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This paper examines the problems and prospect of commercial property management in
Nasarawa, Nasarawa State, Nigeria. Data for the study were obtained from property
managers in licensed Estate Surveying and Valuation Firms operating in Maiduguri
Metropolis. Thus, purposive random sampling technique adopted in selecting all the [eight
(8)] active Estate Surveying and Valuation firms and duly analysed using tables and
percentages. The challenges identified include: default in rent payment(100%), delinquency
maintenance payment/service charge by tenants (94%), insufficient information on tenants to
aid in tenant selection (90%), vacation of premises by tenants without notice (87%),
improper use of available facilities by tenants in the premises (84%), insistence on down-
ward review of rent by tenants (81%), sneaking in extra people or animals by tenants (71%),
carrying out of illegal business by tenants (68%), illegal occupation of premises by IDPs
(65%), fighting or domestic dispute among tenants (61%),constraint in inspection of premises
due to tenant behaviours (58%) and difficulty in payment of commission on part of the tenant
(39%). It is suggested that there is the need for the property manager to take enough time to
find out some basic information about the prospective tenant; and should establish and
review from time to time standards or criteria for tenant selection as the situation demands.
1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
affecting the parties arising from ownership and occupation of buildings. It is a conscious
process of guiding and tailoring an investment in land into profitable venture. Its main
concern is the optimization of the owners investment (Scarrett, 1995).The practice is however
prone to a lot of problems which are capable of preventing or at best reducing the chances of
realizing anticipated investment objective. In other words, the achievement or success of the
art of nursing and directing an investment in landed property with a view to obtaining
maximum return is a function of how well a property manager is able to effectively prevent
and/or overcome seeming obstacles in the course of the discharge of its duties.
property manager advises the client concerning the general client policy regarding
cooperation and compensation and as to the best and appropriate choice of tenants for the
building. He takes decision on the best term of lease arrangement and appropriate terms of
renewal. In addition to being aware of pending or enacted changes in the zoning ordinance
that might affect the market value or use of property being managed, he should be informed
regulations, public policies and current market conditions. Property managers seem to be of
more relevant in the current economic dispensation. The global collapse of the capital market
with its attendants effects, which has not spared African countries like Nigeria, are seen to be
compelling investors to redirect their investment ventures into real estate, especially with
2
These are properties acquired for the purposes of yielding regular inflow of income to
investors. Commercial properties are often relatively large and complex buildings some of
which are multi-storeyed or high rise type. The complexity involved in terms of the bigness
of the structure and diverse and multiple occupants informed the need for specialized skill
The many and varied duties of a property manager require the skills of a business executive,
accountant, banker, doctor, lawyer, social director, psychologist, marriage counselor, baby
sitter, bookkeeper, rent collector, maintenance expert, security officer, keeper of the keys,
telephone operator, messenger service, and complaint department. available The manager
minded, all-knowing and never-ailing. This “expert” knows how to visit without visiting, sell
without selling, see without judging, hear without repeating - and all without having time for
an uninterrupted meal. The property manager has a dual responsibility: to the owner or client
who is interested in the highest return from the property; and to the tenants, who are
interested in the best value for their money, including reasonable safety measures and
Property management, according to Scarett (1995) must be based on the terms of the
contractual agreement between the parties on the one hand, on an appreciation and
interpretation of the particular owners objective on the other hand. This thus requires a high
degree of compliance with the provisions and terms as well as performance on the part of the
parties. The in-ability of any of the parties to perform fully or in part his/her own part of the
3
operations of property management activities. Depending on the magnitude of the problems,
ineffective service delivery could bring about client dissatisfaction as well as prevent the
achievement of the owners’ investment objective(s). The ‘expert’ property manager could
i. To identify commercial property investors feelings toward the collapsing of the stock
market?
expectation.
iii. To spelt out how investors are be encouraged to invest in commercial real estate.
iv. To ascertain the problems arising from commercial property management that might
Nasarawa State, Nigeria with a view to enhancing the practice and develop a
i. Are commercial property investors encourage with the collapsing of the stock market?
ii. What degree would the achievement of investors objective be relative to the projected
expectation.
iii. To what extent would investors be encouraged to invest in commercial real estate?
4
iv. What are the problems arising from commercial property management that might
State, Nigeria with a view to enhancing the practice and develop a profitable
This research work would be of great importance and relevant as a source of information
which will guide the general public, both private and corporate individuals in quest for
commercial property in Nigeria, particularly, It will also serves as reference material to both
students and researchers alike of various institutions seeking for knowledge on the main goal
of this work.
The scope of this study is restricted to the study of the commercial property management in
As related to this research work, the following are some of the problems encountered in the
Time factor: Due to the short period of time given to carry out this research coupled with the
class work, it was very hectic to make in depth research of the study.
Inadequate Finance: The poor economic condition of the country did not help matter for
instance; transportation cost is on the high side coupled with the fact that there is no enough
5
1.7 Operational Definition of Terms
Land: Surface and solid part of the earth or a partitionable and measurable area which is
Commercial Property: Commercial property is buildings and land that are intended for
directing and controlling, and the application of these principles in harnessing physical,
organizational goals.
6
CHAPTER TWO
2.1 Introduction
The property management services sector in the real estate industry is significant or a very
useful and growing economic activity contributing to creation of wealth and generation of
employment in the society. A study conducted by Case, Quigley, and Shiller, (2005); and
Dietz, and Haurin, (2003) indicated that property management contributes not only to income
and wealth creation but also enhances societal happiness by increasing the rate of
and material resources with the aim of achieving defined objectives in real property
investment(Aliyu, Funtua, Mammadi, Bukar, Garkuwa, and Abubakar, 2016). The individual
that provides these range of services is the property manager (Nwachukwu, 2007).
The property manager is a person or firm who operates a real estate property for a fee often
on behalf of a landlord; renders services such as, meeting an owner's investment objectives;
maintaining detailed tenancy records; ensuring adherence to lease terms; tenant liaison on a
day-to-day basis; meeting statutory obligations; and operating property on a sustainable basis
(The Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors, 2018). They render services in both public
and private sectors on behalf of property owners(Taylor, 2014). This suggest that a property
manager carries out a wide range of discussion, negotiation and consultation with clients,
public.Hence, they encounter numerous challenges that come with managing the portfolio in
7
With 1,434,149 Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs)due to Boko-Haram insurgency(IDMC,
population growth. A sizeable number of these IDPs are not in government designated
camps, there are those that afford renting private residential properties, others inhabit
school’s buildings or sleep in the open. While others illegally occupying newly completed
and in the outskirts of the Metropolis. The property managers’ challenges have become even
Olayonwa (2000), that property management is all facets of the use, development and
management of urban land, including the sale, purchase and letting of residential, commercial
and industrial property and management of urban estates, and advice to the client on
planning. Whilst, Yiu, Wong and Yau (2006), viewed it as a branch of the management
discipline, which emphasizes how to plan, organize, command, coordinate, and control
value-added services to achieve designated objectives. Similarly, Case et, al. (2005); and
Dietz, and Haurin, (2003) also indicated that property management contributes to income and
wealth creation; and that enhances societal happiness by increasing the rate of
homeownership.
Furthermore, Aliyu et, al. (2016) viewed property management as the careful organization of
individual and material resources with the aim of attaining defined objectives in real property
investment. It is seen by Macey (1982) as the application of skill in caring for the property,
its surroundings and amenities and in developing a sound relationship between landlord and
8
tenant and between tenants themselves in order that the estate, as well as the individual
houses, may give the fullest value to both the landlord and the tenants. Upholding this view,
Oladokun and Ojo (2011) viewed it as an undertaking that involves diligence, commitment
and special skills for its practice, but its effective utilization also ensures the optimization of
the investment return to the owner. Effective property management is therefore difficult to
realize without consideration of a professional; in the light of the current development and
growth of urban centres and government policies on landed property issues in Nigeria that led
Hence, there is the need for well trained and experienced specialists for greater efficiency in
property management.
A property can be managed by the owner, but technically the owner will not be addressed as
property manager (Udechukwu and Johnson, 2016). This assertion is confirmed from the
description given by the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (2018), that the property
manager is a person or organization who operates a real estate property for a fee often on
behalf of a landlord; renders services such as, meeting an owner's investment objectives;
maintaining detailed tenancy records; ensuring adherence to lease terms; tenant liaison on a
day-to-day basis; meeting statutory obligations; and operating property on a sustainable basis.
In other words, the manager is responsible for the selling, leasing, transferring and operating
of real estate property. They act as links between different individuals involved with the real
estate industry and ensure hitch-free operations and transfers of real estate in both public and
private sectors (Taylor, 2014). Therefore, the` property manager carries out a wide range of
discussion, negotiation and consultation with clients, fellow professionals, allied trades,
9
2.4 Functions of Property Manager
independent manager for a number of owners. This saddled with them a primary
responsibility to the landlord and a secondary responsibility to the tenant (Udechukwu and
Johnson, 2016). The managers’ relationship with the landlord and tenant go a long way in
establishing their (landlord and tenant) expectations to the lease as both will pursue and
expect a number of rights and benefits (Modu, Ibrahim and Habib, 2010). This assertion is
similar to Udechukwu and Johnson (2016), which noted that the property manager’s foremost
priority is ensuring that the specific real estate property is handled and managed as effectively
as possible; and that responsible for managing other property workers to aid them in
From the foregoing, the property managers’ duties as the agent of the owner can be
activities and tenant services. Although, these responsibilities are geared towards preservation
and increasing the value of the property, achieving it presents different challenges to the
property manager. This is because property managers operate in a dynamic environment that
sometimes insurgency. It is in this vain that Drucker (2001) and Montana and Charnov
(2008) observed that the challenges facing by the property manager are a natural part of the
process of managing and are in most time situational, effective responses to such challenges
However, there exists no prior research in the literature that addresses the general challenges
10
developing economy like Nigeria. A closely related paper is the work of Gbadegesin and Ojo
(2011), who assessed the ethics extant in the practice of property management within
metropolitan Ibadan of Nigeria and established the necessity to shift the practice emphasis on
quality and ethical conduct; and that the statutorily recognized property managers are still
(2011) examined real estate investment through proper tenant selection in Nigeria and
suggests that an application of a scorecard will reduce the incidence of bad tenancy and
enable investors to derive value from investment in real estate. Oladokun and Ojo (2011)
seeks to identify the factors that are responsible for the incursion of non-professionals into
property management practice in Nigeria and found out that the contributory factors in their
perceived order of importance include high income derivable from property management
practice, provision of unsatisfactory and less than standard service by estate surveyors, lack
of confidence by clients on the estate surveyor to evict erring tenants and shortage of
qualified personnel properties; and that there is money to be made by high-quality companies
From the above review, most of the studies dwelled on a certain aspect of property
management there exists no prior research in the literature that addresses the general
Metropolis where there is high demand for properties as a result of influx of IDPs from other
local government areas of the state due to the activities of Boko Haram insurgents.
Similarly, Oladokun and Aluko (2014) examined dispute resolution in corporate multi-
tenanted property management in Lagos International Trade Fair Complex, Nigeria and found
out that there often existed disputes and when it occurs, the common reaction is for them to
alert other users of the building; and that the methods of dispute resolution adopted are
arbitration, mediation, conciliation and litigation but the most commonly adopted method is
11
arbitration. Another related study is the work of Taylor (2014) which investigated the
experiences of property managers operating in the small open economy of Jamaica. The focus
of the paper was to provide insights into the nature of management challenges experienced by
property managers and their responses to those challenges. Li (2014) conducted a study on
the value of property management services and found out that property management does add
Dant and Lavers (1993) evaluated the duties of commercial managing agents from medieval
times. In a general review of literature, the author traced the origin of General Practice
contemporary and highly industrialized society. Tarbet (1996) evaluated the historical view
of commercial property as a good hedge against inflation and acknowledge that results of
empirical studies have, over the years, being unable to substantiate this belief. While noting
the persistency of the belief over the years, the author introduced a method of co-integration
as a long term method of testing for a long term hedging relationship to establish that
commercial property is not a consistent long run against inflation. Booth and Matysiak (1996)
examined the role of property in pension fund pre and post minimum funding requirement.
The study found that the role of property has declined partly due to poor performance and
also because there are other asset categories that can perform the role that property is playing.
Li (1997) examined the opportunities and problems in property management in China. The
author highlighted staffing and training as major problems that could threaten effective
property management practice. Apart from the fact that the study was carried out in the
context of developed countries such as China with different business environment, the study
lacked empirical evidence and did not focus on the practice of commercial property
12
management in developing countries like Nigeria. The same argument can be said of Chin
and Poh (1999)’s work which examined property management industry’s attitude in
public sector bodies face in joint planning to develop and share facilities and property
services and how they overcame them were discussed. Christudason (2008) examined the
corporations for strata property management until 2005 as a basis for a discussion of the
corporations. The study found that while the multi-tier system could alleviate some of the
problems existing under the single-tier management corporation system, other problems
could arise; these include increased operational costs, finding sufficient volunteers for the
Commercial property can be an excellent investment, but the responsibilities involved are
substantial. An individual would need to have a great deal of time and possess a wide range
that minimizes associated costs. The many difficulties have driven countless commercial
property owners to discover the benefits of hiring reliable property management services. The
following are just a few of the challenges of do-it-yourself commercial property management.
Finances
The numerous financial aspects of managing commercial property include figuring out the
amount of rent to charge. A great deal of research is needed to strike the perfect balance
13
between maximizing profits and keeping the vacancy rate low. Handling the finances also
It’s essential to become familiar with applicable local, state, and federal real estate
investment laws. Failure to comply with tax and other regulatory requirements could lead to
costly penalties and fees. There are many different types of regulations, such as fair housing
issues, including considerations for individuals with disabilities. Staying on the right side of
Screening Tenants
There are potential risks involved in choosing tenants for your property. Leasing your
commercial property to the best tenants will save you time, money, and countless headaches.
Tenant screening isn’t always easy, however. Making the mistake of approving one tenant
who isn’t a good fit can have a long-term effect. It can be extremely difficult to terminate a
Tenant Retention
The primary reason to get tenant screening right is, arguably, the fact that tenant turnover is
costly. The goal is to have a high level of tenant retention. But how is that achieved? Superior
service is required, to keep tenants satisfied and to ensure that they want to stay.
Managing Vendors
A fact of life with commercial property is that maintenance and repairs are needed. The
management must deal with the constant demands of vendor management of various types of
needed services.
14
.
Most of the empirical studies have been limited to the traditional practice of property
management and carried out in advanced countries with dissimilar cultural and socio-
economic climate from African countries like Nigeria. Examples include Li (1997),Chin and
Poh (1999), Han and Lim (2001),Lai (2006), Yiu, et al (2005), Blackwell(2007) and Andrew
et al (2008). A number of these studies focused on examining the principles and practice of
property management (Lia, 2005). Touch Ross & Co(1983) and Institute of Real Estate
Management (1991) provided a general direction and development guidelines for property
In a similar study, Han and Lim (2001) examined the use of computers in Singapore property
indicators (GIs) with real property valuation and management. Also, researchers such as Yiu,
et al (2005) and Lai(2005) examined the study via the roles of property management from an
that none of them have paid detailed attention to problems of commercial property
management practice. The work of Oladokun (2010) examined the preparedness of Nigerian
real estate practitioners for sustainable property management practice. The study focused on
enlightening professionals about the global adoption of green building as a means to ensure
15
In summary, there is lack of empirical evidence about the problems of commercial property
management practice in emerging markets like Nigeria. The study is therefore significant
more so that the recent collapse of the capital market now compels local and foreign investors
to re direct investment into real estate. This no doubt, will build confidence in foreign
investors who are likely considering tapping the investment opportunities in the emerging
Nigerian market. Lastly, the result of the study is expected to be a guide to professionals and
policy makers in other African countries towards the development of appropriate framework
16
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
The methodology used in attaining the stated aim and objectives of the study was described
in this section. To examined relevant methodological approaches adopted in the study. The
main focus was on the target population, sample size, sampling techniques, data collection
instrument, method of data analysis and presentation. The essence of this is to have an
understanding of data collection process as providing basis for data collection and
presentation.
In the course of this study, the researcher adopted the survey research design. The survey
research method was employed because it involves collection of data to objectively describe
determining the nature of the effects of slum as they affect commercial property management
This study covers the problems and prospect of commercial property management in
17
3.4 Population and sample size
The target population comprises of registered Estate Surveying and Valuation Firms
operating in Maiduguri Metropolis. This is because the Estate Surveyors and Valuers Act No
hus, purposive random sampling technique adopted in selecting all the senior staff including
the head of practice of each of the eight (8) active Estate Surveying and Valuation firms in
Nasarawa, Nasarawa state. The choice for this sampling technique is not unconnected with
the number of existing firms in the study area and to ensure obtaining adequate information
to assist in a better understanding of the phenomenon under study. Out of the forty (40)
questionnaires administered, thirty-one (31) were able to retrieve and this represented 78% of
the total questionnaire administered which is considered adequate for the study. The collected
Various methods where use in collecting data for this research work, method used are shown
below
2. Personal interview: interview sessions were held with the community head,
mentioning that interview as were responsible for the bulk of detailed information
18
3.7 Method of Data Analysis
Data collected from this research is presented in statistical tables. This descriptive method
19
CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 Introduction
This chapter aim at analysis data collected from the respondents and direct interview gotten
from the research. The section focuses on the data analysis of the work and presentation.
This implies that most of the firms had the required years of practice that will guaranteed
National Diploma 2 6
Bachelor Degree 7 23
Master Degree 1 6
Total 30 100
One of the most important profiles of the respondent was educational qualification (Table 1),
a sizeable number (65%) of the respondents holds Higher National Diploma (HND), while
20
Table 2: Professional status of respondents
Probatiner 7 23
ANIVS 23 77
FNIVS 0 0
Total 30 100
This suggests that the respondents obtained the requisite academic and professional
qualifications that will enable them to effectively provide the required answers to the
questions in the survey and validates the reliability of the data obtained for the study.
Moreover, as the Estate Surveyors and Valuers Act No 24 of 1975 empowered Practicing
Estate surveyors and valuers to manage property in Nigeria, many firms are fully involved in
property management practice. For instance, 52% of the firms surveyed involved in property
management practice.
practice
Property Management 16 52
Facilitates Management 4 6
Property Valuation 3 3
Estate Agency 7 23
Total 30 100
21
These areas of specialization was chosen as a result of the firms’ frequency in rendering of
these services in the study area. In addition to firms’ involvement in property management,
majority of the firms were established over ten (10) years. For instance, 3% indicated
practicing for over twenty years, 29% indicated sixteen to twenty years,39% indicated eleven
to fifteen years of practice, while 23% and 6% indicated six to seven and one to five years of
practice respectively.
Residential 15 48
Commercial (shop/shopping 10 32
complex)
Accommodation 3 10
Industrial 2 23
Public Properties 1 3
Total 30 100
Table 5 revealed the common types of properties under the firms’ management portfolio and
the level of involvement in property management. For instance, 48% of the sampled firms
indicated that residential property recorded the highest in their management portfolio. This is
followed by shops/shopping complex, industrial properties and public properties (32%, 10%,
22
Table 6: Challenges of Property manager with respect to tenants’ attitudes
charge by tenants
tenant behaviours
the tenant
selection)
in the premises
The study sought to find out the challenges to problem and prospect of commercial property
management in Nasarawa, Nasarawa State, Nigeria. Questions were put to the respondents in
order to determine those challenges. Although, the list contained in the questionnaire is not
23
exhaustive of the entire range of the challenges, it covered the most significant number of
reveals that default in rent payment (100%) is the most challenging factor. This is not
unconnected with the economic situation of the study area as crippled by the kidnappers
insurgents and the class of the existing tenants. The implication of this is that since one of the
objectives for letting a property is to earn income in way of rent, where this is not attainable
as at when due, the investment goal of the property investor is defeated and that there will
94% are of the view that delinquency maintenance payment/service charge by tenants is also
a challenge to the property manager. This findings collaborates earlier findings by Taylor
(2013) which revealed that among the major challenges of the property manager is
information on tenants to aid in tenant selection remains a challenge to the manager. The
implication of this is that insufficient information on tenant may lead to unruliness on part of
the tenant as soon as they take possession of the accommodation units. Another challenge
tenants without notice. This may also be attributed to insufficient information on tenants. In
addition to vacation of premises by tenants without notice is the issue of improper use of
available facilities by tenants in the premises (84%). This is not unconnected with the
background of some of the tenants. Some of these tenants came in to the study area as a result
of kidnappers insurgency in the rural areas as observed during the field survey. This however
implies that there will be improper use of the facilities by these category of tenants as they
24
may not be familiar with some of these facilities which in the long run affects the functional
Insistence on down-ward review of rent by tenants (81%) is another challenge to the property
manager. This response is not different from the views sought during the interview held with
some landlords. The economic recession and activities of the insurgents in the study area has
immensely contributed to this review pressure. This poses a challenge to the manager as the
income from the property may not be enough to ensure smooth running of the property. In the
same vein, sneaking in extra people or animals by tenants (71%) is another challenge noted
by the respondents. This finding is in agreement with the physical inspection of properties
carried out, where relatives and all sort of domesticated animals belonging to tenants were
found loitering the premises. This implies that more pressure will be exerted to the available
The results of the study also revealed that 68%carrying out unauthorized business. This is
also a constraint to effective property management as indicated by the respondents. This view
is similar to the findings sought during personal observation and physical inspection of
properties. For instance, some grinding machines and power generators belonging to tenants
were seen in some of the properties. The implication of this is nuisance and noise pollution to
the immediate neighbours which may eventually lead to lose of existing and potential tenants.
challenge. This is also consistent with the personal observation made during the field survey
where a sizeable number of these IDPs were seen illegally occupying newly completed and
implication of this is that the manager may lose income and incur additional cost of
25
Other challenges indicated by the respondents include: fighting or domestic dispute among
difficulty in payment of commission on part of the tenant (39%). These findings are
consistent with the outcome of past studies by Olawande (2011),Udechukwu and Johnson
(2016), Modu et, al. (2010) and Taylor (2014) on the challenges of property manager which
show that the manager encounter challenges such as dispute among tenants, constraint in
getting access to the premises for inspection and problem of payment of fees.
The respondents were asked to rank on a 5point likert scale what they considered are
maintenance problems and thirdly electricity/plumbing needs. Tenants who are made to pay
rents that are considered too high as at the time of taking possession naturally become
difficult while in occupation and often tend to be uncooperative. Since such tenants are
compelled to pay the initial high rents as a means of meeting their needs they tend to be
difficult and hence pose major management problems. They often refuse to pay subsequent
rents and where they pay, rents are not paid as at when due. The second most important factor
where a tenant comes into possession without the landlord effecting repairs left behind by the
immediate past tenant. When such a tenant bear the cost of repairs on his own, he apparently
continues in occupation not being happy and automatically tends to be unnecessarily difficult.
The third high ranked factor is closely related to the above. Where electricity/plumbing needs
of a tenant is not met owing to inherited accumulated bills, the result is that the tenant
becomes difficult and will likely put up behaviors that will make property management
unattractive. Other high ranked factors are cash flow requirements and high cost of
26
construction. Where property agents do not meet up with agreed time for rent disbursement;
this generates rancor and distrust with the property owner. Also, where the time and
frequency of rent collections are at variance with the landlords’ expectation, unsmoothen
27
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 Introduction
The attempt in this Chapter is to draw inferences from the data analysis and elucidate the
findings using a format that is constructive and beneficial for policy implementations. This is
followed by recommendations and concluding comments, while attempt is also made towards
5.2 Conclusion
As the property management services sector in the real estate industry contributes to creation
of wealth and generation of employment in the society, the study showed a number of
challenges face by the property manager. Most of these challenges attributed to low
tenants. This is because as the study revealed many of the potential tenants are IDPs from the
Kidnappers insurgency affected areas of the state and are always desperate in securing
consequential effect of this is loss of income and increasing maintenance cost to the property
manager. Therefore, the objective of the investment is defeated if proper measures are not put
in place.
5.3 Recommendations
The following recommendations has been made based on the findings of the study:-
property. Hence there is the need for the property manager to take enough time to find
28
out some basic information about the tenant. This will assist in curtailing problems
ii. In addition to obtaining tenant information, standards or criteria for tenant selection
must be established and strictly adhered to and should be reviewed from time to time
as situation demands.
iii. Public enlightenment campaign should be embark on by the state branches of the
tenancy/lease agreement and the need to employ the services of the property manager
or real estate agents on any matter regarding land and landed properties through mass
media. This will go a long way in assisting both the tenants and landlords to
iv. There is the need for the enforcement of attendance of Mandatory Continuous
enhance improved professional practice in the study area and the country at large.
29
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