (RCA) begins
operating Radio Central on Long Island. The American Radio League establishes
contact via shortwave radio with Paul Godley in Scotland, proving that
shortwave radio can be used for long distance communications.
1923: Vladimir Zworykin invents and
demonstrates television.
1927: A temporary five- member Federal Radio
Commission agency was created in the United States.
1928: Radio station WRNY in New York City
begins broadcasting television shows.
1931: Major Edwin Armstrong patents wide- band
frequency modulation (FM).
1934: Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
created to regulate telephone, radio, and television broadcasting.
1935: Commercial FM radio broadcasting begins
with monophonic transmission.
1937: Alec H. Reeves invents binary coded
pulse-code modulation. (PCM)
1939: National Broadcasting Company (NBC)
demonstrates television broadcasting. First use of two-way radio
communications using walkie-talkies.
1941: Columbia University Radio Club opens the
first regularly scheduled FM radio station.
1945: Television is born. FM moved from its
original home of 42 MHz to 50 MHz to 88 MHz to 108 MHz to make room.
1946: The American Telephone and Telegraph
Company (AT&T) inaugurated the first mobile telephone system for the
public called MTS (Mobile Telephone System).
1948: John Von Neumann created the first store
program electronic digital computer. Bell Telephone Laboratories unveiled the
transistor, a joint venture of scientist William Shockley, John Bardeen and
Walter Brattain.
1951: First transcontinental microwave system
began operation.
1952: Sony Corporation offers a miniature
transistor radio, one of the first mass produced consumer AM/FM radios.
1953: RCA and MBC broadcast first color
television transmission.
1954: The number of radio stations in the world
exceeds the number of newspapers printed daily.
1954: Texas Instruments becomes the first
company to commercially produce silicon transistors.
1956: First transatlantic telephone cable
systems began carrying calls.
1957: Russia launches the world�s first
satellite. (Sputnik)
1958: Kilby and Noyce develop first integrated
circuits. NASA launched the United States first satellite.
1961: FCC approves FM stereo broadcasting,
which spurs the development of FM. Citizens band (CB) radio first used.
1962: U.S. radio stations begin broadcasting
stereophonic sound.
1963: T1 (transmission 1) digital carrier
systems introduced.
1965: First commercial communications satellite
launched.
1970: High-definition television (HDTV) introduced
in Japan.
1977: First commercial use of optical fiber
cables.
1983: Cellular telephone networks introduced in
the United States.
1999: HDTV standards implemented in the United
States.
1999: Digital Television (DTV) transmission
began in the United States.
4
Are time-varying voltages or currents that are continuously
changing such as sine and cosine waves.
analog signals
5
Is sometimes referred to as a power loss.
Attenuation
6
Is sometimes referred to as a ____________ , If Pout = Pin,
the absolute power gain is 1, and the dB power gain is 0 dB.
Unity Power Gain
7
Are voltages or currents that change in discrete steps or
levels.
digital signals
8
In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas A. Watson were the
first to successfully transfer human conversation over a crude metallic- wire
communications systems using this device.
Telephone
9
The first commercial radio broadcasting station in 1920 that
broadcasted amplitude modulated signals in Pittsburgh.
KDKA
10
Is a logarithmic unit that can be used to measure ratio.
Decibel ( dB )
11
Is a unit of measurement used to indicate the ratio of a power
level with respect to a fixed reference level (1mW).
dBm
12
One-tenth of a decibel.
Bel
13
A collection of one or more electronic devices or circuits
that converts the original source information to a form more suitable for
transmission over a particular transmission medium.
Transmitter
14
Provides a means of transporting signals between a transmitter
and a receiver.
Transmission Medium
15
A collection of electronic devices and circuits that accepts
the transmitted signals for the transmission medium and then converts those
signals back to their original form.
Receiver
16
Is any unwanted electrical signals that interfere with the
information signal.
System Noise
17
Because it is often impractical to propagate information
signals over standard transmission media, it is often necessary to modulate
the source information onto a higher-frequency analog signal called a ______.
Carrier
18
The process of changing one or more properties of the analog
carrier in proportion with the information signal.
Modulation
19
A system in which energy is transmitted and received in analog
form (a continuously varying signals such as a sine wave).
Analog Communication System
20
A true digital system where digital pulses (discrete levels
such as +5V and ground) are transferred between two or more points in a
communications system.
Digital Transmission
21
The transmittal of digitally modulated analog carriers between
two or more points in a communications system.
digital radio
22
A modulation technique where the information signal is analog
and the amplitude (V) of the carrier is varied proportional to the
information signal.
Amplitude Modulation ( AM )
23
A modulation technique where the information signal is analog
and the frequency (f) of the carrier is varied proportional to the
information signal.
Frequency Modulation ( FM )
24
A modulation technique where the information signal is analog
and the phase (q) of the carrier is varied proportional to the information
signal.
Phase Modulation
25
A modulation technique where the information signal is digital
and that amplitude (V) of the carrier is varied proportional to the
information signal.
Amplitude Shift Keying ( ASK )
26
A modulation technique where the information signal is digital
and the frequency (f) of the carrier is varied proportional to the
information signal.
Frequency Shift Keying ( FSK )
27
A modulation technique where the information signal is digital
and the phase (q) of the carrier is varied proportional to the information
signal.
Phase Shift Keying
( PSK )
28
A modulation technique where both the amplitude and the phase
of the carrier are varied proportional to the information signal.
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
( QAM )
29
Modulation is performed in a transmitter by a circuit called
________.
Modulator
30
The reverse process of modulation and converts the modulated
carrier back to the original information.
Demodulation
31
Demodulation is performed in a receiver by a circuit called
_______.
Demodulator
32
2 Reasons why modulation is necessary in
electronic communications :
1. It is extremely difficult to radiate low-frequency signals
from an antenna in the form of electromagnetic energy.
2. Information signals often occupy the same frequency band
and, if signals from two or more sources are transmitted at the same time,
they would interfere with each other.
33
A specific band of frequencies allocated a particular service.
Channel
34
Process of converting a frequency or band of frequencies to
another location in the total frequency spectrum.
Frequency Translation
35
The purpose of an electronic communications system is to
communicate information between two or more locations commonly called
_____________ .
Stations
36
The number of times a periodic motion, such as a sine wave of
voltage or current, occurs in a given period of time.
Frequency
37
Each complete alternation of the waveform.
Cycle
38
Is an international agency in control of allocating
frequencies and services within the overall frequency spectrum.
International Telecommunications Union (
ITU)
39
In the United States, assigns frequencies and communications
services for free-space radio propagation.
Federal Communications Commission ( FCC )
40
Chapter 1: Introduction to Electronic Communications by Wayne Tomasi - Review Notes
41
Are signals in the 30Hz to 300Hz range and include ac power
distribution signals (60Hz) and low frequency telemetry signals.
Extremely Low
Frequencies ( ELF )
42
Are signals in the 300Hz to 3000Hz range and include
frequencies generally associated with human speech.
Voice Frequencies
( VF )
43
Are signals in the 3kHz to 30kHz range which include the upper
end of the human hearing range.
Very Low Frequencies
( VLF )
44
Are signals in the 30kHz to 300kHz range and are used
primarily for marine and aeronautical navigation.
Low Frequencies
( LF )
45
Are signals in the 300kHz to 3MHz range and are used primarily
for commercial AM radio broadcasting (535kHz-1605kHz).
Medium Frequencies
( MF )
46
Are signals in the 3MHz to 30MHz range and are often referred
to as short waves. Used for most two-way radio communications.
High Frequencies
( HF )
47
Are signals in the 30MHz to 300MHz range and are used for
mobile radio, marine and aeronautical communications, commercial FM
broadcasting (88 to 108 MHz) and commercial TV broadcasting of Ch 2 to 13
(54MHz to 216MHz).
Very High Frequencies
( VHF )
48
Are signals in the 300MHz to 3GHz range and are used by
commercial television broadcasting of channels 14 to 83, land mobile
communications services, cellular telephones, certain radar and navigation
systems, and microwave and satellite radio systems.
Ultrahigh Frequencies
( UHF )
49
Are signals in the 3GHz to 30GHz range and include the
majority of the frequencies used for microwave and satellite radio
communications systems.
Super High Frequencies
( SHF )
50
Are signals in the 30GHz to 300GHz range and are seldom used
for radio communications except in very sophisticated, expensive, and
specialized applications.
Extremely High Frequencies
( EHF )
51
Are signals in the 0.3THz to 300THz range and are not
generally referred to as radio waves. Used in heat seeking guidance systems,
electronic photography, and astronomy.
Infrared
52
Includes electromagnetic frequencies that fall within the
visible range of humans (0.3PHz to 3PHz).
Visible Light
53
Used for optical fiber systems.
Light-wave Communications
54
The length that one cycle of an electromagnetic wave occupies
in space (i.e., the distance between similar points in a repetitive wave).
Wavelength
55
Chapter 1: Introduction to Electronic Communications by Wayne Tomasi - Review Notes
56
Radio transmitter classifications according to bandwidth,
modulation scheme, and type of information.
Emission Classifications
57
Chapter 1: Introduction to Electronic Communications by Wayne Tomasi - Review Notes
� The first symbol is a letter that designates the type of
modulation of the main carrier.
� The second symbol is a number that identifies the type of
emission.
� The third symbol is another letter that describes the type
of information being transmitted.
58
The two most significant limitations on the performance of a
communications system are ________and ________.
Noise and Bandwidth
59
The difference between the highest and lowest frequencies
contained in the information.
Bandwidth
60
The bandwidth of a communications channel is the difference
between the highest and lowest frequencies that the channel will allow to
pass through it.
Passband
61
A highly theoretical study of the efficient use of bandwidth
to propagate information through electronic communications systems.
Information Theory
62
The measure of how much information can be propagated through
a communications system and is a function of bandwidth and transmission time.
Information Capacity
63
The most basic digital symbol used to represent information.
Binary Digit / Bit
64
The number of bits transmitted during one second and is
expressed in bits per second (bps).
Bit Rate
65
In 1928, R. Hartley of Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a
useful relationship among bandwidth, transmission time, and information
capacity.
Hartley�s Law
I � B x t
66
In 1948, mathematician Claude E. Shannon published a paper in
the Bell System Technical Journal relating the information capacity of a
communications channel to bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio.
Shannon limit for information capacity
Chapter 1: Introduction to Electronic Communications by Wayne Tomasi - Review Notes
67
Any undesirable electrical energy that falls within the
passband of the signal.
Electrical Noise
68
Noise present regardless of whether there is a signal present
or not.
Uncorrelated Noise
69
Noise that is generated outside the device or circuit.
External Noise
70
Noise that is naturally occurring electrical disturbances that
originate within Earth�s atmosphere.
Atmospheric Noise
71
Atmospheric noise is commonly called ____________.
Static Electricity
72
Noise consists of electrical signals that originate from
outside Earth�s atmosphere and is sometimes called deep-space noise.
Extraterrestrial Noise
73
Extraterrestrial noise is sometimes called ____________.
Deep-Space Noise
74
Noise generated directly from the sun�s heat.
Solar Noise
75
Noise sources that are continuously distributed throughout the
galaxies.
Cosmic Noise
76
Noise that is produced by mankind.
Man-made Noise
77
Electrical interference generated within a device or circuit.
Internal Noise
78
Noise caused by the random arrival of carriers (holes and
electrons) at the output element of an electronic device.
Shot Noise
79
Any modification to a stream of carriers as they pass from the
input to the output of a device produces an irregular, random variations.
Transit-time Noise
80
Associated with the rapid and random movement of electrons
within a conductor due to thermal agitation.
Thermal Noise
81
THERMAL AGITATION HAS SEVERAL NAMES,
INCLUDING :
� Thermal Noise, because it is temperature dependent;
� Brownian Noise, after its discoverer;
� Johnson Noise, after the man who related Brownian particle
movement of electron movement;
� White Noise, because the random movement is at all
frequencies;
82
Johnson proved that thermal noise power is proportional to the
product of bandwidth and temperature.
Noise Power
N = KTB
83
A form of internal noise that is correlated (mutually related)
to the signal and cannot be present in a circuit unless there is a signal. �
no signal, no noise! �
Correlated Noise
84
Occurs when unwanted harmonics of a signal are produced
through nonlinear amplification (nonlinear mixing).
Harmonic Distortion
85
The generation of unwanted sum and difference frequencies
produced when two or more signals mix in a nonlinear device.
Inter-modulation Distortion
86
The original signal and also called the fundamental frequency.
First Harmonic
87
A frequency two times the original signal frequency.
Second Harmonic
88
A frequency three times the original signal frequency.
Third Harmonic
89
Another name for harmonic distortion.
Amplitude Distortion
90
Characterized by high-amplitude peaks of short duration in the
total noise spectrum.
Impulse Noise
91
Chapter 1: Introduction to Electronic Communications by Wayne Tomasi - Review Notes
92
A form of external noise and as the name implies it means to
disturb or detract form.
Interference
93
Noise produced when information signals from one source
produce frequencies that fall outside their allocated bandwidth and interfere
with information signals from another source.
Electrical interference
94
The ratio of the signal power level to the noise power level.
Signal-to-Noise Power Ratio ( S/N )
Chapter 1: Introduction to Electronic Communications by Wayne Tomasi - Review Notes
95
Figures of merit used to indicate how much the signal �
to-noise ratio deteriorates as a signal passes through a circuit or series of
circuits
Noise Factor ( F )
and
Noise Figure ( NF )
96
Chapter 1: Introduction to Electronic Communications by Wayne Tomasi - Review Notes
97
FORMULA FOR NOISE FIGURE
NF ( dB ) = 10 log F
98
A convenient parameter often used rather than noise figure in
low noise, sophisticated VHF, UHF, microwave, and satellite radio receivers.
It indicates the reduction in the signal-to-noise ratio a signal undergoes as
it propagates through a receiver.
Equivalent Noise Temperature
( Te )
Te = T ( F � 1 )
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Electronic Communications Time Line
1830: American Scientist and professor Joseph
Henry transmitted the first practical electrical signal.
1837: Samuel Finley Breese Morse invented the
telegraph.
1843: Alexander Bain invented the facsimile.
1861: Johann Phillip Reis completed
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3
Electronic Communications Time Line
1830: American Scientist and professor Joseph
Henry transmitted the first practical electrical signal.
1837: Samuel Finley Breese Morse invented the
telegraph.
1843: Alexander Bain invented the facsimile.
1861: Johann Phillip Reis completeded to drive dc machines from the three-phase
supply. Four-quadrant applications, using voltage-source
PWM rectifiers, are extended for induction machines,
synchronous machines with starting control, and special
machines such as brushless-dc motors. Back-to-back systems
are being used in Japan to link power systems of different
frequencies.
12.3.5.1 Active Power Filter
Force-commutated PWM rectifiers can work as active power
filters. The voltage-source current-controlled rectifier has the
capability to eliminate harmonics produced by other poSmallpdf logo
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