Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
•The safe and efficient operation of any aircraft is
greatly dependent upon the correct selection and use
of aircraft hardware.
• The methods are used to hold metal parts together
by hardware as follows:
a) riveting,
b) bolting,
c) brazing, and
d) welding.
A/C HARDWARE IDENTIFICATION
•The aircraft hardware is identified by its
specification number or trade name.
•Threaded fasteners and rivets are usually
identified by AN (Air ForceNavy), NAS (National
Aircraft Standard), or MS (Military Standard)
numbers.
•Quickrelease fasteners are usually identified
by factory trade names and size designation.
THREADED FASTENER(BOLTS AND
SCREWS)
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BOLT AND SCREW:
The threaded end of a bolt is always blunt while
that of a screw may be either blunt or pointed.
The threaded end of a bolt usually has a nut
screwed onto it to complete the assembly.
The threaded end of a screw may fit into a female
receptacle, or it may fit directly into the
material being secured.
contd.
Differences between Bolt and
Screw:
A bolt has a fairly short threaded section
and a comparatively long grip length or
unthreaded portion; whereas a screw has a
longer threaded section and may have no
clearly defined grip length.
A bolt assembly is generally tightened by
turning the nut on the bolt.
The head of the bolt may or may not be
designed for turning. A screw is always
tightened by turning its head.
GRIP LENGTH
NOMINAL
LENGTH
DIFERENT DIMENSIONS OF BOLTS
Classification of Threads
Aircraft bolts, screws, and nuts are threaded in the :
• NC (American National Coarse) thread series.
• NF (American National Fine) thread series.
• UNC (American Standard Unified Coarse) thread series.
• UNF (American Standard Unified Fine) thread series.
Classification of Threads
•One difference between the American National
series and the American Standard Unified series:
• The 1inch diameter size, the NF thread
specifis14 threads per inch (114 NF), while the
UNF thread specifies 12 threads per inch (112
UNF).
•For example, a 428 thread indicates that a 1⁄4
inch (4⁄16 inch) diameter bolt has 28 threads in 1
inch of its threaded length.
Class of fit
•Threads are also designated by Class of fit. The
Class of a thread indicates the tolerance allowed in
manufacturing.
a) Class 1 is a loose fit b) Class 2 is a free fit c)
Class 3 is a medium fit d) Class 4 is a close fit.
•Aircraft bolts are almost always manufactured in
the Class 3, medium fit.
Class of fit
•A Class 4 fit requires a wrench to turn the nut onto
a bolt, whereas a Class 1 fit can easily be turned
with the fingers.
• Aircraft screws are manufactured with a Class 2
thread fit for ease of assembly.
Bolts and nuts are also produced with righthand
and lefthand threads. A righthand thread tightens
when turned clockwise; a lefthand thread tightens
when turned counterclockwise.
SpecialPurpose Bolts
SpecialPurpose Bolts:
• Bolts designed for a particular application or use are
classified as specialpurpose bolts.
• Clevis bolts, eyebolts, Jobolts, and lock bolts are
specialpurpose bolts.
AN EYE
BOLT
Eye bolts
• This type of special purpose bolt is used
where external tension loads are to be
applied.
• The eyebolt is designed for the attachment
of such devices as the fork of a turnbuckle, a
clevis, or a cable shackle.
• The threaded end may or may not be
drilled for safe tying.
CLEVIS BOLT
Clevis Bolts
• THE HEAD OF A CLEVIS BOLT IS ROUND (DOME
SHAPE) AND IS EITHER SLOTTED TO RECEIVE A
COMMON SCREWDRIVER OR RECESSED TO
RECEIVE A CROSS POINT SCREWDRIVER.
• THIS TYPE OF BOLT IS USED ONLY WHERE
SHEAR LOADS OCCUR AND NEVER IN TENSION. IT
IS OFTEN INSERTED AS A MECHANICAL PIN IN A
CONTROL SYSTEM.
•DOME(ROUND) SHAPE HEAD HAS A SLOTTED OR
RECESSED DESIGN AND A PLUS SIGN INDICATE
CLEVIS BOLT
Aircraft Bolts
Aircraft bolts are fabricated from cadmium or zinc plated
corrosion resistant steel, unplated corrosion resistant steel,
or anodized aluminum alloys.
Most bolts used in aircraft structures are either
a) General purpose, AN bolt
b) NAS internal wrenching
c) Close tolerance bolts
d) MS bolts.
Aircraft Bolts
Special bolts are usually identified by the letter “S”
stamped on the head.
AN bolts come in three head styles—Hex head bolt,
Clevis bolt, and Eye bolt.
NAS bolts are available in hex head, internal wrenching,
and countersunk head styles.
MS bolts come in Hex head and Internal wrenching
styles.
General Purpose Bolts
The hex head aircraft bolt (AN3 through AN20)
involving tension or shear loads where a light drive fit is
permissible.
Alloy steel bolts smaller than No. 1032 and aluminum
alloy bolts smaller than 1⁄4 inch in diameter are not used
in primary structures.
Aluminum alloy bolts and nuts are not used where they
will be repeatedly removed for purposes of maintenance
and inspection.
General Purpose Bolts
Aluminum alloy nuts may be used with cadmium
plated steel bolts loaded in shear on land airplanes, but
are not used on seaplanes due to the increased
possibility of dissimilar metal corrosion.
The AN73 drilled head bolt is similar to the standard
hex bolt, but has a deeper head which is drilled to
receive wire for safe tying.
The AN3 and the AN73 series bolts are
interchangeable, for all practical purposes, from the
standpoint of tension and shear strengths.
CLOSE TOLERANCE BOLT
Close Tolerance Bolts
This type of bolt is machined more accurately than the general
purpose bolt.
Close tolerance bolts may be hex headed (AN173 through AN186)
or
Have a 100° countersunk head (NAS80 through NAS86). They are
used in applications where a tight drive fit is required.
The bolt will move into position only when struck with a 12 to 14
ounce hammer.
Internal (Hex head)Wrenching Bolts
These bolts, (MS20004 through MS20024 or NAS495)
are fabricated from highstrength steel and are suitable for
use in both tension and shear applications.
When they are used in steel parts, the bolt hole must be
slightly countersunk to seat the large corner radius of the
shank at the head.
In Dural material, a special heattreated washer must be
used to provide an adequate bearing surface for the head.
contd.
Internal (Hex head)Wrenching Bolts
The head of the internal wrenching bolt is recessed to
allow the insertion of an internal wrench when installing or
removing the bolt.
Special highstrength nuts are used on these bolts.
Replace an internal wrenching bolt with another internal
wrenching bolt.
Standard AN hex head bolts and washers cannot be
substituted for them as they do not have the required
strength.
Identification and Coding
Bolts can be identified by the shape of the head, method
of securing, material used in fabrication, or the expected
usage.
ANtype aircraft bolts can be identified by the code
markings on the bolt heads.
The markings generally denote the bolt manufacturer, the
material of which the bolt is made, and whether the bolt is a
standard ANtype or a special purpose bolt
AN standard steel bolts are marked with either a raised
dash or asterisk.
Identification and Coding
Corrosion resistant steel is indicated by a single raised
dash.
AN aluminum alloy bolts are marked with two raised
dashes.
Close tolerance NAS bolts are marked with either a
raised or recessed triangle.
Bolts inspected magnetically (Magnaflux) or by
florescent means (Zyglo) are identified by means of colored
lacquer, or a head marking of a distinctive type.
Additional information, such as bolt diameter, bolt
length, and grip length may be obtained from the bolt part
number.
A bolt part number AN3DD5A,
• The “AN” designates that it is an Air ForceNavy Standard bolt,
the “3” indicates the diameter in sixteenths of an inch ( 3⁄16), the
“DD” indicates the material is 2024 aluminum alloy.
• The letter “C” in place of the “DD” would indicate corrosion
resistant steel.
• The absence of the letters would indicate cadmium plated steel.
• The “5” indicates the length in eighths of an inch (5⁄8).
• The “A” indicates that the shank is undrilled. If the letter “H”
preceded the “5” in addition to the “A” following it (AN 5 C H 7 A)
the head would be drilled for safe tying.
PULL STUMP BLIND
TYPE TYPE TYPE
DIFFERENT TYPES OF LOCK BOLTS
Lock bolts
Lock bolts are used to attach two materials permanently.
They are lightweight and are equal in strength to standard bolts.
Lock bolts are manufactured by several companies and conform to
Military Standards.
Military Standards specify the size of a lock bolt’s head in relation to
the shank diameter, plus the alloy used in its construction.
The only drawback to lock bolt installations is that they are not easily
removable compared to nuts and bolts.
The lock bolt combines the features of a highstrength bolt and rivet,
but it has advantages over both.
•The lock bolt is generally used in wing splice fittings,
landing gear fittings, fuel cell fittings, longerons, beams,
skin splice plates, and other major structural attachments.
•It is more easily and quickly installed than the
conventional rivet or bolt and eliminates the use of lock
washers, cotter pins, and special nuts.
•Like the rivet, the lock bolt requires a pneumatic hammer
or “pull gun” for installation; when installed, it is rigidly and
permanently locked in place.
•Three types of lock bolts are commonly used: the pull
type, the stump type, and the blind type.
Common features:
Common features of the three types of lock bolts are
the annular locking grooves on the pin and the locking collar
which is swaged into the pin’s lock grooves to lock the pin in
tension.
The pins of the pull and blindtype lock bolts are extended for
pull installation.
The extension is provided with pulling grooves and a tension
break off groove.
Composition:
The pins of pull and stumptype lock bolts are made of
heattreated alloy steel or high strength aluminum alloy.
Companion collars are made of aluminum alloy or mild steel.
The blind lock bolt consists of a heattreated alloy steel pin,
blind sleeve and filer sleeve, mild steel collar, and carbon steel
washer.
Substitution:
Alloy steel lock bolts may be used to replace steel high
shear rivets, solid steel rivets, or AN bolts of the same
diameter and head type.
Aluminum alloy lock bolts may be used to replace solid
aluminum alloy rivets of the same diameter and head
type. Steel and aluminum alloy lock bolts may also be
used to replace steel and 2024T aluminum alloy bolts,
respectively, of the same diameter.
Blind lock bolts may be used to replace solid aluminum
alloy rivets, stainless steel rivets, or all blind rivets of the
same diameter.
Grip Range: To determine the bolt grip range
required for any application, measure the
thickness of the materials with a hook scale
inserted through the hole. Once this measurement
is determined, select the correct grip range by
referring to the charts provided by the rivet
manufacturer.
When installed, the lock bolt collar should be
swaged substantially throughout the complete
length of the collar. The tolerance of the broken
end of the pin relative to the top of the collar must
be within the dimensions.
GRIP RANGE CHART
Grip Range Grip Range
Grip Grip
No. No.
Min. Max. Min. Max.
33 2.031 2.094
PULL TYPE
PULL TYPE
•Pull type Lock bolts are used mainly in aircraft
primary and Secondary structures.
•They are installed very rapidly and have
approximately onehalf the weight of equivalent AN
steel bolts and nuts.
•A special pneumatic “pull gun” is required to install
this type of lock bolt.
•Installation can be accomplished by one person since
bucking is not required.
STAMP TYPE
Stump type
Stumptype lock bolts, although they do not
have the extended stem with pull grooves, are
companion fasteners to pulltype lock bolts.
They are used primarily where clearance will not
permit installation of the pulltype lock bolt.
A standard pneumatic riveting hammer (with a
hammer set attached for swaging the collar into
the pin locking grooves) and a bucking bar are
tools necessary for the installation of stumptype
lock bolts.
BLIND TYPE
Blind type
Blindtype lock bolts come as complete units or
assemblies.
They have exceptional strength and sheet pull
together characteristics.
Blind lock bolts are used where only one side of
the work is accessible and, generally, where it is
difficult to drive a conventional rivet.
This type of lock bolt is installed in the same
manner as the pulltype lock bolt.
Lock bolt Numbering system
Pulltype lock bolt ALPP H T 8 8
Stumptype lock bolt ALSF E 8 8
Blindtype lockbolt BL 8 4
Lock bolt collar LC C C
Pulltype lockbolt
ALPP H T 8 8
ALPP Head type Pan head
ACT509 = close tolerance
AN509 = Countersink head
ALPB = Brazier head
ALP509 = Standard AN509 Csink head
ALP426 = Standard AN426 Csink head
ALPP H T 8 8
H = Class of fit
H = holefilling (interference fit)
N = nonholefilling (clearance fit)
T = Pin Materials
E = 75ST6 aluminum alloy
T = heattreated alloy steel
8 = Body diameter in 32nds of an inch
8 = Grip length in 16ths of an inch
Blindtype lockbolt
BL 8 4
BL Blind Lock bolt
8 Diameter in 32nds of an inch
4 Grip length in 16ths of an inch, ± 1⁄32 inch
.
Lock bolt collar
LC C 8
LC Lock bolt collar
C Material
C = 24ST aluminum alloy (green color). Use with
heattreated alloy lock bolts only.
If, F = 61ST aluminum alloy (plain color). Use with
75ST aluminum alloy lock bolts only.
If, R = mild steel (cadmium plated). Use with heat
treated alloy steel lock bolts for high temperature
applications only.
8 Diameter of a pin in 32nds of an inch
Stumptype lock bolt
ALSF E 8 8
ALSF Head type
ASCT509 = close tolerance AN509 Csink head
ALSF = flat head type.
ALS509 = standard AN509 Csink head
ALS426 = standard AN426 Csink head
E = Pin materials
E = 75ST6 aluminum alloy
T = heattreated alloy steel
8 = Body diameter in 32nds of an inch
8 = Grip length in 16ths of an inch
JO BOLT
(JO – BOLT)
Jobolt is a trade name for an internally threaded three
piece rivet.
The Jobolt consists of three parts — a threaded steel
alloy bolt, a threaded steel nut, and an expandable stainless
steel sleeve.
The parts are factory preassembled.
As the Jobolt is installed, the bolt is turned while the nut is
held.
This causes the sleeve to expand over the end of the nut,
forming the blind head and clamping against the work.
When driving is complete, a portion of the bolt breaks off.
The high shear and tensile strength of the Jobolt makes it
suitable for use in cases of high stresses where some of
the other blind fasteners would not be practical.
Jobolts are often a part of the permanent structure of
late model aircraft.
They are used in areas which are not often subjected to
replacement or servicing. (Because it is a threepart
fastener, it should not be used where any part, in becoming
loose, could be drawn into the engine air intake.)
Other advantages of using Jobolts are their excellent
resistance to vibration, weight saving, and fast installation
by one person.
Presently, Jobolts are available in four diameters:
The 200 series, approximately 3⁄16 inch in diameter;
The 260 series, approximately 1⁄4 inch in diameter;
The 312 series, approximately 5⁄16 inch in diameter; and
The 375 series, approximately 3⁄8 inch in diameter.
Jobolts are available in three head styles which are: F
(flash), P (hex head), and FA (flush millable).
Aircraft nuts are made in a variety of shapes and sizes.
They are made of cadmium plated carbon steel, stainless steel, or
anodized 2024T aluminum alloy, and may be obtained with either right
or lefthand threads.
No identifying marking or lettering appears on nuts. They can be
identified only by the characteristic metallic luster or color of the
aluminum, brass, or the insert when the nut is of the selflocking type.
They can be further identified by their construction.
Aircraft nuts can be divided into two general groups: Nonselflocking
and selflocking nuts.
Nonselflocking nuts are those that must be safetied by external
locking devices, such as cotter pins, safety wire, or locknuts.
Selflocking nuts contain the locking feature as an integral part.
NON SELF LOCKING NUTS
NonSelfLocking Nuts:
Most of the familiar types of nuts, including the plain nut,
the castle nut, the castellated shear nut, the plain hex nut,
the light hex nut, and the plain check nut are the nonself
locking type.
The castle nut, AN310, is used with drilled shank AN hex
head bolts, clevis bolts, eyebolts, drilled head bolts, or
studs.
It is fairly rugged and can withstand large tensional loads.
Slots (called castellations) in the nut are designed to
accommodate a cotter pin or locking wire for safety.
The castellated shear nut, AN320, is designed for use with devices
(such as drilled clevis bolts and threaded taper pins) which are normally
subjected to shearing stress only.
Like the castle nut, it is castellated for safe tying.
Note, however, that the nut is not as deep or as strong as the castle
nut; also that the castellations are not as deep as those in the castle
nut.
The plain hex nut, AN315 and AN335 (fine and coarse thread), is of
rugged construction. This makes it suitable for carrying large tensional
loads.
However, since it requires an auxiliary locking device, such as a check
nut or lock washer, its use on aircraft structures is somewhat limited.
The light hex nut, AN340 and AN345 (fine and coarse thread), is
a much lighter nut than the plain hex nut and must be locked by
an auxiliary device. It is used for miscellaneous light tension
requirements.
The plain check nut, AN316, is employed as a locking device for
plain nuts, set screws, threaded rod ends, and other devices.
The wing nut, AN350, is intended for use where the desired
tightness can be obtained with the fingers and where the
assembly is frequently removed.
AN 310 , CASTLE NUT
SHEAR CASTELLATED NUT
CASTELLATED NUT
SELF LOCKNING NUTS
As their name implies, selflocking nuts need no auxiliary means of
safe tying but have a safe tying feature included as an integral part
of their construction.
Many types of selflocking nuts have been designed and their use
has become quite widespread. Common applications are:
(1) attachment of antifriction bearings and control pulleys;
(2) attachment of accessories, anchor nuts around inspection holes
and small tank installation openings; and
(3) attachment of rocker box covers and exhaust stacks.
Selflocking nuts are acceptable for use on certificated
aircraft subject to the restrictions of the manufacturer.
Selflocking nuts are used on aircraft to provide tight
connections which will not shake loose under severe
vibration.
Do not use selflocking nuts at joints which subject either
the nut or bolt to rotation.
They may be used with antifriction bearings and control
pulleys, provided the inner race of the bearing is clamped
to the supporting structure by the nut and bolt.
Plates must be attached to the structure in a positive
manner to eliminate rotation or misalignment when
tightening the bolts or screws.
SELF LOCKING NUTS
The two general types of selflocking nuts currently in use
are the allmetal type and the fiber lock type.
For the sake of simplicity, only three typical kinds of self
locking nuts are considered in this handbook:
The Boots selflocking and the stainless steel selflocking
nuts, representing the allmetal types; and
The elastic stop nut, representing the fiber insert type.
ELASTIC STOP NUT
STAINLESS STEEL SELF LOCKING NUT
Stainless Steel SelfLocking Nut
The stainless steel selflocking nut may be spun on and
off with the fingers, as its locking action takes place only
when the nut is seated against a solid surface and
tightened.
The nut consists of two parts: a case with a beveled
locking shoulder and key, and a threaded insert with a
locking shoulder and slotted keyway. Until the nut is
tightened, it spins on the bolt easily because the threaded
insert is the proper size for the bolt.
However, when the nut is seated against a solid surface and
tightened, the locking shoulder of the insert is pulled
downward and wedged against the locking shoulder of the
case.
This action compresses the threaded insert and causes it to
clench the bolt tightly.
The crosssectional view in above Figure shows how the
key of the case fits into the slotted keyway of the insert so
that when the case is turned, the threaded insert is turned
with it.
Note that the slot is wider than the key. This permits the slot
to be narrowed and the insert to be compressed when the
nut is tightened.
SELF LOCKING NUT BASES
Boots SelfLocking Nut
The Boots selflocking nut is of one piece, allmetal construction,
designed to hold tight in spite of severe vibration.
It has two sections and is essentially two nuts in one, a locking
nut and a
loadcarrying nut. The two sections are connected with a spring
which is an integral part of the nut.
The spring keeps the locking and loadcarrying sections such a
distance apart that the two sets of threads are out of phase;
that is, so spaced that a bolt which has been screwed through
the load carrying section must
push the locking section outward against the force of the spring
to engage the threads of the locking section properly.
.
The nut can be removed and reused without impairing its
efficiency.
Boots selflocking nuts are made with three different spring
styles and in various shapes and sizes.
The wing type, which is the most common, ranges in size
from No. 6 up to 1⁄4 inch, the Roltop ranges from 1⁄4 inch
to 1⁄6 inch, and the bellows type ranges in size from No. 8
up to 3⁄8 inch.
Wingtype nuts are made of anodized aluminum alloy,
cadmiumplated carbon steel, or stainless steel. The Roltop
nut is cadmiumplated steel, and the bellows type is made of
aluminum alloy only.
Sheet Spring Nuts
Sheet spring nuts, such as speed nuts, are used with
standard and sheet metal selftapping screws in
nonstructural locations.
They find various uses in supporting line clamps, conduit
clamps, electrical equipment, access doors, and the like,
and are available in several types. Speed nuts are made
from spring steel and are arched prior to tightening.
This arched spring lock prevents the screw from working
loose. These nuts should be used only where originally
used in the fabrication of the aircraft.
ANCHOR NUTS AND NUT
PLATES
Anchor nuts are permanently mounted nut plates. They are
used on inspection plate and access door.
It makes the installation and removal easier instead of great
number of screws..
Floating anchor nut is fitted loosely into a small bracket which
is riveted on the skin , and nut is free to move within the
bracket and aligns itself with the screw.
Ganged anchor nut s are installed around inspection plate
openings.
Nonmagnetic mounting nut used in instrument control panel
to reduce Magnetic influences in the cockpit. Nuts are made
of brass and the cage that hold the nuts made of phosphor
Bronze.
Tinnerman nuts are cost economical nut and stumped out
of sheet metal used on light a/c to mount instrument to the
instrument panel as well as inspection and cowlings. They
are suitable for non structural applications.
To prevent the sheet metal screws from enlarging
the holes in the cowling by repeated insertion and
extraction, a U type tinnerman nuts used on
fairings, cowlings and panels.
NUT
AN310 CASTLE NUT
AN320 SHEAR CASTLE NUT OR
CASTELLATED NUT
AN 315 PLAIN NUT
AN 316 CHECK NUT
AN 340 MACHINE SCREW NUT
AN345 MACHINE SCREW NUT( National fine
Thread)
AN355 SLOTTED ENGINE NUT (NF Thread
Made of Heat treated steel , class 3 fit and not
approved for airframe use)
AN 360 PLAIN ENGINE NUT( Has black
rustproof finish and Has no slot for cotter pin)
AN350 WING NUT
AN364 LOW PROFILE METAL LOCK NUT
(SHEAR SELF LOCKING NUT) Used with clevis
bolt ,shank does not have drill hole)
BOLTS
AN3 TO AN20 AIR FRAME STRUCTURAL HEX HEAD
BOLTS.
AN 73 TO AN 81 HEX HEAD NICKEL STEEL DRILLED
HEAD ENGINE BOLTS
AND BOLT AN746
THE DIAMETER INDICATED BY SECOND NUMBER.
(diameter is in 1/16 inch and length is in 1/8 inch
increment and diameter is indicated by second number)
EXAMPLE: 4/16 MEANS ¼ INCH DIA AND 6/8 MEANS ¾
INCH LENGTH
AN 75 A7 HERE “A” INDICATES COURSE THREAD
AND
AN75 – 7 INDICATES FINE THREADS.
AN 73 THROUGH AN81 HAS BEEN SUPERSEDED BY
MS20073(FINE) TO MS20074(COURSE)
CLOSE TOLERACE BOLTS
AN173 TO AN186 CLOSE TOLERANCE BOLTS
AND HAS GROUND TOLERANCE OF + 0.000 TO
0.0005 INCH.
AN3 THROUGH AN14 TOLERANCE + 0.000 0.0025
INCH
AND
AN16 AN20 HAS TOLERANCE + 0.000 0.0055 INCH.
CLEVIS BOLTS
AN21 THROUGH AN36 CLEVIS BOLT HAS DOMED
SHAPE HEAD WITH SLOTTED OR RECESSED TO
ACCEPT SCREW DRIVER.
THE DIAMETER AND LENGTH BOTH ARE MEASURED
IN 1/16 INCH INCREMENTS..
AN29 – 20A MEANS 9/16 INCH DIAMETER AND
20/16 INCH LENGTH (1 + ¼ ) INCH LENGTH
HERE “A” INDICATES SHANK HAS NO HOLE FOR
COTTER PIN.
INTERNAL WRENCHING BOLTS
MS 20004 TO MS20024 INTERNAL WRENCHING
BOLTS AND
MS20002C WASHER
MUST BE USED ON Al UMINUM STRUCTURAL
SURFACE.
******
LETTER CODE INDICATES WITH PART CODE
(AN315 C or D, or DD7R or L )
C Corrosion Resistant
D Aluminum alloy
DD Aluminum alloy
B Brass metal
R Right hand thread
L Left hand thread
A Bolt Shank does not have drill hole
H Bolt Head has drill hole
VARIOUS TYPES OF WASHERS
PURPOSE OF WASHERS
1) WASHERS ARE USED TO PROVIDE BEARING
SURFACE AREA FOR NUTS
2) IT ACTS AS SPACERS OR SHIMS TO OBTAIN THE
PROPER GRIP LENGTH FOR BOLT AND NUT
ASSEMBLY.
3) IT ALSO USED TO ADJUST CASTELLATED NUT FOR
ALIGNMENT OF COTTERPIN HOLE.
4) IT PROVIDES TENSION BETWEEN NUT AND
SURFACE
TO PREVENT LOOSENING DUE TO VIBRATION.
5) IT ALSO PREVENTS DISSIMILAR METAL CORROSION.
PLAIN WASHERS
USES: Plain AN 960
Plain washers both the AN960 and AN970, are used under hex nuts.
They provide a smooth bearing surface and act as a shim in
obtaining correct grip length for a bolt and nut assembly.
They are used to adjust the position of castellated nuts in respect
to drilled cotter pin holes in bolts.
Use plain washers under lock washers to prevent damage to the
surface material.
Continued
Aluminum and aluminum alloy washers may be used
under bolt heads or nuts on aluminum alloy or
Magnesium structures where corrosion caused by
dissimilar metals is a factor.
Use cadmium plated steel washer under a nut bearing
directly against a structure as this washer will resist the
cutting action of a nut better than an aluminum alloy
washer.
The AN970 steel washer provides a greater bearing
area than the AN960 washer.
LOCK WASHERS
Inside and Outside star lock washers
Lock washers, both the AN935 and AN936, are used with machine
screws or bolts where the selflocking or castellatedtype nut is not
appropriate.
Plain AN 935
Plain AN 935
Spring Washer
The spring action of the washer (AN935) provides enough friction to
prevent loosening of the nut from vibration.
CAUTION:
CONDITIONS: LOCK WASHERS SHOULD NEVER BE USED.
• With fasteners to primary or secondary structures.
• With fasteners on any part of the aircraft where failure
might result in damage or danger to the aircraft or
personnel.
• Where failure would permit the opening of a joint to the
air flow.
• Where the screw is subject to frequent removal.
continued……..
• Where the washers are exposed to the airflow.
• Where the washers are subject to corrosive conditions.
• Where the Lock washer is against soft material without a
plain washer underneath to prevent gouging the surface.
SHAKE PROOF LOCK WASHERS:
(Tab Washers)
Shake proof lock washers are round washers designed with tabs or
lips that are bent upward across the sides of a hex nut or bolt to lock
the nut in place.
There are various methods of securing the lock washer to prevent it
from turning, such as an external tab bent downward 90° into a small
hole in the face of the unit, or an internal tab which fits a keyed bolt.
Shake proof lock washers can withstand higher heat than other
methods of safe tying and can be used under high vibration conditions
safely.
They should be used only once because the tabs tend to break
when bent a second time.
SPECIAL WASHERS
The ball socket and seat washers, AC950 and AC955, are special
washer where a bolt is installed at an angle to a surface or where
perfect alignment with a surface is required. These washers are used
together.
The NAS143 and MS20002 washers are used for internal wrenching
bolts of the NAS144 through NAS158 series.
This washer is either plain or countersunk. The countersunk washer
(designated as NAS143C and MS20002C) is used to seat the bolt head
shank radius, and the plain washer is used under the nut.
SCREWS
Screws are the most commonly used threaded fastening
devices on aircraft.
They differ from bolts in as much as they are generally
made of lower strength materials.
They can be installed with a loose fitting thread, and the
head shapes are made to engage a screwdriver or
wrench.
Some screws have a clearly defined grip or unthreaded
portion while others are threaded along their entire length.
SCREWS
Screws are generally made of lower strength materials and
with
class 2 fits or free fit(loose fitting ) thread.
Screws can be driven by screw driver or wrench.
Some screws have a clearly defined grip length or entirely
threaded.
There are three basic classification of screws used in
aircraft
construction.
a) Machine screw: Most widely used.
b) Structural screws : Has same strength as bolts.
c) Self tapping screws: Used to join light weight
MACHINE SCREWS
MACHINE SCREW
The AN505 and AN510 correspond to the AN515 and AN520 round
head in material and usage.
The fillister head screw, AN500 through AN503, is a general purpose
screw and is used as a cap screw in light mechanisms. This could
include attachments of cast aluminum parts such as gearbox cover
plates.
The AN500 and AN501 screws are available in low carbon steel,
corrosionresistant steel, and brass.
The AN500 has coarse threads, while the AN501 has fine threads.
They have no clearly defined grip length.
MACHINE SCREW
Screws larger than No. 6 have a hole drilled through the head for
safetying purposes.
The AN502 and AN503 fillister head screws are made of heattreated
alloy steel, have a small grip, and are available in fine and coarse
threads.
These screws are used as capscrews where great strength is required.
The coarse threaded screws are commonly used as capscrews in
tapped aluminum alloy and magnesium castings because of the softness
of the metal.
STRUCTURAL SCREW
STRUCRURAL SCREWS
Several types of structural screws differ from the stan
dard structural bolts only in head style.
The material in them is the same, and a definite grip
length is pro vided.
The AN525 washer head screw and the NAS220 through
NAS227 series are such screws.
SELF TAPPING SCREWS
SelfTapping Screws
Machine selftapping screws are listed as AN504 and
AN506.
The AN504 screw has a roundhead, and the AN506 is 82°
countersunk.
These screws are used for attaching removable parts,
such as nameplates, to castings and parts in which the
screw cuts its own threads.
AN530 and AN531 selftapping sheet metal screws, such
as the ParkerKalon Ztype sheet metal screw, are blunt on
the end.
They are used in the temporary attachment of metal for
riveting, and in the permanent assembly of nonstructural
assemblies. Selftapping screws should not be used to
replace standard screws, nuts, bolts, or rivets.
DRIVE SCREWS( SELF TAPPING SCREW)
Drive screws, AN535, correspond to the ParkerKalon Utype.
They are plain head selftapping screws used as capscrews for attaching
nameplates in castings and for sealing drain holes in corrosion proofing tubu
lar structures.
They are not intended to be removed after installation.
DRIVE SCREWS
Identification and Coding for Screws
The coding system used to identify screws is similar to that used for bolts.
There are AN and NAS screws.
NAS screws are structural screws. Part numbers 510,
515, 550, and so on,
catalog screws into classes, such as roundhead, flathead, washer head, and
so forth.
Letters and digits indicate their material composition, length, and thickness.
Examples of AN and NAS code numbers follow.
SAN501B4167
AN = Air ForceNavy standard
501 = fillister head, fine thread
B = brass
416 = 4⁄16inch diameter
7 = 7⁄16inch length
DRIVE SCREWS
The letter “D” in place of the “B” would indicate that
the material is 2017T aluminum alloy.
The letter “C” would designate corrosion resistant steel.
An “A” placed before the material code letter would indicate that the head is
drilled for safe tying.
NAS144DH22
NAS = National Aircraft Standard
144 = head style;
diameter and thread — 1/428
bolt, internal wrenching
DH = drilled head
22 = screw length in 16ths of an inch — 13⁄8
inches long
The basic NAS number identifies the part. The suffix letters and
das numbers separate different sizes, plating material, drilling specifications,
and so forth. The dash numbers and suffix letters do not have standard
meanings. It is necessary to refer to a specific NAS page in the Standards book
for the legend.
CLEVIS PIN:
AN 392 through AN 406 OR MS 20392 also called flat
head pin.
It is used in conjunction with tierod terminals and in
secondary control(not subject to continuous operation) .
Pins head is always remains at upward position.
Threaded Taper Pin (AN 386)
Used in joints where carry shear loads
and absence Of play is secured by
taper
washer and shear nut with a cotter pin
or self lock nut.
Plain Taper Pin ( AN 385)
Used in joints where carry shear
loads and absence Of play is secured
with the wire is essential.
COTTER PIN OR SPLIT PIN:
Cotter pin should not be reused.
Cotter pins are made of either cadmium plated carbon
steel
or corrosion resistant Steel.
The AN380 cadmium plated, low carbon steel cotter pin is
used for safetying bolts, screws, nuts, other pins,
The AN381 corrosion resistant steel cotter pin is used in
locations where nonmagnetic material is required, or in
locations where resistance to corro sion is desired.
COTTER PIN OR SPLIT PIN:
The preferred method is one leg bent up over the end of
bolt
and other leg is bent down over one of the flats of nut.
Second method is rotated 90 degrees and the legs are
wrapped around the castellations.
Ensure that prong of the cotter pin does not exceed the
bolt
diameter or does not contact the surface of the washer.
Don’t over torque the nut for hole alignment, add washers
under the nut untill a cotter pin can be inserted.
COTTER PIN INSTALLATION
QUICK RELEASE PIN:
“Pip” Quick Release Pins
“Pip” pins are designed to take non
structural loads in shear only.
In many cases they can take the place of
a nut and bolt in circumstances where
constant and speedy disconnection is
required.
The holes that these pins are fitted in
need to be reamed to a close fit to prevent
chafing due to vibration in service.
The pin is held in place by two small steel
balls at the end of its shank.
QUICK RELEASE PIN:
These balls are held out in the locked position by a spring loaded plunger
running through the centre of the pin.
To allow the balls to collapse into the pin and so allow the pin to be withdrawn
the plunger must be kept depressed, or in the case of the type that has a ring
fitted pulling on the ring will allow the pin to be withdrawn.
Pip pins are sometimes used as hinge pins on removable doors located inside
the aircraft.
Roll PIN ( Spring Pin)
Used in double shear applications.
Its diameter is larger than hole and it is compressed and
driven into the hole.
It is stronger than mild steel straight pin, tapper pin or
grooved pin of equivalent size.
It does not requires any means for securing.
Can be used one inside the another to increase the
strength.
To remove this pin drift or pin punch is required.
SAFETY WIRING METHOD
PIGTAIL
SAFETY WIRING Ref. Otis
Chap
5—45/1
Safety wiring method is designed to prevent loosening of
threaded parts after they have been tightened and torque to
required value.
This is a significant airworthiness consideration on turbine
engines because dangerous air, oil and fuel leaks can occur at
loose lines and flanges and present serious flight hazard.
Correct type and diameter lock wire is recommended by the
manufacturer.
A wire diameter of approximately ¾ of the diameter of the hole.
For example: The diameter of the hole on the bolt head or nut
is 4 mm then lock wire size should be approx. 3 mm.
SAFETY WIRING Ref. Otis
Chap 545
The wire must not be over twisted and reused.
For example: the twisting of 0. 032 inch diameter lock
wire is usually recommended at 8 to 10 twists per inch
and 0.041 inch diameter lock wire 6 to 8 twist per inch.
Lock wire ends will be cut off at least 3 twists from the
tension point.
Then turned in, to prevent snagging and commonly called
pigtail.
The maximum span between the tension points should
not be longer than 6 inches.
Nicks, kinks or other mutilation of the wire is not
acceptable.
SAFETY WIRING ATTACHMENT FOR PLUG
CONNECTORS
Ref. AIRCRAFT GENERAL
ENGG.
LALIT GUPTA
AIRCRAFT CONTROL CABLES
Cables are the most widely used linkage in primary control systems.
Cable type linkage is also used in engine controls, emergency
extension system for the landing gear and other systems through the
aircraft.
It is strong, light in weight and flexibility makes it easy to route
through out the aircraft.
It has high mechanical efficiency and can be set up without backlash.
Tension of the control can be adjusted frequently due to stretching
and temperature changes.
Ref. AIRCRAFT GENERAL ENGG.
LALIT GUPTA
Materials:
Cables are made of preformed corrosion resistance steel or
preformed
Galvanized steel.
CONSTRUCTION:
The basic component of cable is wire .
The total diameter of the cable depends on the diameter of the
wire.
Strand: Number of wires are performed into a helical or spiral
7 STRANDS & 19
shape WIRES IN EACH
7 X 19
and formed strand. STRAND
Cable: Number of strands are laid around a straight centre
strand and
Ref. AIRCRAFT GENERAL ENGG.
LALIT GUPTA
TYPES: There are three basic types of cables.
a) Non flexible b) Flexible and c) Extra flexible
SIZES: Control cables are available in sizes from 1/32 inch to ½
inch diameter.
The size of primary control cables operated with in 1/8 inch to ¼
inch diameter. Smaller than 1/8 inch diameter are used for trim tab
actuation.
Nonflexible Cable: Nonflexible cables are used for straight runs
where it does not have to pass over a pulley.
For example: 1 X 7 and 1 X 19 cable made of one strand which
contains seven and nineteen wires each respectively.
Flexible Cables: Ref. AC43.131B
When six strands are wound around a straight centre strand and all strands are
containing seven wires.
Example: Flexible cable 7 X 7 is consists of seven strands and each strand
contains Seven wires. They are used in engine and trim tab controls.
Extra Flexible Cables:
When six strands are wound around a straight centre strand , and all
strands are containing 19 individual wires.
Example: Extra Flexible cable 7 X 19 is consists of seven strands and
each strand contains 19 wires. They are used in primary flight control.
CONTROL CABLE TERMINALS
CONTROL CABLE TERMINALS
Ref. AIRCRAFT GENERAL
ENGG.
LALIT GUPTA
CONTROL CABLE TERMINALS
These terminals are made of stainless steel and have a hole into which the cable
fits.
A special tool, used to squeeze the terminal when cable is inserted into the
terminal
Hence diameter of terminal is decreased and force the metal from inner surface
tight
around the wires of the cable.
This process is called swaging and the tool is named swaging tool.
TYPES OF TERMINALS USED IN AIRCRAFT:
Threaded end, fork end, eye end, single shank ball end and double shank ball end.
Threaded end, fork end, eye end are used to connect the cable to a turnbuckle,
bell crank or other linkage system.
The ball end terminals are used for attaching cables to quadrants and special
connections where space is limited.
CONTRL CABLE SWAGING
INSTALLATION OF NICCO SLEEVE
PROCEDURE:
Select proper size thimble and sleeve according to cable diameter.
Now copper sleeve is slipped over the cable end , then wrapped around the steel
Thimble and again put back into the sleeve such a way that about 1/16 inch cable is
Stick out of the sleeve.
Now sleeve is crimped three times. First (1)at center ,second (2) at loop or thimble end
Third (3) at cable end. Properly installed terminal has 100 % strength of the cable.
INSTALLATION CHECK:
The diameter of the terminal must be reduced enough so that it fits through the
slot of the gauge. Indicating the cable has slipped.
A spot of paint is placed at the end of the terminal and on the cable, if the cable
ever slips In the terminal, paint will break.
Ref. AIRCRAFT GENERAL
ENGG.
TURNBUCKLES: LALIT GUPTA
Turnbuckle is a mechanical screw device consisting of two
threaded terminals and a threaded barrel.
Turnbuckles are fitted in the cable assembly for the purpose of
minor adjustment in cable length and adjusting the cable tension.
One of the terminal has right hand thread and the other has left hand
threads.
The bronze barrel will match with RHT and LHT accordingly.
The end of the barrel with left hand thread is identified by a groove or knurl
around the end of the barrel.
Both the terminal should be given equal number of turns and screwed into
the barrel enough to produce full strength.
There must be not more than three(3) threads exposed on either end of the
barrel.
CONTROL CABLE TENSION CHECK
CABLE INSPECTION
General
This section gives the typical inspections for control cable
systems. Always check the AMM for specific information.
Tests show that flexible cables can have broken wires without an
important decrease in strength.
CONTROL CABLES INSPECTION
Clean the airplane control cable with a dry, clean cloth.
Do not use solvents or abrasive materials to clean the control cable.
If necessary, apply applicable grease to carbon steel cable.
Do not put grease or corrosion preventive agents on corrosion
resistant steel cables, because attraction of grit increases wear rate
on CRS cables.
Check for broken wires, rub a cloth along the length of the cable in
both directions, do not use bare hands as serious laceration can occur.
Broken wires are indicated where the cloth gets caught on the
cable. Broken wires which lay flat can be difficult to detect.
CONTROL CABLE INSPECTION
Move the control cable to full travel in each direction to inspect
where it passes through seals.
Pulleys, drums, quadrants and fairleads, wires usually break
where cables pass over or through these components.
Examine these areas carefully paying special attention to cable
runs outside the pressurized areas.
Use a torch and mirror to aid inspection in hard to see places.
CONTROL CABLE INSPECTION
Replace a 7 x 7 control cable when one of the
following conditions is found.
•Two wires are broken in a 12inch length of cable.
•More than three wires are broken in the total cable
length between the two terminals.
•One wire is broken caused by rust or corrosion.
Replace a 7 x 19 control cable when one of these
conditions are found
Four wires are broken in a 12inch length of
cable.
More than six wires are broken in a total cable
length between the two cable terminals.
One wire is broken caused by rust or
corrosion.
Broken wire is only permitted in a cable
assembly if it is in a straight part of the cable
assembly and does not go over a pulley, through
a pressure seal, or through a fairlead.
Check for wear on cables.
For cables in the pressurized area (fuselage cables),
replace a cable if one strand has worn wires where one wire cross
section is decreased by 40 percent or more.
Flex the cable at the shiny portion to see if any wires break.
For cables in the unpressurised areas,
Replace a worn cable where you cannot identify the wire strands
on the worn side.
Replace all cable assemblies which have damage caused by rust
or corrosion.
A whitish deposition High Tensile Steel galvanized cables
indicates corrosion of the zinc coating.
Red rust indicates that the steel wires are corroding.
CHECK FOR WEAR ON CABLES.
Examine for ‘birdcaging’
This is caused when the cable is subjected to a sudden tensile load which,
although insufficient to break the cable causes the preformed strands to
straighten out at the point of maximum stress.
When the load is removed from the cable these strands standout causing
‘birdcaging’. Affected cables must be rejected.
Check for kinking
If the cable has a permanent bend when not under tension it must be
rejected. If the heart strand protrudes from between the preformed strands
it must be rejected
PUSH – PULL TUBE
ASSEMBLY
COMMON TORQUE WRENCHES
Formula for torque wrench.
B = Lever length of wrench with extensions
Tw = Te × A
A = Lever length of plus extension
Te = Required torque on bolt
Tw = Torque reading on wrench dial B
FLEXIBLE BE AM
RATCHET TYPE
RIGID FRAME TYPE
WELDING
BRAZING
&
SOLDERING
WELDING
Welding may be defined as the permanent joining, by
Fusion, of two pieces of material (usually metals), by the
progressive melting and subsequent solidification of the
materials at the site of the joint.
The basic principle, of fusion welding of metals, is the
Same for all processes.
In that the surfaces, or edges, of the metal to be joined, are
brought to a molten state and allowed, or caused, to
intermix (with or without the addition of a filler metal), so
that the parent metal and filler metal (if used) form a
homogeneous molten pool which, when cooled, forms the
complete weld.
TYPES OF WELDING
GAS WELDING:
Used for welding thin sheets and
(Oxyacetylene & Oxyhydrogen ) tubes made of steel, aluminum
and magnesium. Some manufacture
Prefers oxyhydrogen flame for weldin
aluminum alloys.
ELECTRIC ARC WELDING:THERE ARE 5 TYPES: a) Metallic Arc
Welding, b) Carbon Arc welding, c) Atomic Hydrogen Arc
welding d) Inert (helium)Gas welding e) Multi Arc welding.
Most widely used welding for aircraft construction are
Metallic Arc welding and Inert gas welding.
Electric arc welding used for heavy sheets and casting.
ELECTRIC RESISTANCE WELDING: Used for welding thin sheets of
Aluminum alloy and stainless steel for application as fuel
tanks.
Butt, Spot and seam are three types ELECT. RESISTANE
Welding used. Specially spot welding used for structural
corrosion resistance steel.
WELDING EQUIPMENTS
OXYACETYLENE WELDING EQUIPMENTRef. FAA 15A
CHAP 7.2
1. FUEL GASES (OXYGEN AND ACETYLENE )
2. TWO CYLINDERS (OXYGEN & ACETYLENE )
3. CYLINDER KEY( a special wrench)
4. TWO PRESSURE REGULATORS
5. (LOW AND HIGH PRESSURE GAUGES FOR EACHCYLINDER)
6. A WELDING TORCH WITH A MIXING HEAD
7. A FLINT LIGHTER
8. TWO DIFFERENT COLORED HOSES WITH ADAPTER
9. A FIRE EXTINGUISHER
10. A PAIR OF SAFETY GOGGLES
SAFETY EQUIPMENT
1. HAND GLOVES(leather)
2. APRON (leather)
3. SAFETY GOGGLES(special)
4. SAFETY SHOES
5. FIRE EXTINGUISHER
6.INSULATING MAT
7. FACE MASK/ SHEILD
8. TONG
9. CHIPPING HAMMER
Ref. FAA 15A
ACETYLENE CYLINDER CHAP 7.2
The acetylene cylinder is usually a seamless steel shell with
welded ends and in MAROON COLOUR.
Dimensions: Approximately 12 in. in diameter and 36 in. long.
It is usually painted a distinctive color, and the name of the
gas is stenciled or painted on the sides of the cylinder.
A fully charged acetylene cylinder of this size contains
approximately 225 cu. ft. of gas at pressures up to
25O p.s.i,
Acetylene cylinders should not be completely emptied, or a loss
of filler material may result.
Ref. FAA
ACETYLENE CYLINDER 15A
CHAP 7.2
Acetylene gas is. a flammable, colorless gas which has a distinctive, disagreeable odour,
readily detectable even when the gas is heavily diluted with air.
Unlike oxygen, acetylene does not exist free in the atmosphere; it must be
manufactured.
Calcium carbide is made to react chemically with water to produce acetylene.
If acetylene ignited, the result is a yellow, smoky flame with a low temperature.
When the gas is mixed with oxygen in the proper proportions and ignited, the result is
a bluewhite flame with temperatures which range from approximately 5,700 to 6,3000 F.
Under low pressure at normal temperatures, acetylene is a stable compound.
But when compressed in a container to pressures greater than 15 p.s.i., it becomes
dangerously unstable.
For this reason, manufacturers fill the acetylene storage cylinders with. a porous
substance (generally a mixture of asbestos and charcoal) and saturate this substance
with acetone.
Since acetone is capable of absorbing approximately 25 times its own volume of
acetylene gas, a cylinder containing the correct amount of acetone can be
pressurized to 250 p.s.i.
Ref. FAA
15A
CHAP 7.2
OXYGEN CYLINDER
The oxygen cylinders used in welding operations are
made of seamless steel of different sizes and black in
colour.
A typical small cylinder holds 200 cu. ft. of oxygen at
1,800 p.s.i, pressure.
A large size holds 250 cu. ft. of oxygen at 2,265 p.s.i,
pressure.
Ref. FAA
15A
OXYGEN CYLINDER CHAP 7.2
cylinder has a highpressure valve located at the top of the cylinder.
This valve is protected by a metal safety cap which should always be in
place when the cylinder is not in use.
Oxygen should never come in contact with oil or grease.
In the presence of pure oxygen, these substances become highly
combustible.
Oxygen hose and valve fittings should never be oiled or greased, or
handled with oily or greasy hands.
Bees wax is a commonly used lubricant for oxygen equipment and fittings.
Ref. FAA
Pressure Regulators 15A
CHAP 7.2
Acetylene and oxygen regulators reduce pressures and control the
flow of gases from the cylinders to the torch.
Acetylene and oxygen regulators are of the same general type,
although those designed for acetylene are not made to withstand such
high pressures as those designed for use with oxygen.
To prevent interchange of oxygen and acetylene hoses, the
regulators are built with different threads on the outlet fitting.
The oxygen regulator has a right hand thread, and the acetylene
regulator has a left hand thread.
On most portable Welding units, each regulator is equipped with two
pressure gages, a highpressure gage which indicates the cylinder
pressure and a Iowpressure gage which indicates the pressure
in the hose leading to the torch (working pressure) •
Ref. FAA
TYPES OF FLAME
15A
Reducing Flame:Since the oxygen furnished through the torch is
CHAP 7.2
not sufficient to complete the combustion of the
acetylene, carbon escapes unburned.
This flame can be recognized by the greenishwhite
brush like second cone at the tip of the first
cone.
This type of flame introduces carbon into the steel
Neutral Flame:
The neutral flame is produced by burning acetylene
with oxygen in such proportions as to oxidize all
particles of carbon and hydrogen in the acetylene.
This flame is distinguished by the wellrounded,
smooth, clearly defined white (luminous)central cone
at the end of the tip.
The envelope or outer flame is blue with a purple
tinge at the point and edges.
Ref. FAA
15A
OXIDIZING FLAME: CHAP 7.2
An oxidizing flame contains an excess of oxygen, which is the
result of too much oxygen passing through the torch.
The oxygen not consumed in the flame escapes to combine
with the metal.
This flame can be recognized by the short, pointed, bluish
white central cone.
The envelope or outer flame is also shorter and of a lighter
blue color than the neutral flame.
It is accompanied by a harsh sound similar to highpressure air
escaping through a small nozzle.
This flame oxidizes or burns most metals and results in a porous
weld.
It is used only when welding brass or bronze,
FLAME ZONE
Ref. Aircraft Gen
WELDING TORCH Engg.
Lalit Gupta
The oxyacetylene welding torch are two types.
a) Injector type :
Acetylene pressure is less than 1 p.s.i and high pressure jet of oxygen
to produce suction to draw acetylene.
b) Balanced pressure type:
The pressure is balanced within 1 to 15 p.s.i to adjust the flame.
PARTS:
The parts of balanced pressure torch are tip, mixing head, mixing head n
torch head, Oxygen needle valve, acetylene needle valve, acetylene tube
oxygen tube, torch handle.
The torch tip size for oxyacetylene welding depends on the thickness of
the material to be welded.
The tip should be inspected (no obstruction) before use.
The welding torch tips are made of electrolytic copper or 95% copper
and 5% tellurium.
Ref. Aircraft Gen
WELDING HOSE Engg.
Lalit Gupta
The oxygen hose is green in colour and acetylene is red in colour.
The hoses are rubber tube with braided or wrapped cotton or rayon
reinforcements and with hard rubber coverings.
The oxygen hoses end connectors are Right handed thread and the
acetylene
Hoses end connectors are left handed thread.
WELDING RODS
The ferrous welding (filler) rods include carbon and alloy steel and cast iron
rods.
The nonferrous welding rods include bronze rods, aluminum and alminum
alloy rods, magnesium and magnesium alloy rods, copper rods, silver
rods.
The diameter of the rods depends on the thickness of the metals being
joined.
FAA 15A CHAP72
WELDING
RODS
The use of the proper type filler rod is very important in oxyacetylene
Welding operations.
This material not only adds reinforcement to the weld area, but
also adds desired properties to the finished weld.
By selecting the proper rod, either tensile strength or ductility can be
secured in it weld, or both can he secured to a reasonably high degree.
Similarly, rods can be selected which will help to retain the desired
amount of corrosion resistance.
In some cases, a suitable rod with a lower melting point will
eliminate possible cracks caused by expansion and contraction.
WELDING POSITIONS
There are four general positions in which welds are made. These
positions are designated as flat, overhead, horizontal, and vertical
Welding is done in the flat position whenever possible, since the
puddle is much easier to control in this position. Quite often, though it is
necessary to weld in the overhead, vertical; or horizontal position in
aircraft repair.
The flat position is used when the material can he laid flat, or inclined
at an angle of less than 45° and welded on the topside. The welding
torch is pointed downward toward the work.
This weld may be made by either the forehand or backhand technique,
depending upon the thickness of the metal being welded.
.
WELDING POSITIONS
T
The horizontal position is used when the line of the weld runs.
horizontally across a piece of work, and the torch is directed at the
material in a horizontal or nearly horizontal position.
The weld is made from right to left across the plate (for the right
handed welder). The flame is inclined upward at an angle of from 45° to
60°
The weld can be made using the forehand or backhand technique.
Adding the filler rod to the top of the puddle will help prevent the
molten metal from sagging to the lower edge of the bead.
The overhead position is used when the material is to be welded on the
underside with the seam running horizontally or in a plane that requires the
flame to point upward from below the work. In welding overhead, a large
pool of molten metal should be avoided, as the metal will drip or run out of the
joint. The rod is used to control the size of the molten puddle. The volume of
flame used should not exceed that required to obtain good fusion of the base
metal with the filler rod. The amount of heat needed to make the weld is best
controlled by selecting the right tip size for the thickness of metal to be welded.
:J
WELDING POSITION
\
..
When the parts to he joined are inclined at an angle of more than 45°,
with the seam running vertically, it is designated as a vertical weld. In a
vertical weld, the pressure exerted by the torch flame must be relied
upon to a great extent to support the puddle. It is highly important to keep
the puddle from becoming too hot, to prevent the hot metal from running out
of the puddle onto the finished weld, Vertical welds are begun at the bottom,
and the puddle is carried upward using the forehand technique. The tip
should be inclined from
45° to 60°, the exact angle depending upon the desired balance between
correct penetration and control of the puddle. The rod is added from the top
and in front of the flame.
WELDED JOINTS
The live fundamental types of welded joints are the butt joint, tee joint.
lap joint, corner joint, and edge joint.
Butt Joints:
A butt joint is made by placing two pieces of material edge to edge, so
that there is no overlap ping, and then welded. Some of the various types
of butt joints .
The flanged butt joint can be used in welding thin sheets, in.
or less. The edges are prepared for welding by turning up a flange
equal to the thickness of the metal. This type of joint is usually made
without the use 'Of filler rod.
A plain butt joint is used for metals from 1/16 in to 1/8 in. in thickness.
A filler rod is used when making this joint to obtain a strong weld.
If the metal is thicker than 1/8 in., it is necessary to bevel the edges so
that the heat from the torch can penetrate completely through the metal.
These bevels may be either single or doublebevel type or single or
doubleV type. A filler rod is used to add strength and reinforcement to the
weld.
Tee. Joints
A tee joint is formed when the edge or end of one piece is welded to the
surface of another.
These joints are quite common in aircraft work, particularly in tubular
structures,
The plain tee joint is suitable for most aircraft metal thicknesses, but
heavier thicknesses require the vertical member to he either single or
double beveled to permit the heat to penetrate deeply enough.
Edge Joints
An edge joint may he used when two pieces of sheet metal must be
fastened together and load stresses are not important, Edge joints are
usually made by bending the edges of one or both parts upward, placing
the two bent ends parallel to each other or placing one bent end
parallel to the upright unbent end, and welding along the outside of the
seam formed by the two joined edges.
Comer Joints
A corner joint is made when two pieces of metal are brought together so
that their edges form a corner of a box
.The corner joint requires little or no filler rod, since the edges fuse to make
the weld.
It is used where load stress is unimportant. The joint is used on heavier
metals, and filler rod is added for roundness and strength.
If much stress is to he placed on the comer, the inside is reinforced .
Lap Joints
The lap joint is seldom used in aircraft structures when welding with
oxyacetylene, but is commonly used when spot welding.
The single lap joint has very little resistance to bending, and will
not withstand the shearing stress to which the weld may be
subjected under tension or compression loads.
The double lap joint offers more strength, but requires twice the
amount of welding required on the simpler, more efficient butt weld.
Ref. Aircraft Gen
BACKFIRE: Engg.
Lalit Gupta
A backfire is a momentary backflow of the gases at the torch, causing t
flame to go out.
A backfire is always accompanied by a snapping or popping noise.
by over heating the tip or head, by dirt or slag in the end of tip.
A backfire is rarely dangerous.
FLASHBACK:
A flashback is the burning of the gases within the torch and it is dangerous
It is caused by loose connections, improper pressures or over heating of to
A shrill hissing or squealing noise accompanies the flashback.
Flame may burn back through the hose and regulators and cause great dam
Ref. Aircraft Gen Engg.
ACETYLENE SAFETY PRECAUTIONSLalit Gupta & FAA 15A
CH6
Acetylene cylinder should be stored in an up right position.
Acetylene should be used through pressure reducing valve.
The controlled pressure should not greater than 15 p.s.i. (slowly
open ¼ to ½ turn)
The outlet of acetylene must be away from the oxygen cylinder.
Hose, regulators or valve should not be interchanged.
All fittings are made of pure or 67% to 99% copper.
Test should be carried out with soapy water.
No attempt to be made to transfer of acetylene from one cylinder to
another.
SETTING UP ACETYLENE WELDING EQUIPMENT
Setting up acetylene Welding equipment and preparing for welding
should be done systematically and in a definite order to avoid costly
mistakes.
The following procedures and instructions are typical of those used to
assure safety of equipment and personnel.
(1) Secure the cylinders so they cannot be upset, and remove the
protective caps from the cylinders.
(2) Open each cylinder shutoff valve for an instant to blowout any
foreign matter that may be lodged in the outlet. Close the valves
and wipe off the connections with a clean cloth.
.(3) Connect the acetylene pressure regulator to the acetylene
cylinder and the oxygen regulator to the oxygen cylinder. Use a
regulator wrench and tighten the connecting nuts enough to prevent
leakage.
4) Connect the red (or maroon) hose to the acetylene pressure regulator and the
green (or black) hose to the oxygen regulator. Tighten the connecting nuts
enough to prevent leakage. Do not force these connections, since these
threads are made of brass and are easily damaged. ,
(5) Release both pressure regulator adjusting screws by turning the adjusting
screw handle on each regulator counterclockwise until it turns freely. This is to
avoid damage to the regulators and pressure gages when the cylinder valves
are opened.
(6) Open the cylinder valves slowly and read each of the cylinder pressure
gages to check the contents in each cylinder. The oxygen cylinder shutoff valve
should be opened fully and the acetylene cylinder shutoff valve is opened
approximately one and one∙half turns.( 1 to 1 ½ )
(7) Blowout each hose by turning the pressure adjusting screw
handle inward (clockwise) and then turning it out again. The acetylene
hose should be blown out only in a wellventilated space which is
free from sparks, flame, or other sources of ignition.
(8) Connect both hoses to the torch and check the connections for
leaks by turning the pressure regulator screws in, with the torch
needle valves closed. When 20 p.s.i, shows on the oxygen working
pressure gage and 5 p.s.i. on the acetylene gage, close shows the
valves by turning the pressure regulator screws out. A drop in
pressure on the working gage indicates a leak between the regulator
and torch tip. A general tightening of all connections should remedy
the situation. If it becomes necessary to locate a leak, use the soap
suds
method. Do this by painting all fittings and connections with a
thick solution of the soapy water. NEVER HUNT FOR AN ACETYLENE
LEAK WITH A FLAME, since a serious explosion can occur in the hose or
in the
Cylinder.
9) Adjust the working pressure on both the oxygen and
acetylene regulators by turning the pressureadjusting
screw on the regulator clockwise until the desired settings
are obtained.
,
OXYACETYLENE FLAME ADIUSTMENT
To light the torch, open the torch acetylene valve a quarter to a
half turn.
Hold the torch to direct the flame away from the body and
ignite the acetylene gas, using the flint lighter.
The pure acetylene flame is long and bushy and has a yellowish
color.
Continue opening the acetylene valve until the flame leaves
the tip approximately onesixteenth of an inch.
Open the torch oxygen valve. When the oxygen valve is
opened, the acetylene flame is shortened, and the mixed gases
burn in contact with the tip face.
The flame changes to a bluishwhite color and forms a bright
inner cone surrounded by an outer flame envelope.
Ref. Aircraft Gen Engg.
Lalit Gupta & FAA 15A
Forehand welding: CH6
This method is used to weld lighter tubing and sheet metals up to 1/8
inch thickness because it permits better control of a small puddle and
results smoother weld.
It is not best method for welding
heavy metals.
It is also known as puddle welding
or ripple welding, the oldest
method of welding. Forehand welding:
In this method the rod is kept ahead of the tip in the direction in
which the weld is being made. The flame is pointed in the direction of
weld and the tip is held at an angle about 45 to 60 degree to the
plate.
This process preheats the edges being welded. The motion of torch
distributes the molten metal evenly to both edges of the joint and to
the molten puddle.
Ref. Aircraft Gen Engg.
Lalit Gupta & FAA 15A
Backhand welding: CH6
This method is best suited for welding
Material of more than 1/8 inch thickness.
In this method the torch tip precedes the
Rod in the direction of welding, and the
flame
Is pointed back at the molten puddle and
completed weld.
Backhand welding
The welding tip should make an angle of
about 30 to 60 degree with the plates or
joint being welded.
Backhand welding is the technique of pointing the torch flame
toward the finished weld and moving away in the direction of the un
welded area, melting the edges of the joint as it is moved the welding
rod is added to the puddle between the flame and the finished weld.
Backhand welding is seldom used on sheet metal because the
increased heat generated in this method is likely to cause overheating
and burning.
RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING
Ref. Aircraft Gen Engg
SPOT WELDING Lalit Gupta
The heat required for spot welding is generated when current flows through
metals being welded.
Considerable pressure is exerted on the copper electrodes that carry the cur
into and out of the metal.
A pulse high correct electricity flows through the metals, heat produced near
melting point.
Due to the pressure of electrodes , the softened metal to form a spot joint
between the sheets.
The uniform spots are maintained by the length of time current flows which is
called dwell time.
Ref. Aircraft Gen
RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING Engg.
Lalit Gupta
Seam welding is similar to spot welding except that copper wheels are us
in place of copper electrodes.
The welding spots are very close enough together to overlap and form a
solid seam.
TIG WELDING( ELECTRIC ARC
WELDING)
TIG WELDING Ref. Aircraft Gen
Engg.
GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING(Tungsten Inert Gas Welding):
Lalit Gupta
This arc welding process produces coalescence of metals by heating them
with an electric arc between a NONCONSUMABLE tungsten electrode an
the base metal.
The weld pod, arc, electrode the heated section of the work pieces are
protected from atmospheric contamination by a gaseous shield .
Otherwise, atmospheric Oxygen, Nitrogen will combine with molten weld
Metal and result in a weak, porous weld.
The shielding gases are inert gas like helium, argon, or mixture of gases.
Advantages:
a) Welds are stronger, more ductile and more corrosion resistance
than other types of arc welds. b) No spark, fume or spatter
c) 100% protection from atmosphere. c) Hence, flux is not required.
d) Bead surface is smooth and uniform.
MIG WELDING
Ref. Aircraft Gen
GAS METAL ARC WELDING (MIG) Engg.
Lalit Gupta
Metal inert gas or GMA arc welding is a process that produces fusion by hea
with an electric arc between the consumable wire electrode and the work.
The consumable wire electrode is fed through the torch to the welding arc.
Low voltage high current DC is used almost exclusively with GMA welding.
An inert gas such as argon , helium or carbon dioxide shields
the puddle from oxygen.
GMA welding is used more for large volume production work than aircraft w
NB:
a) Argon is the most popular shielding gas in the TIG welding process.
It is heavier than air and provides better blanket over the weld.
b) Helium is higher cost as compared to argon.
For a higher heat input mixture of helium and argon is sometimes used
INSPECTION AND TESTING OF WELDING
BRAZING
Brazing is a process of joining metal parts by melting a brazing alloy on the surface.
These alloy have a bronze base and melt at about 817 0 C (1600 0 F).
A brazing flux is borax and boric acid is necessary to obtain a good union
between the clean base metal and the filler metal.
CUTTING METAL USING OXYACETYLENE
Cutting metals by the oxyacetylene process is fundamentally the
rapid burning or oxidizing of the metal in a localized area.
The metal is heated to a bright red (1,4000 to 1,6000 F.),
which is the kindling or ignition temperature, and a jet of high
pressure oxygen is directed against it.
This oxygen blast combines with the hot metal and forms an
intensely hot oxide.The molten oxide is blown down the sides
of the cut, heating the metal in its path to a kindling
temperature.
The metal thus heated also burns to an oxide which is blown
away on the underside of the piece.
The action is precisely that which the torch accomplishes
when the mixing head is replaced with a cutting attachment or
when a special cutting torch is used.
,
PARTS OF CUTTING TORCH
Oxygen needle valve
Acetylene needle valve
Cutting Oxygen lever
Preheat orifices
Cutting orifice
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD WELD
A completed weld should have the following characteristics:
(1) The seam should be smooth, the bead ripples evenly spaced and of a
uniform thickness.
(2) The weld should be built up, thus providing extra thickness at the joint.
(3) The weld should taper off smoothly into the base metal
(4) No oxide should be formed on the base metal close to the weld.
(5) The weld should show no signs of blowholes, porosity. or projecting
globules.
(6) The base metal should show no signs of burns, pits, cracks, or distortion.
NOTE:
WELDS SHOULD NEVER BE FILED TO GIVE THEM A BETTER APPEARANCE,
SINCE FILING DEPRIVES THE WELD OF PART OF ITS STRENGTH.
WELDS SHOULD NEVER BE FILLED WITH SOLDER, BRAZING MATERIAL,
OR FILLER OF ANY SORT.
Ref. Aircraft Gen Engg.
Lalit Gupta
SOFT SOLDERING:
SOFT SOLDERING IS DONE WITH AN ALLOY OF TIN AND AND LEAD.
50% TIN AND 50% LEAD IS COMMONLY USED FOR GENERAL
SOLDERING AND ITS MELTING POINT IS 2120 C (4140 F).
SOLDER USED FOR ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS IS 63% TIN AND 37%
LEAD AND ITS MELTING POINT IS 3610 F (1830 C).
FAA 15A CH6
SOFT SOLDERING
Soft soldering is used chiefly for copper, brass, and coated iron in
combination with mechanical seams; that Is, seams that are riveted, bolted,
or folded. It is also used where a leak proof joint is desired. and sometimes for
fitting joints to promote rigidity and prevent corrosion. Soft soldering is generally
performed only in very minor repair jobs. This process is also used' to join
electrical connections, It forms a strong union with low electrical resistance.
Soft solder yields gradually under a steadily applied load and should not be
used unless the trans mitted loads are very low. It should never be used as a
means of joining structural members.
A soldering copper (called a soldering iron if it is electrically heated) is the tool
used in soldering. Its purpose is to act as a source of heat for the soldering
operation. The bit, .or working face, is made from copper, since this metal will
readily take on heat and transmit it to the work.
To tin the copper. it is first heated to a bright red. then the point is cleaned
by filing until it is smooth and bright. No dirt or pits should remain.
SOFT SOLDERING
FAA 15A CH6
Soldering copper and soldering iron.
on its surface after the copper has been mechanically cleaned, it should be re
heated sufficiently to melt solder, and chemically cleaned by rubbing it lightly on a
block of salt ammoniac. (NH4Cl(If salt ammoniac is not available, powdered resin may
be used.)
Then solder is applied to the point and wiped with a clean cloth.
The last two operations may be combined by melting a few drops of solder on
a block of salt ammoniac (cleaning compound) and then rubbing the soldering
copper over the block until the tip is well coated with solder.
A properly tinned copper has a thin unbroken film of solder over the entire surface
of its point.
Soft solders are chiefly alloys of tin and lead. The percentages of tin and lead vary
considerably in various solders, with a corresponding change in their melting points,
ranging from 293°to 592° F. "halfandhalf" (5050) solder is a general purpose
solder and is most frequently used. It contains equal proportions of tin and lead and
melts at approximately 360° F.
FAA 15A CH6
SOFT SOLDERING
The application of the melted solder requires somewhat more
care than is apparent. The parts should be locked together
or held mechanically or manually while tacking. To tack the
seam, the hot copper is touched to a bar of solder, then the
drops of solder adhering to the copper are used to tack
the seam at a. number of points. The film of solder between the
surfaces of a joint must be kept thin to make the strongest joint.
A hot, well∙tinned soldering copper should be held so that
its point lies fiat on the metal at the seam, while the back of
the copper extends over the seam proper at a 45° angle, and
a bar of solder is touched to the point. As the solder melts,
the copper is drawn slowly along the seam. As much solder 88
necessary is added without raising the soldering copper from
the job. The melted solder should run between the surfaces of
the two sheets and cover the full width of the seam. Work
should progress along the seam only as fast 88 the solder will
flow into the joint.
STAINLESS STEEL WELDING
The procedure for welding stainless steel is basically the same as
that for carbon steels.
There are, however, some special precautions that must be.
taken to obtain the best results.
Only stainless steel used for nonstructural members of aircraft
can be welded satisfactorily.
The stainless steel used for structural components is cold worked
or cold rolled and, if heated loses some of its strength.
Nonstructural stainless steel is obtained in sheet and tubing form
and is often used for exhaust collectors, stacks or manifolds.
Oxygen combines very readily with this metal in' the molten state,
and extreme care must he taken to prevent this from occurring.
STAINLESS STEEL WELDING
A slightly carburizing flame is recommended for welding stainless steel.
The flame should be adjusted so that a feather of excess acetylene, about
1/16 in. long, forms around the inner cone.
Too much acetylene, however, will add carbon to the metal and cause it to
lose its resistance to corrosion.
The torch tip size should be one or two sizes smaller than that prescribed
for a similar gage of low carbon steel.
The smaller tip lessens the chances of over heating∙ and subsequent loss of
the corrosionresistant qualities of the metal.
STAINLESS STEEL WELDING
To prevent the formation of chromium oxide,
a flux should be spread on the underside of the joint and on the
filler rod. Since oxidation is to be avoided as much as possible,
sufficient flux should be used.
Another method used to keep oxygen from reaching the metal is to
surround the weld with a blanket of hydrogen gas. The filler rod
used should be of the same composition as the base metal.
Since the coefficient of expansion of stainless steel is high, thin
sheets which are to be buttwelded should be tacked at intervals of
1¼ to 1½
inches, This is one means of lessening warping and distortion during
the welding process.
WELDING NONFERROUS METALS USING OXY ACETYLENE
Nonferrous metals are those that contain no iron.
Examples of nonferrous metals are lead, copper, silver,
magnesium.
The most important in aircraft construction, aluminum is
used.
Some of these metals are lighter than the ferrous metals, but
in most cases they are not as strong.
Aluminum manufacturers have compensated for the lack of
strength of pure aluminum by alloying it with other metals or
by cold working it. Still for greater strength, some aluminum
alloys are also heat treated.
ALUMINIUM WELDING:
The weld able aluminum alloys used in aircraft construction are 1100,3003,
4043, and 5052.
Alloy numbers 6053, 6061, and 6151 can also be welded, but since these
alloys are in the heattreated condiion, welding should not be done unless
the parts can be reheat treated.
The equipment and technique used for aluminum welding differ only
slightly from those of methods discussed earlier.
As in all welding, the first step is to clean the surface to be welded
steel wool or a wire brush may be used, or a solvent in the case of
paint or grease.
The welder should be careful not to scratch the surface of the metal
beyond the area to be welded; these scratches provide entry points for
corrosion.
The piece should then be preheated to lessen the strains caused by
the large coefficient of expansion of aluminum.
ALUMINIUM WELDING:
Never preheat aluminum alloys to a temperature higher than 800° F.
because the heat may melt some of the alloys and burn the metal.
For thin sheet aluminum, merely passing the flame back and forth across
the sheet three or four times should be sufficient.
Either of two types of filler rod can be used in welding aluminum alloys.
Choosing the proper filler rod is important.
Aluminum and its alloys combine with air and form oxides very rapidly.
Oxides form doubly fast, when the metal is hot. For this reason it is
important to use a flux that will minimize or prevent oxides from forming.
Using the proper flux in welding aluminum is extremely important.
Aluminum welding flux is designed to remove the aluminum oxide by
chemically combining with it.
Aluminum fluxes dissolve below the surface of the puddle and float the
oxides to the top of the weld where they can be skimmed off.
ALUMINIUM WELDING:
The flux can be painted directly on the top and bottom of the joint if no filler
rod is required;
if filler rod is used, it can be coated, and if the pieces to be welded are
thick, both the metal and the rod should be coated with flux.
After welding is finished, it is important that all traces of flux be removed by
using a brush and hot water.
If aluminum flux is left on the weld, it will corrode the metal .
A diluted solution of 10% sulfuric acid may be used if hot water is not
available. The acid solution should be washed off with cold water.
Thickness of the aluminum alloy material determines the method of edge
preparation.
On material up to 0.062 in., the edges are usually formed to a 90° flange
about the same height as the thickness of the material . The flanges should
be straight and square.
ALUMINIUM WELDING:
No filler rod is necessary when the edges are Banged in this manner.
Un beveled butt welds are usually made on aluminum alloy from 0.062
to 0.188 in. thick. It may also be necessary to notch the edges with a
saw or cold chisel.
Edge notching is recommended in aluminum welding because it aids
in getting full penetration and also prevents local distortion.
All butt welds in material over 0.125 in. thick are generally notched in
some manner.
Edge preparation for welding aluminum.
In welding aluminum over 0.188 in. thick the edges are usually
beveled and notched. The included angle of bevel may be from 90° to
120° .
ALUMINIUM WELDING:
A neutral flame should generally be used to weld aluminum alloys.
In some cases a slightly carburising flame can be used.
However, the excess of acetylene should not be too great, as it will be absorbed
into the molten metal, resulting in a weakened joint.
The torch must be adjusted to give the mildest flame that can be obtained
without popping. The use of a strong, harsh flame.
The torch must be adjusted to give the mildest flame that can be
obtained without popping.
ALUMINIUM WELDING:
The use of a strong, harsh flame makes it difficult to control the
melting metal, and holes are often burned through the metal.
When starting to weld, the two joint edges should begin to melt
before the fillet rod is added.
The work must be watched carefully for signs of melting. The melting
point of aluminum is low and heat is conducted rapidly through the
material.
There is very little physical or color change to indicate that the metal
is reaching the melting point.
When the melting point is reached, the metal suddenly collapses
and runs, leaving a hole in the aluminum.
ALUMINIUM WELDING:
A filler rod can be used to test the metal's condition.
Aluminum begins to feel soft and plastic just before it reaches
the melting point.
Any tendency of the metal to collapse can be rectified
by rapidly lifting the flame clear of the metal. With practice it
is possible to develop enough skill to melt the metal surface
without forming a hole.
The flame should be neutral and slanted at an
approximate 45° angle to the metal. The inner cone should
be about 1/8 in. from the metal.
ALUMINIUM WELDING:
A constant and uniform movement of the torch is necessary to prevent
burning a hole through the metal.
The correct integration of torch and rod action is important when welding
aluminum.
After heating the metal and when melting has begun, the filler rod is dipped
into the pool and allowed to melt.
The filler rod is lifted and the torch movement continues as the weld
progresses.
The rod is never lifted out of the outer envelope of flame, but is held
there until almost melted and then added to the pool.
SILVER SOLDERING (HARD SOLDERING)
The principal use of silver solder in aircraft work is in the fabrication of' high
pressure oxygen lines and other parts which must withstand vibration and
high temperatures.
Silver solder is extensively used to join copper and its alloys, nickel and
silver, as well as various combinations of these metals, and thin steel parts.
Silver soldering produces joints of higher strength than those produced by
other brazing processes.
It is necessary to use flux in all silver soldering operations because of the
necessity for having the base metal chemically clean without the
slightest film of oxide to prevent the silver solder from coming into
intimate contact with the base metal.
The joint must be physically clean, which means it must he free of all dirt,
grease, oil, and/or paint, and also chemically clean. After removing the dirt,
grease, and/or paint, any oxide should he removed by grinding or filing the
piece until bright metal can be seen.
SILVER SOLDERING (HARD SOLDERING)
During the soldering operation, the flux continues the process of keeping
oxide away from the metal, and aids the flow of the solder.
Three types of joints for silver soldering are : Flanged, lap, and edge
joints, in which the metal may be formed to furnish a seam wider than the
base metal thickness, furnish the type of joint which will bear up under all
kinds of loads.
If a lap joint is used, the amount of lap should be determined according
to the strength needed in the joint. For strength equal to that of the base
metal in the heated zone, the amount of lap should be four to six times the'
metal thickness for sheet metal and smalldiameter tubing.
SILVER SOLDERING (HARD SOLDERING)
The oxyacetylene flame for silver soldering should be neutral, but
may have a slight excess of acetylene.
It must be soft, not harsh during both, preheating and application of
the solder, the tip of the inner cone of the flame should be held about ½
inch from the work.
The flame should be kept moving so that the metal will not become
overheated.
When both parts of the base metal are at the right temperature
(indicated, by the flow of flux). solder can be applied to the surface of
the under or inner part at the edge of the seam.
It is necessary to simultaneously direct the flame over the seam and
keep moving it so that the base metal remains at an even temperature
GEARS SLG1
INTRODUCTION:
The slipping of a belt or rope is a common
phenomenon in the transmission of motion and power
between two shafts.
The effect of slipping is to reduce the velocity ratio of
the system.
Hence ,In precision machines, in which a definite
velocity is of importance, the only positive drive is
obtained by gears or toothed wheels.
GEARS SL
G2
A gear drive is provided when the distance between the
driver and follower( driven) is very small. Gears are used in
pairs or in combinations.
Gears are generally used for one of four different reasons:
To change the direction of motion and reverse the direction
of rotation.
To increase or decrease the speed of rotation.
To move rotational motion to a different axis
To keep the rotation of two axis synchronized.
And transmit the power from one part of the machine to
another part.
CLASSIFICATION OF GEARS: SLG 3
Gears are classified by
(a) position of shaft :
1. Parallel gear. Example: spur, helical or herringbone
2. Intersecting gear: Example: Bevel gears
3. Non Intersecting gear & Non Parallel : Skew bevel gear
or spiral gears, worm and worm wheel.
(b) position of teeth :
1. Straight spur gear
2. Inclined Bevel gear
3. Curved Helical gear.
c ) velocity of gears
1. Low velocity (less than 3 m/s) 2. Medium velocity ( 3
to 15 m/s) 3. High velocity (more than 15 m/s)
(d) Type of gearing: 1. External Gearing 2. Internal
Gearing 3. Rack and Pinion
SL G 4
TYPE OF GEARS
RACK & PINION WORM
SPUR
PLANETARY
BEVEL HELICAL
SL G
5
MATERIALS:
Numerous nonferrous alloys, cast irons, powder
metallurgy and even plastics are used in the
manufacture of gears.
However steels are most commonly used
because of their high strength to weight ratio and
low cost.
Plastic is commonly used where cost or weight
is a concern.
SL G 6
DETAILS OF SPUR GEAR
Teeth are cut on a wheel or cylinder, parallel with the axis of
rotation.
Use: The most simple and widely used gear for transmitting
drive between shaft that are parallel to each other.
Difference between gear and pinion:
In a pair of gears, the larger of the two is referred to as gear and
the smaller one is called the pinion. Either could be a driver and
the other Driven gear.
SLG 7
Gear ratio: It is the ratio of
number of teeth of a pair of
gears. It is a fraction or ratio
reduced to lowest terms.
Size: It is the ratio of pitch diameter of pair of
gears which is same as gear ratio. RPM of
meshing gear is determined by gear ratio.
SLG 8
Speed Ratio:
It is the ratio of the RPM of meshing
gears and usually expressed as a fraction
or ratio reduced to its lowest term.
Speed ratio is the inverse of gear ratio.
For example: when speed ratio is 1 : 4,
then the gear ratio is 4 : 1.
Note: Speed x teeth of the driven gear = Speed x teeth of the driver
gear.
SLG 9
VARIOUS PARTS OF GEAR TOOTH
PITCH CIRCLE:
The pitch circle of a spur gear is an imaginary circle passing
through the Points at which the teeth of the meshing gears
contact each other.
It is located about the midway in the tooth’s depth.
CIRCULAR PITCH:
The circular pitch is the distance from the center of one
tooth to the center of the next consecutive tooth.
PITCH DIAMETER:
The pitch diameter of a spur gear is the diameter of the pitch
circle.
SL
G10
ADDENDUM:
The addendum is the portion of the tooth that projects above
or outside the pitch circle.
DEDENDUM:
The dedendum is the portion of the tooth that cut below the
pitch circle and is equal to the addendum plus the clearance.
CLEARANCE:
The clearance is the difference between the whole depth and
the working depth of the tooth.
SL –G11
DIAMETRAL PITCH:
Diametral pitch of a gear represents the number of teeth per inch of
pitch diameter . It gives some indication of the size of the gear teeth.
SHAPE OF SPUR GEAR TEETH:
The shape of teeth is involute form , it means the side of the teeth are
curved in shape.
PRESSURE ANGLE OF
INVOLUTE GEAR TEEETH:
It is the angle formed between the perpendicular line through the point
of contact of two meshing gears and the tangent to the pitch circle.
The standard pressure angle is 14.5 degree.
SLG12
BEVEL GEAR:
A bevel gear is one in which the teeth are cut so that they radiate from
the apex of a cone and lie on the conical surface.
USE: Bevel gears are used to transmit motion from one shaft to another
shaft at an angle to the first.
HELICAL GEAR:
A helical gear is one with teeth cut on a cylinder and at an angle with the
axis of rotation of the gear body.
USE: Helical gears are used to transmit motion from one shaft to
another shaft which is parallel or not parallel. Helical gears are designed
to run in an oil bath as in automobile transmission.
ADVANTAGES: Gears operate more quietly and smoothly by sliding
when meshed. Several number of teeth are in contact at a time which
provides greater strength.
SLG13
HERRINGBONE GEAR:
Herringbone gear consists of two helical gears of equal size but
opposite hand
Joined together.
ADVANTAGES:
I. Thrust exerted by Sliding action is compensated
II. Have greater bearing surface which provides exceptional tooth
strength and heavy load carrying capacity.
III. Better in high speed operation.
GEAR RACK:
A gear rack is a flat surface on which teeth have been cut. Rectangular
stock is commonly used but square and round stock also may be used.
PURPOSE:
It is used to change rotary motion to reciprocating motion.
SLG14
INTERNAL GEAR:
An internal gear is one in which teeth are cut on the inner surface of a
ring, instead of cutting on the outside of a wheel.
WORM AND WORM GEARS:
A worm gear is a wheel having teeth cut angular with the axis of
rotation and radially in the gear face.
A worm is a cylinder with teeth, which resembles those of an acme
thread.
It is perpendicular with the worm gear.
USE:
They are used for heavy duty work where large ratio of speed is
required and extensively used in speed reducer.
SLG15
TYPES OF GEAR TRAIN
Two types of gear train:
a) Simple Gear Train and b) Compound Gear Train
Simple Gear Train: When a gear train consists of two or more gea
mounted on separate shafts called simple gear train.
IDLER GEARS:
The gears which are in between the driver and driven gear, used f
fill up space and change the direction are called IDLER GEARS.
Note: EVEN set of gear train rotate in opposite direction and
Odd set of Gear train rotate in (driver and driven) same
direction.
SLG16
Compound Gear Train:
A compound gear train is a series of gears with two of the
intermediate
Gears mounted on the same shaft and rotating at the same speed.
A compound gear train requires at least four gears.
The intermediate gears are in this case are not idler gears but rather
driver and driven gears themselves.
SL – B1
BEARINGS
A bearing is any surface which supports, or is
supported by another surface.
A good bearing must be composed of material that is
strong enough to withstand the pressure imposed on it and
should permit the other surface to move with a
minimum of friction and wear.
The parts must be held in position within very
close tolerances to provide efficient and quiet
operation, and yet allow freedom of motion.
BEARING
S
PLAIN BEARING ANTIFRICTION BEARING
BALL BEARING ROLLER BEARING
a) Radial Bearings a) Rigid or Cylindrical Roller
b) AngularContact Bearings
Bearing
c) Thrust Bearings
b) Tapper Roller Bearing
d) Instrument Precision bearings
c) Spherical Roller Bearing
d) Needle Bearing
SL – B2
FUNCTION OF BEARINGS:
The main function of bearing is to accept radial and axial
loads during the operation under continuous rotary or
oscillatory conditions.
It needs a good support, to ensure stability and
frictionless rotation. The support for the shaft is known as
“bearing”.
The shaft has a “running fit” in a bearing. All bearing are
provided some lubrication arrangement to reduced friction
between shaft and bearing.
SL – B3
Bearings are classified under two main categories:
Plain or slider bearing :
In which the rotating shaft has a sliding contact with the
bearing which is held stationary . Due to large contact area
friction between mating parts is high requiring greater
lubrication.
Plain bearings are generally used for the crank shaft, cam ring,
camshaft, connecting rods, and the accessory drive shaft bearings.
Such bearings are usually subjected to radial loads only, although
some have been designed to take thrust loads.
SL – B4
Plain bearings are usually made of nonferrous (having no iron) metals,
such as silver, bronze, aluminum, and various alloys of copper, tin, or lead.
Smaller bearings, such as those used to support various shafts in the
accessory section, are called bushings.
Porous Oilite bushings are widely used in this instance. They are
impregnated with oil so that the heat of friction brings
the oil to the bearing surface during engine operation.
Advantages and disadvantages of the plain bearing:
Plain bearing are cheap to produce and have noiseless
operation. They can be easily machined, occupy small radial
space and have vibration damping properties. Also they can
cope with tapped foreign matter.
Disadvantages are they require large supply of lubricating
oil, they are suitable only for relative low temperature and
speed; and starting resistance is much greater than running
resistance due to slow build up of lubricant film around the
bearing surface.
SL – B5
2. Rolling or antifriction bearing :
Due to less contact area rolling friction is much lesser
than the sliding friction , hence these bearings are also
known as antifriction bearing.
.
SL – B6
SL – B7
The ball and roller bearing
consists of following parts:
Inner ring or race which fits on
the shaft.
Outer ring or race which fits
inside the housing.
Ball and roller arranged between
the surfaces of two races. These
provide rolling action between the
races.
the radius of the track for balls is
slightly greater 5 to 10 % than that of
the ball themselves.
Note that the rotating surfaces rotate
in opposite directions.
Cage which separates the balls or
rollers from one another.
The disadvantage of the ball and roller bearings are high cost, they
cannot be used in half, and greater noise.
SL – B8
Comparative study of plain and (Antifriction
bearing)roller bearing:
Frictional resistance considerably less than in plain bearings.
Rotating – nonrotating pairs, separated by balls or rollers.
Ball or rollers has rolling contact and sliding friction is eliminated and
replaced by much lower rolling friction.
In plain bearing the starting resistance is much larger than the running
resistance due to absence of oil film.
In ball and rolling bearings the initial resistance to motion is only slightly
more than their resistance to continuous running.
Hence ball and rolling bearing are more suitable to drives subject to
frequent starting and stopping as they save power.
Owing to the low starting torque, a low power motor can be used for a
line shaft running in ball bearing.
SL – B9
Ball Bearings
A ball bearing assembly consists of grooved inner and
outer races, one or more sets of balls, and,
in bearings designed for disassembly,a bearing retain er.
They are used for supercharger impeller shaft bearings
and rocker arm bearings in some engines.
Special deepgroove ball bearings are used in air craft
engines to transmit propeller thrust to the engine nose
section.
SL – B10
Ball Bearings
These consist of an inner and outer race separated by hardened steel
balls.
This class of bearing relies on the motion of the balls to reduce
friction between the inner race carried on the shaft of the machine and
the outer race which is normally fitted inside a housing on the
stationary part of the machine.
SLB11
SLB12
The bearing may be constructed using single or double rows of balls,
each row controlled by bronze or brass cage, but bearings which do
not have a cage are often used. Ball bearings are designed for RADIAL
or THRUST loads or a combination of both and are able to operate in
either direction of rotation.
Ball bearings can be of rigid or self aligning type depending on the
requirement, this being determined at the time of manufacture. Ball
bearings may be divided into four main types that define the way in
which the bearings are used. The main types of Ball bearings are: a)
Radial Bearings b) AngularContact Bearings c)Thrust Bearings
d) Instrument Precision
Bearings
SLB13
Radial Bearings:
Radial bearings are the most common type of bearing and can be
found in all types of transmission assemblies such as shafts,
gears, control rods and end fittings. They are manufactured with
either a single or double row of balls, rigid for normal applications
and selfaligning for positions where accurate alignment cannot be
maintained, such as in control rod ends..
SL – B14
AngularContact Bearings:
AngularContact bearings are capable of accepting radial loads
and axial loads in one direction only. The outer ring is recessed
on one side to allow the ball and cage assembly to be installed,
thus enabling more balls to be used and the cage to be in one
piece. The axial load capacity depends on the contact angle.
In applications where axial loads will always be in one direction, a
single angularcontact bearing may be used but, where they vary
in direction, an opposed pair of bearings may be used.
Outer Ring
Thrust Face
Thrust Bearings:
SL – B15
Thrust bearings are designed for axial loading only. They will
usually be found in use together with roller or radial ball
bearings. The balls are retained in a cage and run on flat or
grooved washers. These bearings are adversely affected by
centrifugal force and so work best under highload, lowspeed
situations.
Thrust ball bearing can take
only thrust loads.
Thrust ball bearing are used for
heavy axial loads and low speeds.
SL – B16
Instrument Precision Bearings
Instrument Precision Bearings are manufactured to high
accuracy and finish.
They are generally of the radial bearing type and can be
found in both instruments and communication
equipment.
ROLLER BEARINGS
SL – B17
Roller Bearings
Rolling or antifriction bearing :
Due to less contact area rolling friction is much lesser than the sliding
friction hence these bearings are also known as antifriction bearing.
Roller bearings are made in many types and shapes, but the two
types generally used in the aircraft engine are the straight roller and the
tapered roller bearings.
Straight roller bearings are used where the bearing is subjected to radial
loads only.
Straight roller bearings are used in highpower aircraft engines for
the crankshaft main bearings.
In tapered roller bearings, the inner and outerrace bearing surfaces
are cone shaped. Such bearings will withstand both radial and thrust
loads.
Taper Roller Bearings SL – B18
These bearings obtain their description from the shape of the inner race,
this being in the shape of a cone.
The tapered bearing consist of the coned shaped inner and a cup
shaped outer race.
The rollers are tapered and made from hardened steel.
This class of bearing can support radial loads in one direction only.
Because of this, this class of bearing will often be found to contain two
individual rows of bearings, each row using the same inner and outer
races, but with the rollers arranged with the tapers on the rollers in
opposite directions, thus allowing the bearings to withstand radial loads
in either direction.
SL – B19
Tapered roller bearing (TRB):
TRB can take both radial and axial loads and used for gear
boxes for heavy trucks, bevelgear transmission, lathe
spindles, etc.
Cylindrical Roller Bearings:
SL – B20
Cylindrical Roller bearings will accept greater radial loads than
ball bearings of the same size.
This is due to the greater contact area of the rolling elements and,
if they have ribs on both rings, cylindrical roller bearings will also
accept light, intermittent, axial loads.
Normally the rollers have a Length equal to their diameter,
although some rollers have a Length greater than their diameter
to cater for special applications.
SL – B21
NEEDLE BEARING:
Roller bearings which have a length much greater than the
diameter, are normally called needle roller bearings. These are
designed for radial loads only and are best used in situations
where the movement is oscillatory rather than rotary, such as in
universal joints and control rod ends.
Spherical Roller Bearings SL – B22
Spherical Roller bearings can be found with single
or double rows of rollers, which run in a spherical
raceway in the outer ring, thus enabling the bearing
to accept a small degree of misalignment. These
bearings will accept high radial loads and moderate
axial loads.
SL – B23
Ref.A/C gen engg
SL – B24
Lalit Gupta
LUBRICATION OF BEARING
Adequate lubrication is essential for all types of bearing.
Functions of lubrication:
To lubricate the areas of rubbing contact ( between the rolling
elements and the cage)
To minimise friction at points of contact with the bearing.
To dissipate heat generated within the bearing.
To remove or prevent the entry of foreign matter within the bearing.
To protect the bearing from corrosion.
SL – B25
Bearings fitted on engines and gearboxes are generally lubricated by
oil spray, splash, mist or controlled level oil bath.
Loss of lubricant is prevented by the use of oil retaining device such as
labyrinth
Seals, rubber washers, etc.
ADVANTAGES OF OIL AND GREASE:
OIL:
1.Better for high speed operation.
2.Easier to handle and control the amount of lubricant reaching the
bearing.
3.Variety of ways to deliver oil makes it easier to introduce into bearing.
Grease:
Clings to surfaces better.
Easier to retain in bearing.
Lubricant loss is lower than oil loss.
Lasts longer and protects better than oil.
Acts as an efficient bearing sealant. Ref.A/C gen
engg
Lalit Gupta
PRECAUTIONS ON BEARING HANDLING SL – B26
Work with clean tools in clean surroundings.
Remove all outside dirt from housing before exposing bearing.
Handle with clean and dry hands.
Used bearing should be treated as carefully as a new one.
Use clean solvents and flushing oils.
Bearing should be laid out on a clean paper and cover.
Protect disassembled bearings from dirt and moisture.
Use clean and lint free rags wiping bearings.
Keep bearings wrapped in oilproof paper when not in use.
Clean inside of housing before replacing bearings.
Keep bearing lubricants clean when applying and cover container
when not in use. Ref.A/C gen engg
Lalit Gupta
SL –
B27 Ref. power plant
Otispg.539
BEARING TERMS
ABRASION: A roughened area caused by the presence
Of fine foreign material between moving surfaces.
BURNING:
An injury to the surface caused by excessive heat . This is the
evidenced by discoloration or in severe cases by loss of material.
BURNISHING:
A mechanical smoothing of a metal surface by rubbing. It is not
removal of material but sometimes discoloration around the
outer edges of the area.
BURR: A sharp projection or rough edge.
SL – B28 Ref. power plant
Otispg.539
BRINELLING(TRUE): A shallow indentation sometimes found at one
location on the surface of ball or roller bearing races caused by shock
loads to the bearing when not rotating.
BRINELLING(FALSE): A satin finish or a series of shallow depressions
in the surface of ball or roller bearing races.
CHAFING:
A rubbing action between two parts which have limited relative motion.
CHIPPING: Breaking out of small pieces of material.
CORROSION : Break down of the surface by chemical action.
FRETTING: Discoloration on surfaces which are pressed or bolted together
under high Pressure.
Steel parts the color is reddish brown and on aluminum oxide is white.
SL – B29 Ref. power plant
Otispg.539
GALLING: The transfer of metal from one surface to another, caused by
chafing.
GOUGING: The displacement of materials from a surface by cutting,
tearing or
displacement effect.
NICK: A sharp indentation caused by striking one part against another
metal object.
PEENING: Deformation of the surface , caused by impact.
PITTING: Small, irregularlyshaped cavities in a surface, from which
material has been removed by corrosion or chipping.
SCORING: Deep scratches made by sharp edges or foreign particles
during engine operation.