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I N T E R N A T I O N A L INSTITUTE F O R E D U C A T I O N A L P L A N N I N G
7-9, rue Eugène-Delacroix, 75116 Paris
TRAINING MATERIALS IN
EDUCATIONAL PLANNING, ADMINISTRATION AND FACILITIES
School mapping and micro-planning

in education
Françoise Caillods
© UNESCO
This material
is being revised
SCHOOL MAPPING AND MICRO"PLANNING IN EDUCATION
This series is composed of the following documents ;
Introduction and working instructions
Module I s School mapping and micro-planning -

concepts and processes
Module II ; Diagnosis of the educational system at the

local level
Module III ; Estimating demand s demography and enrol-

ment projections
Module IV : Preparation of the prospective school map
Module V ; Introduction and country-wide extension

of school mapping
Introduction and working instructxons
INTRODUCTION AND WORKING INSTRUCTIONS

Introduction and working instructions 2
INTRODUCTION
This series forms part of the training materials in educational
planning, administration and facilities prepared by Unesco's Educational
Policy and Planning Division,
The series deals with the techniques of school mapping as a
micro-planning tool and comprises five modules :
Module I explains the concepts of school mapping and micro-
planning, and sets out the various objectives of the
school map, the factors to be taken into consideration
and the process of preparing it ;
Module II is given to the techniques of preparing an educational
diagnosis at the local level ; it deals with analysis
of the educational system's coverage, internal effi-
ciency and quality ; and proposes more precise indica-
tors than those calculated at the national level;
Module III describes ways of estimating educational demand and
deals with the difficult problem of estimating the
potential school population in the regions and sub-
regions before going on to methods of projecting en-
rolments f
Introduction and working instructions 3
Module IV presents methods of preparing the prospective map,

the data and criteria used and the stages to be gone
through in preparing proposals for re-organizing the
educational system ;
Module V concludes the series by indicating the procedures to
be followed in introducing school mapping and in ex-
tending it to cover the whole country.
If you have high-level central or regional responsibility for

education, Module I will suffice to give you general information
on what the school map is, on its objectives and on its preparation.
If you wish to introduce it in your country or if you have to parti-
cipate in establishing it, Module V will also undoubtedly interest
you.
If you are a teacher, or head of a school or a subject department,
perhaps you have already been concerned - or will be shortly - with
steps taken in connexion with the school map. Module I will give
you a wider view of what this covers, of its objectives and of the
various elements which it must take into account in order to make
better educational provision at the local level.
If you are yourself organising training programmes in educational
planning and administration, Modules I to V will interest you. Perhaps
you will wish to use their content in your own courses, and we can
only encourage you to do so. You will probably have to develop exercises
which will more closely accord with your country's conditions.
Lastly, if you are a central or regional level educational
planner or if you are a regional-level educational administrator,
this self-teaching series is intended particularly for you. Perhaps
you are already practising similar techniques ; the modules which
follow will then serve to clarify certain of your ideas and possibly
cause you to reconsider some of them. If you are not familiar with
school-mapping techniques, Module V may convince you of the usefulness
Introduction and'working instructions 4
of studying educational problems on the local scale to improve the

effectiveness of your planning. Modules II to IV will set out for
you how to prepare a school map at the regional level. Module V
will show you how to extend this approach to all the regions.
So, esteemed reader : Take heart !
WORKING INSTRUCTIONS
This whole series has been written on the assumption that you
will do active work on it. You should have fully taken in the content
of a paragraph and have done the exercises set upon it before going
on to study the next paragraph. Each reader will work at his own
pace, so no one length of time can really be fixed for the study
of each module : the time will vary according to the reader's previous
training and present occupation.
However, as an indication only, the average time for the study
of each module would be of the following order ;
Module I : 3 to 6 hours
Module II : 12 to 1.6 hours
Module III : 5 to 8 hours
Module IV : 12 to 16 hours
Module V ; 4 to 6 hours
In various parts of the text you will find giant question (?)
and/or exclamation marks (!) in the left-hand margin. These indicate
that you should either answer a question (?) or do an exercise (!).
You should then interrupt your reading and attempt to answer the
question or to do the exercise set. A line will separate the question
from comments intended to guide you in your task or to enable you
to check your answers. Detailed answers to the exercises will be

found at the end of each module-
The examples given and exercises set are mostly taken from in
structional materials prepared by the International Institute for
Educational Planning; in cooperation with the Ministries concerned,
for various national or regional courses on the methodology of school
mapping and micro-planning о You will find a detailed list of reference
works at the end of Module L
This document will contain a certain number of terms which are
not applicable to all administrative and educational systems, and
you will need to try and adapt them.
For example, to denote the levels of primary education the follow
ing terminology is used :
In France : preparatory, elementary, etc» course ;
In the United States : Grade 1, 2, etc.;
In Tanzania : standard 1, 2, etc« or form 1, 2, etc»;
In Tunisia : 1st year, 2nd year, etc»
What term is used in your country ?
Answer %
This is the term of which you should think when we speak here
of grade or year of study.
EDUCATIONAL PLANNING, ADMINISTRATION
AND FACILITIES
SCHOOL MAPPING AND MICRO-PLANNING IN EDUCATION
MODULE I
SCHOOL MAPPING AND MICRO-PLANNING

CONCEPTS AND PROCESSES
Section 1 : Definition of school mapping

and micro-planning
Section 2 : The process of school mapping
Section 3 : Reference bibliography
This module, prepared by Françoise Caillods, is a synthesis

of various documents distributed in H E P * s school mapping
and micro-planning courses
Educational Policy and

Planning Division
International Institute for

Educational Planning
U N E S C O
Module I : Contents i
MODULE I : SCHOOL MAPPING AND MICRO-PLANNING - CONCEPTS AND PROCESSES
CONTENTS : Objectives 1
Section 1 : Definition of school mapping and
micro-planning 2
Section 2 : The process of school mapping „ 12
Conclusion 20
Reference bibliography 21
Diagrams :
Diagram I : Interaction among different decision-
making levels 14
Diagram II: Methodological stages in the preparation of
the detailed local school map 16
Module I : Concepts and processes 1
MODULE I
SCHOOL MAPPING AND MICRO-PLANNING
CONCEPTS AND PROCESSES
This module is intended for everyone who desires information on :
- the definition of school mapping and micro-planning in general ;
the role they play in educational planning, and in particular

their relationship to central planning ;
the objectives and field of application of school mapping ;
- the process of school mapping.
The module is made up of three main parts :
Section 1 defines the concepts of school mapping and micro-planning,

their roles in educational planning and their objectives and
fields of application ;
Section 2 analyses the process of school mapping.
- An Annex gives a brief bibliography of school mapDina and micro-

planning.
Objectives
After reading this module you should :
(1) have a clear understanding of the school map and micro-planning and
their relation to educational planning at the central level ;
(2) know the school map's main functions and its field of application ;
(3) be better informed of the factors which should be considered when
preparing the school map ;
(4) have a general idea of the processes and stages involved in school
mapping.
Module I Section 1 :, Definition of school mapping and micro-planning 2
SECTION 1
DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS IN SCHOOL MAPPING AND
MICRO-PLANNING
INTRODUCTION
During the years 1960 to 1970, most developing countries initiated
educational planning systems at the central level. Great hopes were raised
by such planning, the purpose of which was (and still is) to :
(a) provide a framework for fixing priorities and determining
objectives ;
(b) orient the expansion of educational systems in accordance
with the needs of social, economic and cultural development ;
(c) allow the best possible use to be made of the limited resources
attributed to education.
Several years later, it must now be acknowledged that these hopes were
not always fulfilled. The growing interest in micro-planning stems from
a certain disillusion with the results of experiments in planning at the
central level.
It was realised in fact that educational systems have an inner dynamic
which is not necessarily linked with the existence of a plan or its objectives.
Often, development in the different levels of education does not accord
with forecasts. Policies laid down at the central level are not always
implemented at the regional or local level, because they are unsuitable.
Furthermore, it has been noted that, despite priorities fixed by
national plans, inequalities have persisted among regions, urban and rural
areas and social groups. Sometimes they have decreased in primary educa-
tion, only to be transmitted to subsequent educational levels, notably
to secondary education. Very often the regions already developed have
continued to develop their educational systems very rapidly, while in
other regions, schools have not been built as foreseen. Elsewhere pupil
participation has remained poor and it has not proved possible to stimulate
demand.
Module I Section 1 Г Definition of school mapping and micro-planning 3
The reasons for this situation are numberous. Some of them are of a
general, political or financial nature. Undoubtedly, too much optimism has
been shown with regard to the possibilities of shaping the development of
education, while the different constraints and pressures exercised both
inside and outside the educational system have been underestimated.
There are, however, other reasons, which are more closely linked to
the actual practice of educational planning. Among these may be mentioned:
(a) The inadequate knowledge which central-level planners have of
the situation in the different regions and sub-regions. The
planners work with national averages, since they cannot make
in-depth diagnoses of the characteristics of the population
groups to be served or of the teaching conditions in different
types of schools. Such averages are often a long way from the
reality of the different regions. Hence the objectives set are
unrealistic and the content or methods of education are ill-
adapted to the needs of certain regions or of rural areas.
(b) The low level of importance attached to the way in which decisions
are implemented in the field. Very often educational planning
ceases with the publication of the national plan.
The implementation of policies is left to the discretion of

the regional or local administrators. The central services put
out circulars and directives, but these are not applicable to
every situation and they are either too vague or too restrictive
or too narrowly defined. In the absence of adequate information,
local administrators do not know what measures to adopt. Some
dare not take any initiative and leave things to run their
course according to previous trends ; others, on the contrary,
take inappropriate action.
(c) Lack of participation in the decision-making process at the local
and regional levels. This may have two consequences. On the
one hand, the persons responsible for implementing the national
plan at the local and regional levels do not feel much interest
or motivation because the plan has been conceived entirely
without their participation. On the other hand, the measures
proposed are ill-adapted to the regions' situations.

Module I Section 1 r Definition of school mapping and micro-planning 4
These deficiencies have made micro-planning and school mapping

indispensable complements to central national planning. It is not claimed
that they will solve all the problems mentioned above but, prepared at the
local level on the basis of in-depth diagnosis, they enable better
account to be taken of the characteristics of the population groups to
be served and of the specific details of the local situation.
Some definitions :
1. Educational micro-planning :
In its widest sense educational micro-planning covers all

planning activities at the sub-national level, be it regional,
local or institutional. In that sense, all the problems and issues
tackled by macro-(national) planning are relevant to micro-planning
and all the discussions on the choice of objectives and methods could
take place at that level as well. In a more restricted sense, micro-
planning is defined with reference to macro-planning: its reflects
a real concern to improve the functioning of the educational system
by reinforcing regional and local planning activities. While main
lines are drawn at the national level, micro-planning seeks to ensure
greater equality in the distribution of educational servicesr a better
adaptation of these to the needs of local communities and a more
efficient use of all the resources available. Lastly, it suggests,
as a working method, participation by the communities in planning
efforts.
2. School mapping :
School mapping is a set of techniques and procedures used to

identify future needs in education at the local level and to plan
for measures to be taken to meet them.
Numbers of people, even in the Ministries of Education, mis-

interpret the expression "school mapping". Many think, in fact, that
it merely denotes marking on a large-scale map the location of existing
schools, distinguished by appropriate symbols. This exercise, while
Module I Section 1 :-Definition of school mapping and micro-planning 5
very useful, is nevertheless only a first stage in preparing a school

map. The school map should be much more than this : it should be
a forward-looking and dynamic vision of what the educational services,
with their premises, teachers and equipment should be in the future
so as to enable educational policy to be implemented.
Preparation of the school map at the local level comprises three

stages : an in-depth diagnosis of the situation in the base year,
projections of the numbers to be enrolled in the light of national
policy objectives, and proposals for re-organisation of the educational
services. It is, in fact, a method of planning education at the local
and regional levels.
3. The educational map :
This expression is sometimes preferred to the term "school map"

since it implies that :
(i) It is not simply a matter of planning strictly school activities,
but one of planning all educational activities, including out-of-
school literacy programmes, post-literacy courses, vocational
training, etc.. It is at the local level that coordination
between school and out-of-school activities can most easily be
achieved.
(ii) Schools are not the only places in which education can be provided.
There are other areas, such as mosques, churches, cooperatives,
etc., which may be used for education.
Inter-relations of school mapping, micro-planning and national planning

of education
In most countries which have educational planning systems the national

plan for education defines for a given period the quantitative and qualita-
tive objectives which the authorities set for the educational sector.
School mapping and micro-planning will be the means by which these objectives
will be translated into concrete measures in the field :
Such questions as :
Module I Section 1 * Definition of school mapping and micro-planning 6
"According to what criteria are we going to develop our educational

system : social demand ? manpower needs ?"
- "How many people should have access to education after the

compulsory schooling stage ?"
"What criteria for the allocation of resources among regions should

be applied to reduce regional disparities?"
are relevant for both school mapping and micro-planning. They should,
however, be answered ultimately at the national level with due account
taken of the resources available and of the country's development strategy.
At the local level it is essentially a matter of understanding how

the present educational services meet the needs of the local population
groups (this is the role of diagnosis), and of proposing better ways of
distributing the educational services or of diversifying their action
programmes (this is the role of proposals). School mapping and micro-
planning ensure that global objectives are adapted to the particular
characteristics of each region, and constitute a formative stage in the
planning process - that of applying the national plan at the regional and
district levels. At the same time they enable a more exact assessment of
the resources to be allocated for the development of education.
Lastly, school mapping, like micro-planning, is done at the local

level by the same people who will have to implement them. This is
a great contribution to increasing the chances of attaining the national
plan's objectives.
Field of application and functions of the school map
School mapping is usually introduced whan a large-scale reform

take place or when the decision is taken to expand the educational system
rapidly. This was the case in France, for example, when in 1963 the
Government decided to extend the period of compulsory schooling to the
age of 16, which required the establishment of a large number of new schools.
It quickly became apparent that the Ministry of Education could not itself
plan the location of all the new schools, nor did the regional offices
Module I Section 1 :. Definition of school mapping and micro-planning 7
have the methodological means to decide what types of schools were needed and
where. A collection of circulars, regulations, standards and procedures were
prepared at that time and given the name "the school map".
In developing countries school mapping techniques are most often used

to :
1. Attain or consolidate universal primary education (examples are :

Morocco, Burundi and the Sudan).
The demographic variable is, of course, the main one to be

considered. Here it is a matter of proposing the establishment of
complete schools in all villages with sufficient population. Where
the population is not big enough to justify opening a complete school,
specific alternative solutions have to be studied, such as the possi-
bility of having schools which serve several villages, multigrade
classes, two-yearly entry and one-teacher schools.
The aim is to :
(i) avoid creating classes which are too large or too small, or
suppressing them if they already exist ;
(ii) establish schools which have several classes (2 or 3 at least)

so as to improve teaching/learning conditions ;
(iii) avoid boarding.
Action on educational supply (such as establishing schools and

allocating teachers) may not be enough to reduce inequalities ;
action may also have to be taken on the problem of demand in order to
encourage enrolment of children of school age and to combat pupil
absenteeism (e.g. organizing lunch programmes as foreseen in certain
regions in Thailand).
2. Increase access to secondary education (e.g. : Thailand, Tunisia,

Tanzania and Nigeria) and/or establish a nine-year period of basic
education (as in Costa Rica and the fundamental school in Algeria).
It may also be a matter of re-structuring a network of establish-

ments with differing characteristics so that they may constitute,
for example : a "comprehensive" secondary school. Relevant questions are:
Module I Section 1 Г Definition of school mapping and micro-planning 8
- "What use can be made of the existing institutions ?"
- "Where should new schools be established large enough to permit a

certain diversification of courses as well as the satisfactory and
economic use of teachers and premises ?"
Here again the aim will be to limit the number of boarders, especially
in the lower secondary cycle. This poses two problems : the definition
of a minimum acceptable size for a school and the transportation of
pupils.
3. Improve the quality of education and promote better educational

conditions in schools without, however, entailing large increases in
costs. Here it is a matter of making the best use of existing resources
such as : facilitating the transfer of some teachers or by making
available to several schools the communal use of other resources,
such as : specialised teachers and equipment. In this connection, the
school map could be the means for carrying out administrative reforms
at the local level aiming at a re-grouping of institutions in clusters,
such as the "nuclei" in Latin America or the "clusters" in Thailand
and Sri Lanka.
Other aims may be thought of, such as :
4. Organizing a network óf technical and vocational educational institutions:
This task is more difficult than that of organizing a network o f

general educational institutions. How, in fact, are the numbers of
pupils who should follow such courses, and their fields of specialisation,
to be decided ? Traditional methods of planning human resources are
very imprecise, at least as regards medium- and long-term forecasts, and
are especially so at the regional level. Another theoretical problem
difficult to solve is : Should educational supply be adapted, or not,
to strictly regional employment opportunities ? Some countries have
solved the problem empirically by distinguishing among the following :
(a) fairly general technical streams preparing for occupations

which do not involve much specialisation : institutions providing
Module I Section 1 r Definition of school mapping and micro-planning 9
such streams are established where population density permits,

usually along with those providing general upper secondary
education (diversified education) ;
(b) highly specialised courses for fairly common occupations, such

as mechanics and commerce : institutions offering these courses
are established in each region ;
(c) highly specialised courses for uncommon occupations : institutions

giving training for these are established in the capitals or in
very specific regions, e.g. : fishery schools.
Planning the location of technical and vocational schools constitutes

a point where central level planning and micro-planning meet : the
former determines the number of persons to be trained in each specialised
field for the whole country, and the latter enables a better analysis to be
made of economic activities and short-term employment needs at the
regional level.
5. Prepare the map of univerisities and other higher educational institutions

Institutions of higher learning often recruit students from all
over the country. Thus, location criteria are somewhat relative.
Decisions on where to locate universities are usually taken

at the highest level and the criteria used are essentially political.
Nevertheless, efforts' should be made to establish a certain equality
in the distribution of provision, on condition that the numbers
justify this. One should also take into account the effects the
establishment of a university will have on the economic and cultural
life of a region.
Hence, there will be as many school maps as there are levels of

education. It will be necessary, of course to ensure coordination and
even a ranking among the school maps so as to account for the flow of
pupils from one level to another.
All school maps have a common double function :
(i) to rationalize the use of educational resources by re-grouping

and thereby suppressing classes which are too small ; and
Module I Section 1 i Definition of school mapping and micro-planning 10
(ii) to secure greater equality of educational opportunity.: school

mapping implies seeking appropriate measures to attain greater
equality in access to education and in teaching/learning conditions,
Factors to be considered in school mapping
The preparation and regular up-dating of a school map require the

consideration of a large number of factors, including :
(1) Demographic factors :

Whether it is a question of establishing, extending or modifying
a school network, or planning out-of-school activities, the first
question which comes to mind concerns potential demand and its
territorial distribution. One of the greatest difficulties in
school mapping is obtaining sufficiently reliable data at the local
level. Information on the total population and its growth rate and
on school-age population must be obtained for the smallest geo-
graphic areas possible. Such information is usually available from
census figures. Between censuses, estimates will have to be made.
In any case, imperfect data are preferable to no data whatsoever.
(2) Educational factors :
The aim, as we have seen, is to ensure the best educational
conditions possible, while keeping costs down to a reasonable level.
Didactic considerations will affect the fixing of various parameters,
such as :
the number of study hours per week and their distribution by subject ,-
the number of pupils per class and their division into smaller
groups for certain activities (in workshops, laboratories, etc.) ;
normal length of time for which premises should be used and the
possibilities of introducing double shifts ;
teachers 1 working hours and the extent of their specialisation.
Given such parameters, standard sizes need to be fixed which
will enable the institutions to be run with full utilisation of
premises and teachers. Minimum and maximum school sizes will also
need to be fixed.
Module I Section 1 : Definition of school mapping and micro-planning 11
(3) Geographic factors :
Geographic factors require study of the possibilities of pupils
getting to an institution in the light of the road network , the
topography of the area(s) and the existing means of transport (by
road, river, on horseback and, of course, on f o o t ) .
(4) Economic factors :
Economic factors require that low-cost solutions be sought. It
is economic considerations, combined with educational considerations,
which mainly determine the standard, minimum and maximum sizes for
educational institutions.
(5) Political factors :

School mapping has numerous political aspects which are all too evident
in the numerous constraints and pressures borne by the administrators
who must decide on the creation or expansion of educational institutions
of whatever kind.
(6) Manpower and economic activity factor :
Interaction between school mapping and economic activities is
two-fold. On the one hand, the economic activities of a region and
the possibilities of employment will affect the selection of the
specialised subjects to be offered in technical and vocational education

or even in general education because of the options offered in diversi-
fied or pre-vocational education. On the other hand, the decision to
establish, or to close, an institution may have a real impact on a
region's activities.
Module I Section 2 : The school mapping process 12
SECTION 2
THE PROCESS OF SCHOOL MAPPING
School mapping acts in a way as a bridge between the fixing of

overall objectives and the translation of these into definite actions at
the local level ; it is also a bridge between the planning of education
and its administration on an annual basis. It is therefore a complex
operation and implies an iterative process which allows for the inter-
action between different levels of administration.
To begin with, the central administration regionalizes the objectives

and establishes the criteria and norms to be applied. On this basis,
drafts of school maps are prepared at the regional level translating
the regional objectives in operational terms. At the local level, the
detailed preparation of the school map takes into consideration the specific
needs, characteristics and problems of the local communities.
The local maps, after having been shuttled back and forth between
local, regional and central levels (with consequent revisions), are put
into final form. These maps, taken together, constitute the regional map,
and the regional maps, taken together, constitute the national school map.
Interaction between different decision levels and the preparation of draft

maps
On the basis of an analysis of the educational system.in the base
year and of its levels of development in the various regions, the central
a dm ini s tr at i on specifies for each region objectives compatible with the
overall national goal and with a policy of reducing regional disparities.
The central administration also lays down the regulations, norms and
criteria which will be used in allocating resources among regions, sub-
regions and institutions such as : staffing formulae for different types of
institution, minimum, maximum and standard sizes of enrolment, floor
space and equipment per pupil to be provided, policy with regard to the use
of premises, etc,.
Module I Section 2 :. The school mapping process 13
On the basis of such régionalisée! objectives and of different norms

regarding staffing ratios, the central administration can obtain a first
estimate of the distribution by region of the educational supply : numbers
of pupils, teachers and classrooms. This estimate will be revised later on
in the light of the regions' proposals.
On the basis of the objectives fixed for them, and applying the various
norms, the regional offices formulate more detailed proposals. In particular,
they translate regional objectives into sub-regional objectives and obtain
estimates of what the needs for teachers and classrooms will be in the
different sub-regions (this is the draft of the regional map).
After studying the regional proposals, the central services may be

called upon to revise their original allotment of educational resources,
and even their global objectives, so as to adapt them to regional diversity.
A similar procedure takes place between the regions and the sub-regions
(or the appropriate local level). The first draft of the regional map
prepared by the regional offices will be revised in the light of proposals
by local administrators and inspectors. In the absence of a regional policy,
or in the absence of norms and criteria, resources are often allocated
according to the negotiating power wielded by the different partners
(institutions, communities and sub-regions), rather than according to their
real needs. The object of the school map is precisely the substitution
of empirical negotiation by a more rational analysis of the needs of each
existing community and institution.
The repeated give-and-take between the local and regional levels,

and between the regional and central levels, leads to a much more precise
determination of what the draft of the regional maps, and subsequently the
national maps, should look like. This task of preparing the drafts makes
it possible to test whether the objectives set by the national plan are
realistic or not, and whether the means foreseen are adequate in view of the
diversity of the regions' characteristics.
Adoption of the school map implies acceptance of a type of planning

which does not result in one-way communication from the centre to the
peripheries, or vice versa, but in a series of successive loops and iterations
which make possible the progressive revision of proposals as well as the
preparation of final decisions.
Diagram 1 : Interaction among different decision-making levels 3

p>
rt
и-
о
Э
ID
National Plan objectives
- Economy
- Health
Political - Education
factors
11
Régionalisation of
Norms
Draft outline of
the national school
Regions the plan objectives map
Proposals for distri-
bution of educational
supply by region
Plan objectives at
#
regional level : ft»
H-
- Economy o
- Health ÍD
- Education
- Infrastructure
<
Political (!)
factors
Norms
Sub-regionalisation Draft of regional
Sub-regions
of objectives school map
Proposals for the
distribution of
educational supply
by sub-regions
Sub-regional objectives
о
о
In view of the different levels of interaction between school mapping

nad the various social services on the one hand, and the economic development
of the regions on the other, it is desirable that the drafts should be
prepared in close cooperation with the regional planning offices, the
ministry responsible for rural development, and other administrative
bodies concerned : housing, health, roads, etc.. Ideally the school map
should be an integral part of an overall map of the public services.
Unfortunately this is far from being the case in most countries.
Finally it may be stressed that, while school mapping requires

vertical interaction among, and participation by, the different adminis-
trative levels (local, regional and central), it requires also a horizontal
type of participation on the part of other administrative bodies, as we
have said, and also of the various social groups concerned.
School mapping at the local level

Once the regional and sub-regional objectives have been fixed (during
the preparation of the draft map), the final detailed school map will be
prepared at the local level. The level corresponding to what we here
call the local level will, of course, change from country to country,
according to each one's administrative structure. It may also change
according to the level of education. The territorial unit chosen for
the analysis and planning of post-compulsory education (upper secondary
education, for example) will generally be larger than the one selected
for compulsory education.
Like all exercises in educational planning, school mapping comprises

three important preparatory stages :
1, A thorough diagnosis of the situation in the base year. This

should deal with all aspects of the following :
coverage of the educational system : inequalities in access to

education among territorial units and various pupil groups ;
educational efficiency : repetition, drop-out;
disparities in the quality of educational services : teachers,

equipment, premises.
Module I Section 2 г The school mapping process 16
Diagram II": Methodological stages in the preparation of the detailed

local school map
Present demand Existing supply
Enrolments Buildings & equipment

Enrolment rate Staff
Pupil flow Curriculum
Geographic distribution Costs & financing
•H
w of demand Geographic distribution
о of SUDDIV
с
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Q
Present imbalances
JL
Future demand Future requirements
Projections of the school-age Premises and equipment
population Staff requirements
w Norms & Future curriculum
с Projections of the new intake
о standards Costs & financing
-н in the school system
+J
и Enrolment projections
0)
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Balance of future supply

and demand
Modifications to the school network

to Different solutions according to the levels
w
о and types of education, and to areas
Рч
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Module I Section 2 Г The school mapping process 17
The diagnosis should answer the following questions :

"Does the educational service satisfy population demand for
education ?"
- "Is it equitable ?"
"Is it of sufficently high quality ?"
"Is it economical ? Are the resources available used as they

should be ?"
The diagnosis requires the establishment of a very considerable

data bank at the regional level, including : demographic statistics,
educational statistics, maps, relief map data, means of transport,
and economic activities. Since educational statistics are usually
insufficient, specific surveys need to be made on the catchment areas
of existing institutions, the use of premises and other resources,
and costs.
2. Projections of the potential demand for education on the basis of

detailed projection , by administrative unit, of the school-age
population and of educational policy objectives.
3. Preparation of proposals for the re-organisation of the network of

educational institutions. These should, at one and the same time,
bring about equality of educational opportunity, better utilisation
of resources and adherence to certain norms for the use of teachers,
premises, etc.. Proposals will have different dimensions from country
to country. In some countries they will bear only upon certain aspects
of educational supply, such as the location and size of school buildings.
In others, the proposals will have a wider range and aim at a more
radical re-organisation of educational supply, involving transfer
of teachers among institutions, adaptation of curricula and modifications
of the school calendar. Others will, in addition, try to reduce
inequalities through actions at the demand level and will include
various measures to encourage school attendance, such as : school meals,
free school books, etc,. In these last cases, the proposals are
really an exercise in educational micro-planning. Participation of the
population groups concerned may be sought from the time the diagnosis
is formulated. In all cases, when it comes to proposals, lengthy-

discussions should be arranged so as to obtain, if possible, the
approval of the groups concerned. In the absence of such participation
in decisions, subsequent implementation of the school map could prove
difficult.
Finalising local, regional and national maps
Before being definitely approved, the school map should be discussed, as

we have just seen, with the local authorities and with representatives of
the groups concerned : teachers and parents of pupils. The map will also
need to be approved by the regional and central authorities.
The central authorities, especially the school map office, will have
a very important role to play in the training and establishment of regional
teams and in the monitoring and checking of their work. Where norms have
not been respected, or have been to liberally interpreted, revisions might
be required.
Once approved, the local school maps will be put together to form first
the regional and then the national school map.
The maps for different educational levels will also be put together.
In this connection it should be mentioned that, since each educational
level receives its intake from the level below, it is preferable to
establish an order in preparing the maps and to begin with the map
for primary education.
Can you describe how, in your country,

decisions are taken on establishing new institu-
tions, according to the level of education ?
Who makes proposals for opening schools ? At
what level (local, regional or central) are decisions
taken to open or expand an institution ? Who
finances school building ?
Ask yourself similar questions with regard to the
allocation of teachers.
Answers will probably not be simple, but all the same you should
think about them. If you hope to introduce school mapping in your country,
or if you merely wish to rationalise the process of locating new
educational institutions and the allocation of resources, it is very
important that you should bear in mind the present decision-making paths.
Who decides what, and at what level, in your country ?
Module I : Conclusion 20
CONCLUSION
In this module our main task has been to give you information on
school mapping, general in nature, but precise enough to enable you to
be better placed in connection with this technique.
In the foregoing pages an effort has been made to show that everyone
is concerned with school mapping and micro-planning and can expect certain
advantages from them if he/she is ready to make his/her proper contribution
to their preparation. We hope that we have convinced you.
For those national or regional officials responsible who wish to

introduce this approach in their countries, Module V will provide some
useful elements for doing so.
For those who actually wish to undertake the work of school mapping,
Modules I and IV will provide the necessary technical elements for
general education (primary and secondary levels). It is at these levels
that school mapping and micro-planning are most often practised. Some
elements dealt with in other training series will not be repeated here -
for example : cost analysis at the local and institutional levels.
Module I : Annex 21
ANNEX
REFERENCE BIBLIOGRAPHY
General works on school mapping and'micro-planning :
HALLAK, J., Planning the location of schools : АП instrument of

educational policy, Unesco IIEP, Paris, 1977 (also available in
French and Spanish).
GOULD, W,T\S,, Guidelines for school location planning, World Bank,

Washington D C C,, 1978.
IIEP, Note ón Microplanning, IIEP mimeo, Paris, 1980.
Specific case studies - School mapping methods :
Case Studies :
П2
1, County Sligo, Ireland

2.. Aurich, Lower Saxony, Germany
3. Ankole District, Uganda
4. The District of Kaski, Nepal
5S Le Caza de Zahle, Liban (in French only)
6, Le Shahrestan de.Sharud, Iran (in French only)
7, Casablanca, le Gharb et Kenitra, Maroc (in French only)
8, The Sam Ramón Region, Costa Rica (in French and Spanish only)
9, Les sous-préfectures de Sikensi et Dabakala, Côte d'Ivoire
(in French only)
10, Sri, Lanka
11,. La Daira de Bouira, Algérie (in French only)
12. The distribution of general education schools in the USSR
(in French only)„
MARVIN, R t , Determining the feasibility of Government-aided day secondary

schools in rural Uganda, Paris, IIEP Research Report no 26, 1977
PORTE, G, , K e R, Sohrab & D« Sadi Voheidi, Expérimentation d'une méthodologie

de carte scolaire en Mazandaran, Iran, IIEP Research Report nQ 27,
Parisf 1978 (in French only)
Module I : Annex 22
REPUBLIQUE TUNISIENNE, Ministère de l'Education nationale, Direction de la

Planification, La carte éducative de la Délégation de Grombalia, 1980,
Course reports and specific training materials :
Intensive training courses on school mapping and micro-planning :
Published H E P Reports :
- République unie du Cameroun, 1978 (in French only)
^ Yemen Arab Republic, 1978 (in Arabic)
- Venzuela, 1979 (in Spanish)
- Tanzania, 1982
-• Burundi, 1983 (in French)
- Sudan, 1983
^ Jamaica, 1984
, Available in mimeograph form :

- Indonesia, 1977
- Nigeria, 1980
- Ecuador, 1981 (in Spanish)
Demography ;
TA NGOC, Châu, Demographic aspects of educational planning, H E P Fundamental

of Educational Planning no 9, Paris, 1969
UNITED NATIONS, Manual СП Methods of Estimating Population, Vol. I, 1952
(ST/SOA/Series A/10) (also in Spanish).
Experiences on the introduction of school mapping :
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION, THAILAND, Thailand's Country Report on Micro-Planning

at the Secondary Level, H E P mimeograph, 1980.
BEN SALAH, Kacem, Introducing a School Map Policy - A tentative evaluation

of the experience, H E P mimeograph, 1980.
TRAINING MATERIALS IN EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
ADMINISTRATION AND FACILITIES
MODULE II
DIAGNOSIS OF THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM AT

THE LOCAL LEVEL
Section 1 Selection of statistical units

Section 2 Coverage of the educational system:
Accessibility and access
Section 3 : Internal efficiency of the
educational system
Section 4 : Quality of educational services
and use of resources
Section 5 : Data collection for diagnosis
This module was prepared by Françoise Caillods (HEP) ,

Jocelyne Caselli, Consultant, and Ta Ngoc Châu (HEP)
Division of Educational
Policy and Planning.
U N E S C O
This series is made up of the following components :
Module I : School mapping and micro-planning -

Module II : Diagnosis of the educational system at the

local level
Module III : Estimating demand : demography and enrol-

ment projections
Module V : Introduction and country-wide extension

of school mapping
Module II : Contents
MODULE II : DIAGNOSIS OF THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM AT THE LOCAL LEVEL
CONTENTS : Summary - Synopsis and objectives
Section 1 : Selection of statistical units
Section 2 : Coverage of the educational system:

accessibility and access 16
Section 3 : Internal efficiency of the

educational system 40
Section 4 : Quality of educational services

54
and use of resources
91
Section 5 : Data collection for diagnosis
Annexes :
1. Selection of geographic units for school
mapping : division into homogeneous zones
of the Regional Directorate of San Ramon,
Costa Rica 108
2. The idea of accessibility

113
3. Answers to exercises 123
Tables and Maps :
(Section 1) Administrative areas and territorial

units chosen for planning in some
countries 13
(Section 2) Enrolments in the last year of

primary education and new entrants
into secondary education, by
pupils' home area 38
Department of Nyong and Mfoumou,

Cameroon : home locations of pupils
in 1st year of secondary education .... 39
Module II : Contents
(Section 3) Department of Nyong and Mfoumou,

Cameroon, 1975/76 : promotion,
repetition and drop-out rates 46
Department of Nyong and Mfoumou,

Cameroon : theoretical primary
cohort 51
(Section 4) Department of Nyong and Mfoumou,

Cameroon : teachers in secondary
schools, by qualification 58
Costa Rica : Comparison of secondary

schools in the Regional Directorate
of San Ramon 72
(Section 5) Type of questionnaire used for a

primary schools survey \Q\
Module II : Synopsis and objectives 1
MODULE II
DIAGNOSIS OF THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
AT THE LOCAL LEVEL
School mapping is, as we have said, a set of techniques and

procedures used to identify the needs for education at the local
level and to plan the action to be taken to satisfy them. The term
"diagnosis" is generally used in medicine : a physician does not
prescribe medicines without having made a thorough study of his patient's
state. In the same way the educational planner will not make proposals
for the location of new institutions, for the repair of premises
or the allocation of teachers, without having previously studied
the level of development of the educational system and the way it
works ; this will allow him to identify whatever gaps or imbalances
there may be.
In preparing your diagnosis you will have to deal with the follow-
ing matters :
a) Coverage of the educational system :

What is the system's level of development ?
Are the educational services accessible to all, and on what
conditions ?
How many children and adolescents take advantage of the educa-
tional opportunities offered and enrol ?
How many are left out ? Who are they and where do they live?
(Indicators used to assess the system's coverage are given in
Section 2.)
b) Internal efficiency of the educational system :

How many of the pupils who entered complete the educational
cycle ?
How many drop out and which groups are mainly affected ?
Proportionally, how many pupils pass on to the subsequent edu-
cational level ?
Are there inequalities in this respect ?
(The different indicators used are given in Section 3.)
c) Quality of the educational services and degree of utilization

of resources :
What resources are given to education ?
We distinguish three main categories of resources : teachers,
buildings and equipment. We shall have to examine both how
these contribute to the quality of the educational services
and also whether they are used in the most effective way possible.
This will be dealt with in Section 4.
d) Data collection : Some data are readily available, but where

and how are additional data to be collected ? This matter will
be dealt with in Section 5.
To begin with it will be useful to present and discuss the sta-
tistical units which will be used in preparing the diagnosis,
and this will be done in Section 1.
Some of the indicators presented below are the same as those
which are traditionally computed at the national level. The
school map, however, is prepared at the local level and it is
possible to obtain more complete data than those which are usually
published in the educational year-books. Additional indicators
will therefore be presented. More importantly, it will be possible
to analyse existing data differently and to show up inequalities
among different pupil groups, types of schools and geographic
sub-regions. The end result will be a deeper understanding

of the characteristics of the situation.
Objectives
After reading this module you should be able to :
a) Select the units of analysis which you will use in preparing
your diagnosis ;
b) Make a diagnosis of the coverage of the educational services
at the local level (access, enrolment, accessibility) ;
c) Calculate the different rates used to measure the system's in-
ternal efficiency, and understand their significance and limita-
tions ;
d) Calculate and interpret indicators which enable an analysis
to be made of the quality of educational services and of the
way the resources available (teachers, premises, equipment)
are used ;
e) Identify the data needed to make the analyses mentioned above:
assemble the data available and devise a survey to obtain missing
data.
Module II Section 1 Selection of statistical units 4
SECTION 1
SELECTION OF STATISTICAL UNITS
The object of any school mapping work is to establish a network

of institutions - or, more broadly speaking, of an educational service -
which will enable the projected demand for education to be met as
equitably and efficiently as possible. The important initial stage
in this work consists of making an inventory of what exists in the
way of educational supply and of assessing how far the present educa-
tional services satisfy the objectives of the educational policy.
This extremely important stage of diagnosis should :
a) Enable you to identify existing problems and imbalances
with respect to pupil participation, schooling conditions
and degree of utilization of resources;
b) Supply you with basic data from which you can project future
enrolments ;
c) Suggest some measures that could be taken to correct defi-
ciencies and imbalances;
d) Identify priority action areas and give necessary guidance
for preparing the future school map.
I. Diagnosis in school mapping

The diagnosis should supply you with answers to the following
questions : How many children are at the present moment served by
the educational system ? How are they served ? Who is in school
and where ?
How many ?
The first question to put is : How many children have access
to education at the different levels in the school system ? It is
not enough, however, to know how many children have access to school:
one must also know how many remain there, how many repeat and, above
all, how many drop out without having completed an educational cycle?
Module II Section 1 : Selection of statistical units 5
Hov ?
How, and in what conditions, do the pupils receive schooling?
This raises the whole question of the means used. What are the re-
sources available - teachers, premises, school equipment ? Are they
available in sufficient quantities ? Do they ensure education of
high quality ? Are they used as efficiently as possible ?
Who and where ?

The diagnosis will not be complete if it does not enable you
to know who are the children presently served by the educational
services and who are those who are not, or who are badly served.
From the point of view of school mapping we are interested in knowing
what groups, in terms of age, sex, ethnic group or socio-occupational
background, are disadvantaged, and above all where such groups live.
Which are the worst-served areas ? It is in these areas and sub-
areas that priority action should be undertaken to improve the coverage
and the quality of the educational service. Analysing "who" and
"where" brings up the whole problem of the selection of the statistical
units for diagnosis. By what criteria should the data be grouped
to show up the disparities ? We will return later to this problem.
The list of indicators which you will be using is long. In
selecting them you will take into account the characteristics of
the educational system and of the educational policy of your country.
We have grouped these indicators in three main areas :
a) The educational system's coverage : the relevant indicators
are :
Admission rates
Attendance rates
Promotion rates
Module II Section 1 : Selection of statistical units
Percentages of pupils who take less than 30 minutes, less

than an hour, etc. to get to school
Percentages of pupils who travel less than 3 km, and
less than 5 km etc., to get to school.
b) Efficiency of the educational system : the main indicators
are : Promotion, repetition and drop-out rates ; Retention
rates.
c) The quality of the educational services and the way
resources are used : There is a whole series of indicators
concerning staff availability and condition of buildings
and equipment. It includes especially :
Pupil:class ratios
Pupil : teacher ratios
Percentages of qualified teachers
Average attendance
Percentages of teachers having less than 1, 2, etc.,
years of service
Percentages of classrooms in poor condition
Percentages of pupils without seats
Percentages of pupils without textbooks, exercise
books, etc.
Utilization rates of premises
Average enrolment of institutions.
To start with, the list of indicators should be as comprehensive
as possible. A pilot study on a specific region should enable
you to identify the most important indicators and to eliminate
those that are not indispensable.
Most of the indicators cannot be calculated from the statistics
normally available, so you will have to undertake one or more
ad hoc surveys. Methods of collecting data will be discussed
in Section 5 of this module.
The difficulty will then be to interpret the different indicators

which you have calculated, and this you will be able to do only
by reference to your own country's educational policies.
Example : A 30% transition rate to secondary education may be

judged to be very high, very low, or normal, according to the
country and its educational policy objectives. In the absence
of precise objectives or directives you will compare the data
obtained with the national or the regional average.
So far as possible, when you observe something unusual, you
should attempt to give some explanatory comments. Suppose, for
example, that you find in a given sub-region a low admission rate,
or even a decreasing one : you should try to determine how far
this is due to the organization of the educational supply, or
to a lack of demand for various socio-economic reasons, etc.
Analysis of explanatory factors may, in some cases, as in that
just mentioned, belong to the field of social research and you
will not have the means to go very far. It should, however, be
emphasized that diagnosis cannot be carried out only in an office:
it must be the occasion for numerous contacts in the field with
the population groups concerned and with local administrators,
inspectors, heads of schools, teachers and community representatives.
II. Selection of statistical units

1. Choice of region
The first statistical unit you will have to select is the
territorial unit for which you are going to prepare the school
map. How large should it be ? Should you select an educational
or an administrative territorial division ? In Module V we will
return to detailed criteria for the selection of a pilot region.
For the moment, it will suffice to stress that the territorial
unit(s) chosen should preferably have certain characteristics:
Module II Section 1 : Selection of statistical units
First, it should be a school-administration division. You will

find it easier to obtain school statistics since this division
will normally be under the authority of a Ministry of Education
official. If it is delimited differently from the traditional
administrative areas, adjustments will need to be made to obtain
demographic data (see Module III) ;
Secondly, it should be of a reasonable size - at most one hundred
primary and 5 or 6 secondary schools ;
The first region you will study should, in addition, present
a certain geographic diversity and be fairly representative of the
situations you expect to encounter in the rest of your country or
of your province.
Throughout the remainder of this text, we shall refer to this
area selected as "region" or "district".
2. Selection of the statistical units

Suppose now that you have gathered all the data needed to enable
you to calculate the indicators mentioned above. How are you going
to make your analysis ? For the region as a whole ? This will certain-
ly be useful but it will not enable you to highlight inequalities
within the region. Will you study each school separately ? This
is possible at the secondary level if the number of schools is not
too large but it would be extremely and pointlessly long at the primary
level. Hence you will have to settle the question of the statistical
unit (or units) to be selected : i.e. the variable or variables which
you will use to parse your global regional data.
(a) Selection criteria :

There is no general rule for making such a selection.
Everything depends upon what you want to show, or upon your assumptions
regarding the variables likely to affect an indicator's value. The
Module II Section 1 Selection of statistical units 9
enrolment rate for example might vary according to geographic area,

sex, ethnic groups or socio-occupational categories.
The choice of criteria will depend on the particular situation
of your country, on the educational level you are studying and, of
course, upon educational policy objectives. It will depend also
upon the ease with which data needed can be obtained ; data on ethnic
or socio-occupational groupings are not normally readily available.
(b) The choice of the unit of analysis :

The basic unit will be a territorial unit within the district
or region studied. The territorial unit at the primary education
level should be the smallest possible one for which you have demogra-
phic data (without going down to the census enumeration area). This
1
unit we shall refer to as "local council ', "ward", or "basic territorial
unit".
t What do you call this territorial unit in your country'
L_
If in the region/district you have chosen there are not too
many such units, you may well take them as your basic statistical
unit.
If the number is too large Cover 20) perhaps you should use
an intermediate administrative unit. This, however, must be suffi-
ciently homogeneous with respect to a certain number of demographic,
human and educational criteria.
Let us take an example : in Jamaica the school map is prepared

parish by parish (the administrative areas). Each parish is divided
Module II Section 1 : 10
into a certain number of constituencies, and these are in turn divided

into districts. A parish usually contains 2 or 3 constituencies
and some 200 districts . Which level is to be taken as the unit
of analysis ? The district ? There are far too many. The consti-
tuency ? The number would be all right but the awkward point is
that these units are electoral areas and their division is based
on criteria favouring internal diversity. The parish of St. Thomas
contains two constituencies : each comprises half the population
of the parish capital and half that of the rural area. Doing the
diagnosis by constituency would offer no advantages and would cer-
tainly not reveal any of the disparities which exist between the
remote mountainous area (where pupils have very little access to
secondary education, and where good teachers are scarce, etc.),
the coastal plain and the capital (which contains the best schools
in the parish).
In this case one must regroup basic territorial units - the
districts in the Jamaican case-and define what are called homogeneous
zones : that is, one must identify geographical zones within which
the educational characteristics are as similar as possible, while
these same characteristics should differ greatly from one zone to
another.
To identify homogeneous zones you are advised to proceed as
follows :
First, identify the main towns and villages, as well as the
areas with a very low population density. Regroup the basic terri-
torial units according to this demographic criterion and test the
In this particular case, the district is very small, much smaller

than what we will refer to as a district in the rest of this
text.
division by calculating a certain number of indicators for each zone.

To make the data for each zone more homogeneous, modify the division
by introducing another criterion. This may be related to :
a) Geography : distinguish areas where access is difficult,
e.g. mountainous areas, from the rest of the region ;
b) Social or road infra-structure : here you should identify
the areas best served and equipped and those which, by
these criteria, are the most disadvantaged ;
c) Education : here, for example, you should calculate the
apparent enrolment rate for each local council and group
into homogeneous areas or zones those local councils having
similar rates. Another important criterion is that of
the secondary schools' catchment areas. It is assumed
that a secondary school will favourably affect the develop-
ment of primary education in its surroundings. Hence local
councils should be regrouped into : 1) zones where children
can have access to secondary education, and 2) zones where
such access is difficult or even impossible (these areas
are usually in mountainous regions, not served by roads,
and are distant from urban centres).
A second testing of the division is followed by a third and
so on until it is no longer possible to continue without introducing
"enclaves" in the zones. The results of each test enable the pre-
ceding division to be corrected and, by the end of the process, zones
are "determined" which contain the most homogeneous data possible.
The number of zones may vary from 5 to 12 at most. You should
avoid choosing "enclave" zones which have too few pupils or schools
in comparison with the rest of the region.
In Annex I of this module you will find an example of the divi-
sion into homogeneous zones of the San Ramon region in Costa Rica.
Module II Section 1 : Selection of statistical units 12_
In urban areas it is advantageous to group the schools by "quarter".

The criterion of economic activity distinguishing, e.g. administrative,
commercial, industrial, residential, and new immigrant "quarters",
and the demographic criterion will be very useful for determining
homogeneous areas.
In the rest of this document we will call such geographic units
of analysis : local councils, wards or, more usually, "'zones".
The following table illustrates the territorial statistical
units used in certain countries.
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Whatever the type of geographic grouping adopted it is also

possible to classify the data by treating them according to different
cxi.texta_jre_la_ting to the objectives of the diagnosis.
a
) In order tohighlight inequalities in schooling of pupils by :
year of study and level of education
sex
age
race
socio-economic origin
home area, local council, zone, etc.,
you have to group pupils by one of the above-mentioned criteria
according to the inequality you wish to point up. For example,
the analysis by the criterion of sex must be used if one wishes
to show up poor participation by girls.
The above-mentioned criteria may also be combined : for
example, the distribution of pupils may be analysed by sex and
year of study, in order to show how school enrolment by girls
evolves by year of study and educational level.
b) If you want to show disparities in educational conditions accord
ing to the size of schools : the grouping of school data by
size of school will be very useful.
One may often observe that the smaller a school's enrolment
the lower is the pupil : teacher ratio, the larger is the area
available per pupil, and the scarcer are educational equipment
and materials. This criterion is also very closely linked with
location in an urban or rural area.
c) In order to show that educational conditions vary according
to the type of school - e.g. government or private, complete
Module II Section 1 : Selection of statistical units 1£
or incomplete school, primary or village school (e.g. Afghanistan),

primary or all-age school (e.g. Jamaica), you will have to make
an analysis according to this criterion.
Module II Section 2 : Coverage of the educational system 16
SECTION 2
COVERAGE OF THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
ACCESSIBILITY AND ACCESS
The problem of coverage of an educational system may be summed

up in two questions :
a) Is the school network, as it is now organised and territorially

distributed, such as to serve efficiently the school-age popu-
lation or the region or area under study ?
In other words, this is a matter of studying the location
of the various schools in the different areas and of seeing
in particular how near a school is to the homes of the pupils
and of how easily the latter can travel from one to the other.
This is what is called the accessibility of the school network
for the region's school-age population.
b) Do the families and their children make efficient use of the
existing school network ?
To answer this it is necessary to study the interaction
between families' demand and educational supply as represented
by the existing school network. Proximity to a school - i.e. phy-
sical accessibility - does not guarantee that children are neces-
sarily sent to school. It is this interaction between family
demand and educational supply which it is attempted to measure
by the idea of educational access.
We shall have occasion to return to these two essential concepts

a little further on. First, however, it will be useful for you to
Module II Section 2 ; Coverage of the educational system 17
become acquainted with how to measure recent development in enrol-

ment in the region studied.
I. Analysis of enrolment development in the region studied

In the preceding section you have seen how to choose your geogra-
phical study units, which we will call the "zones".
You may ask yourself, for example, how total enrolment in primary
education in the different zones (i.e. the total number of pupils
in that level of education) has increased during the last 5 years.
Perhaps you wilL prefer to use a longer period : this will depend
on the data you have available. Naturally, for the comparison to
be made, the data must be capable of being broken down, for the years
you wish to study, according to the zones you have defined. If each
zone is made up of a number of clearly-identified schools, you can
obtain the total enrolment for each of the zones by adding up the
enrolments in its schools. Beware, however, the fact that, during
the period studied, new schools may have been established and others
may have been closed.
1. Absolute growth during the period

Let us call the last year for which you have data the year "t".
If you want to study the development of enrolment during a period
of 5 years you will have to compare enrolments in year "t" with those
in the year "t-5".
In many countries the school year does not coincide with the
calendar year - e.g. the school year 1983/84. To avoid possible
confusion let us agree to call "t" the calendar year in which the
school year begins. Then for the school year 1983/84, "t" equals
Module II Section 2 : Coverage of the educational system
1983 and "t-5" equals 1983 - 5 = 1978, which thus corresponds to

the school year 1978/79.
To get the growth of enrolments from 1978 to 1983 we take the
difference between enrolments in 1978 and in 1983. This is called
the absolute growth in enrolment from 1978 to 1983. This may be
written : Absolute growth in enrolment, 1978-1983 = Enrolment in
1983 - enrolment in 1978, or in a still more condensed form as :
Д E, absolute growth of enrolment ;
E , enrolment in 1983 ;
t
E r , enrolment in 1978 ;
t-5
Д E = E - E c
t t-5
In your opinion, can absolute enrolment growth be

used to compare the trend of enrolment in several
different zones ?
Answer : No. Different zones may differ quantitatively : some having

larger populations than others. Since the year t-5 they
will have had different total enrolments and you may expect
that those zones with the larger populations and enrolments
will have absolute growths greater than those which have
smaller populations or enrolments.
2. Relative growth
It is precisely because of these differences resulting from
larger or smaller enrolments in the starting year of the study (in
our case the year t-5) that, instead of using absolute growth we use
relative growth. The growth is termed relative because it is related
to enrolment in the study's starting year, being expressed as a percentage
of it. Using the symbols already defined one may write :
E " E
Relative growth (as a percentage) = __t t-5 x 100 = AE x 100
E
c-5 V
5
Example :
Let us suppose that we have the following data :
Total enrolments
1978 1983
Zone A 1812 2754
Zone В 5839 7532
Absolute increases in enrolments in Zones A and В are :

Zone A : 2754 - 1812 x 100 = 52%
1812
Zone В : 7532 - 5839 x 100 = 29%

5839
While absolute increase in greater in Zone В than in Zone A

(942 for the latter and 1693 for the former) the relative increase
shows in fact the opposite situation : the relative increase in Zone A
(52%) is much greater than that in Zone В (29%). This comes about
from the fact that the enrolment in Zone В was already 5839 in 1978
while that in Zone A was only 1812. Hence one may say that, from
1978 to 1983, Zone A has had a high relative increase, but started
from a small base, while Zone В has had a lower relative increase,
but started from a much larger base.
Module II Section 2 ; Coverage of the educational system
3. Calculation of the enrolment trend index

For both absolute and relative growth you have considered the
period 1978 - 1983 as a whole. It is likely, however, that growth
has not been the same from one year to another. To trace the trend
in a more detailed manner, following it year by year, you may choose
to show the trend by an index. You will give this index the value
of 100 for the year 1978 (the starting year of the analysis) and
you will try to see how this index must be changed to translate faith-
fully the trend in enrolment observed during the different years
in the period.
To clarify this, let us take an example. The trend of enrolment
in Zone A from 1978 to 1983 has been as follows :
1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983
1812 1961 2086 2299 2467 2754
If you give the index value of 100 in 1978 (when enrolment was
1812) for the index to reflect the situation in 1979 (when enrolment
had reached 1961) the index in 1979 would have to have the value of :
1961 x 100 = 108.2
1812
For 1983, when the enrolment was 2754, the value of the index is :
2754 x 100 = 152.0
1812
As you can see, the value of the index has risen from 100 in
1978 to 152 in 1983, which corresponds to a relative growth of 52%,
a result which is identical with that which you have seen above when
calculating the relative enrolment growth'in Zone A for the period
1978 - 1983. Hence the index clearly translates enrolment trends.
Module II Section 2 ; Coverage of the educational system
Exercise 1
Calculate the indices for Zones A and B, using the
figures below.
1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983
1812 1961 2086 2299 2467 2754
5839 6119 6603 6986 7348 7532
Compare your results with those given at the end of
this module.
4. Annual rate of growth

The annual rate of growth may be defined as being the relative
growth during the course of one year. As we have seen, this rate
may vary from year to year during the period studied. For this reason,
one needs to calculate an average annual rate - i.e. one figure which
is indicative of the whole period.
Let us suppose that we started from the year 0 with an enrolment
E and that the growth rate equals r. The following year - i.e. the
year 1 - the enrolment will be :

E = E + E r
1 0 0
(relative growth being r, absolute growth is obviously E r, and this
absolute increase is added to the enrolment E of the vear 0 ) .

0
E, = E + E r may also be written :
l o o '
E (1)
i = E o (1 + r)
If the rate of growth is constant and continues to be r from

year 1 to year 2, we have :
Module II Section 2 : Coverage of the educational system ^£_
E = E (1 + Г)
2 l
or, replacing E by its value after equation (1) :
E = E x (1 + r) x (1 + r) = E (1 + r ) 2
2 0 0
Extending this formula to n years we may write :
E = E (1 + г ) П (2)
n 0
Let us take again the example of Zone A which you have seen
above. In this area enrolment in 1978 was 1812 and in 1983 was 2754,
On the basis of equation (2) you may write :
E = E (1 + Г ) 5
1983 1978 ' that iS
2754 = 1812 (1 + r ) 5 , or again
2754 = (1 + r ) 5
1812
1.51987 = (1 + r ) 3
To obtain the value of r you must extract the fifth root of

1/51987 :
/
1.51987 = 1 + r
To do this you can use a calculator which enables you to extract

such a root. You can also make the calculation by using logarithms.
In this case you will write :
log (1 + r) = log 1.51987

5
log (1 + r) = 0.0363613
1 + r = 1.0873
г ф 0.087
r = 8.7%
Thus, with a constant growth rate of 8.770 p.a. during a period

of 5 years, enrolment will rise from 1812 to 2754.
II. Analysis of the school network's accessibility

We have seen above that an important aspect of accessibility
is the case of the journey from the children's homes to school.
Such accessibility, which may be termed physical accessibility, de
pends on the way the schools are located in relation to the homes
of the population which they are supposed to serve. In the region
under study do all children living in it have the same possibilities
of getting to a school, from the point of view of the distance they
have to cover and ease with which they can do it ? This problem
arises particularly in sparsely-populated regions and those in which
there are hamlets distant one from another and with very small popu
lations .
The concept of accessibility in fact extends much beyond mere
physical accessibility. In Annex II you will find the text deals
with physical accessibility but also with economic and socio-cultural
accessibility, and it is recommended that you read it carefully.
In what follows we will deal only with the problem of physical
Module II Section 2 ; Coverage of the educational system 1A
accessibility. To analyse this one can begin by identifying whence,

geographically, the pupils come who attend the existing schools.
For that a survey will need to be made in the schools.
The methods and means which may be used to gather data will
be dealt with in detail in Section 5. For the moment we will try
simply to see what information should be asked for. This will deal
substantially with the :
Distances to be travelled ;
Travel means used ;
Time of journey ;
Location of domicile of pupils.
1. Distances to be travelled
In gathering information on the distances to be travelled, you
should not lose sight of the objective aimed at, which is to assess
the physical accessibility of the school network. Consequently the
problem is not to know with great exactitude the actual distance
to be travelled but rather to identify different categories of situations
from the point of view of accessibility. In other words it is a
matter of defining a table of distances corresponding to the ease
or difficulty of the journey.
For example, you may select the following categories :
Less than 1 km. - easy journey ;
From 1 to 3 kms - reasonable journey ;
From 3 to 6 kms - difficult journey ;
Over 6 kms - unacceptable situation which needs
remedying.
You can see for yourself the subjective nature of such categories.
What might be acceptable in one country may not be so in another.
Further - and this is important - the table of distances depends

on the terrain. What is easy in a flat region may be burdensome
in a mountainous one. You must therefore keep this in mind when
establishing the table of distances. The essential purpose of the
analysis you make will be that you see for each zone the percentages
of pupils in each category defined, and so see which are the zones
particularly under-privileged from the point of view of physical
accessibility.
2. Travel means used

Distance is only one of the dimensions of physical accessibility.
The availability of means of transport (bicycle, or school, public
or private transport) may lessen the problem of distance by reducing
the difficulty of the journey. In practice, you are going to combine
the two sets of data - on distance and on means of travel - and take
account of both when making your categories. Hence you will construct
a table such as the following :
Less than 1 km 1 to 3 kms 3 to 6 kms Over 6 kms

School On Bi- i Motor On Bi- Motor On Bi- Motor On Bi- Motor
j
foot cyclej trans. foot cycle trans. foot cycle trans. foot cycle trans.
School
No.l
Enrol-
ment 7o
School
No. 2
Enrol-
ment 7.
,. , !
If we suppose, as we have above, that a distance of more than

6 kms is unacceptable, you are going, in your analysis, to concentrate
your attention on those who have to cover such a distance, and es-
pecially those who have to do so on foot.
3. Time of journey
The time taken by the journey is a sort of synthetic figure.
It is, in effect, a function of the distance, the terrain and the
availability of means of transport. In this sense it is a figure
which reflects better the problem of accessibility. Here again it
is not a matter of knowing precisely the time taken by each pupil
for the journey, but of fixing different categories and of seeing
the percentage of pupils in each of them. Categories, for example,
might be :
Less than 15 minutes ;
From 15 to 30 minutes ;
From 30 to 60 minutes ;
More than 60 minutes.
A journey which takes more than 60 minutes might, for example,
be considered as very prejudicial to school work. Of course, account
must also be taken of the frequency with which the journey is made.
From this point of view the existence of a canteen where pupils can
get a midday meal could greatly change the situation.
4. Domiciles of pupils
Information on the location of the homes of the pupils at the
different schools in the region studied is important for two reasons.
First, such information enables the catchment area of each school
27
Module II Section 2 Coverage of the educational system
to be charted . In Module IV, on the preparation of the future

school map, you will have occasion to return to this. Here let us
simply say that the catchment area is formed by the totality of the
places from which the school's pupils come. When there is no strict
regulation linking the locality of the home with a particular school
it is possible that some over-lapping of catchment areas may occur.
Where the network is relatively dense parents may have a choice
between two or more schools at comparable distances away. They may
also, for various reasons which should be made clear, prefer to send
their children to a distant school rather than to the nearest one
(e.g. the distant school may be better, or there may not be room
in the one that is near).
Second, such information makes it possible to calculate more
exactly the rates of admission and of attendance to which we will
refer later. It is possible, in fact, that pupils in a given area
may be enrolled in schools in another one. Naturally, you will have
to take account of this so as to avoid over-estimating enrolment
in the second area and under-estimating it in the first. Such dis-
placement of children from one area to another can be detected only
by exact data on where the pupils come from, and these can be obtained
by rigorous investigation in the schools.
You will find on page 44 a map showing the locations of domiciles

of pupils and the catchment areas for several secondary schools.
Module II Section 2 : Coverage of the educational systei 26
Do the different data to which you have just been

introduced - distance to be travelled, time of journey
location of domicile of pupils - seem to you to give
^ a complete picture of the problems of accessibility
in the school network ?
Answer An objection which may be made to these data is that

they are limited to children who are already in school,
since they have been obtained in the schools themselves
Thanks tc these data it is possible to calculate the
proportions of pupils who have to make a very long
journey to go to school or have to spend a long time
on the journey. On the other hand, these data give
no indications at all about the children who are not
in school, because there is no school in the neighbour-
hood. No doubt if cne had a map giving the precise
location of the inhabitants; each dot representing
a certain number of them, and if on this map one could
draw the catchment areas of existing schools, one
could discover the inhabited areas not served by a
school network. This would, however, be a matter
of an indirect approach.
Ill. Examination of access

Access is the result of the interaction between family demand
and the educational supply presented by the network of existing schools
Faced with such school supply, what proportions of children take
effective advantage of it or benefit from it ?
Module II Section 2 : Coverage of the educational system 2<Э
Although to begin with this question may seem very simple, answer
ing it accurately poses a certain number of problems. Distinctions
must be drawn between proportions of children :
a) admitted to a given level - e.g. primary education (this
is termed admission or intake rate) ;
b) in such a level (enrolment rate) ;
c) finishing this level and going on to the next (transition
rate).
Further, the ages of children in school do not always coincide
with the official age for the level of education concerned and it
must be borne in mind that this complicates the definition of concepts
and the calculation of indicators.
1. Admission rate
Right from the first entry level, pupils' ages do not correspond
to the official admission age, since both early and late entry occur.
For this reason three types of admission rate are distinguished :
a) Apparent admission rate

This rate is the simplest to calculate but it has the draw
back of not being exact and for that reason is called "apparent".
This rate is obtained by dividing the total of all children entering
a level, whatever their ages may be, by the official entry-age year
group, the result being expressed as a percentage. For example,
if one is dealing with primary education and the entry age is 6 years
the apparent admission rate is :
, . . new entries __
apparent
rr admission rate = x 1100
6-year age group
Module II Section 2 Coverage of the educational system 30
Of course, the new-entry group is not to be confused with lst-

year enrolment since in this are included repeaters, whom you will
have to deduct. To the degree to which there are early or late en-
trants the apparent rate will tend to over-estimate the real entry
rate and in some cases it can exceed 100%.
b) Age-specific admission rate

The age-specific admission rate gives a more exact idea
of entry. Here in fact distinctions are made among entries according
to the children's ages and instead of having a single admission rate
(as is the case with the apparent admission rate) one has a series
of admission rates corresponding to different ages - i.e. admission
rates for 5-year olds, 6-year olds, 7-year olds, etc. The admission
rate for children aged 6, for example, is calculated as follows :
6-year old admission rate = new 6-year old entries x 100
6-year age group
Age-specific admission rates greatly improve information on

admission in that they clarify entry behaviour at different ages.
In particular they indicate the relative extent of early and late
entry.
These rates, however, do not enable us to give a complete answer
to the question of what is the real proportion of children born in
a given year who ultimately enter school, if one counts all those
who enter before, after or at the official age. The exact answer
to this question is given by what is called the cohort admission
rate.
c) Cohort admission rate

In demography the term "cohort" is given to a group of
children born in the same year. To calculate the cohort admission

rate you can choose a given cohort - e.g. that born 10 years ago -
follow it for several consecutive years and account for the members
of this cohort who successively sooner or later enter school. Ex-
periments have been conducted in some countries in cohort identifica-
tion, but they are far from being general practice. In most countries
the data needed are not available, even at the national level, to
calculate cohort rates on the basis of an actual cohort.
It is however possible, if one has for several years the age-
specific admission rates defined above, to reconstruct a cohort admission
rate. Let us suppose, for example, that you wish to calculate the
cohort admission rate for children born in the year t, the data you
require are of the type shown in the table below :
Age-specific admission rates by year of entry
Entry year
Age t +5 t +6 t + 7 ' t +8 t +9
5 4.6 4.5 3.9 4.5 4.5
6 26.9 26.7 29.1 28.8 28.5
7 46.9 48.6 47.4 48.2 46.7
8 13.4 14.6 13.5 13.5 13.6
9 3.0 3.1 2.8 2.6 2.6
The foregoing table refers to a situation in which children 10

years old or upwards are not admitted, or in which the number of
such entrants is negligible.
Coverage of the educational system 32
Module II Section 2
If you are interested in children born in the year t, these

A
are five years old in the year t + 5, six years old in the year t + ,
and so on. The table shows the admission rate of children aged 5
in the year t + 5, of those aged 6 in the year t + 6, etc. These
rates are underlined in the table and refer to the whole group of
children born in the year t and who enter school at the age of 5,
6, 7, 8 or 9. Hence one has merely to add the rates to obtain the
cohort admission rate. This rate thus equals :
4.6 + 26.7 + 47.4 + 13.5 + 2.6 = 94.7
It may therefore be said that for the region under study admission
is almost universal since (for the cohort of children born in the
year t) almost 95% enter school sooner or later.
Calculation of these rates requires a lot of data which will
not necessarily be available. However, it would be useful if you
calculated them at least for the region as a whole if you find that
for this region there are apparent admission rates near to or above
100%.
2. Enrolment rate
The enrolment rate is the measurement most often used to estimate
the quantitative level of development of an educational system.
It is especially useful because it enables a direct and quick idea
to be got of the enrolment in the different zones and regions, and
makes comparisons easy.
As with the entry rate, and for the same reason - i.e. the dif-
ferences observable between pupils' actual ages and the official
ages fixed for each educational level - three types of enrolment
rate are distinguished, viz.:
a) Gross enrolment rate : this rate is calculated by dividing
Module II Section- 2 ; Coverage of the educational system 33
total enrolment in a given educational level (whatever may be the

pupils' ages) by the age group corresponding to the official age
for the level, and converting the result to a percentage. If, for
example, primary education lasts for 6 years and if the official
entry age is 6 years, the official age group corresponding to primary
education is the 6 to 11 years group. The gross enrolment rate is
therefore expressed thus :
л total cprimary enrolment -__
Gross enrolment rate = -r-: x 100
6 - 1 1 age-group
b) Net enrolment rate : whereas above we have taken total

enrolment, irrespective of age, to get the net enrolment rate we
must take only pupils of the official age for the level of education
concerned. In our example this has been taken as 6 - 11 years.
Hence the net enrolment rate is calculated on the basis of the fol
lowing formula :
M *. i . . * . pupils aged 6 - 1 1 .
Net enrolment rate = -*—^ . , * x 100
6 - 1 1 age-group
The net enrolment rate is a homogeneous measure in the sense

that it shows the proportion of children aged 6 to 11 who are actually
in school.
However, it excludes pupils who have not yet reached the official
entry age and, especially, those pupils who are above the official
age, whether because they entered late or because they repeated once
or more times during their schooling. In many countries these two
occurrences - late entry and repetition - are very widespread and
make it difficult to interpret both gross and net enrolment rates:
the gross enrolment rate tends to over-estimate the size of the en
rolment (especially if repetition is high) and the net rate to under
estimate it.
c) Age-specific enrolment rate : to avoid the drawbacks just

mentioned, instead of calculating the enrolment rate for a complete
age-group one may also do it specifically for each annual age-group.
For example, the enrolment rate for 7-year olds is obtained by making
the following calculation :
-i ij i pupils aged
s 7 years
¿
fc
7-year old enrolment fc
rate = -c—E x 100
7-year age-group
This rate is easier to interpret in that it gives for each annual

age-group (including those above and below the official age limits)
the exact proportion of children who are in school. Nevertheless
it presents two difficulties :
i) there is no longer a single rate which can be easily com-
pared with those in other zones ;
ii) at the older ages one finds some children are still in
the primary schools while others are in secondary education.
Hence it should be clearly stated whether an age-specific enrolment
rate is for primary education, for secondary, or for both together.
Exercise 2 : Enrolment rates
In a certain country primary education lasts 6 years
t and the official age for it is from 7 to 12. In a

particular region of this country the following data
are available :
Age Total Enrolments in

population primary education
5 614 29
6 590 178
7 570 488
8 552 498
9 531 506
10 512 467
11 489 432
12 470 409
13 448 243
14 425 183
15 403 82
16 378 19
Total 3,534
Calculate the :
a) Gross primary education enrolment rate ;
b) Net primary education enrolment rate ;
c) Age-specific enrolment rates.
Comment on these different rates.
When the exercise is done you can compare your
results with those given at the end of this module.
Module II Secti'on 2 : Coverage of the educational system
3. Transition rate
So far, in calculating admission rates we have dealt with entrants
(into primary education for example) and then, in calculating enrol
ment rates, with pupils in a given level of education. However,
one may also deal with those who, having reached the end of one level,
succeed in passing into a higher one, and this is what one tries
to do by calculating transition rates.
The transition rate from primary to secondary education shows
the percentage of pupils in the final class of primary education
who are admitted to continue their studies in secondary education
during the following year. This rate is 'calculated as follows :
Transition rate to secondary education =
new entrants to secondary education in year t + 1 .nn
; : т. ; ^ : *——. : x iOO
enrolment in final year of primary education m
year t
Exercise 3 : Transition rates
? Using the data below, calculate the tran: .tíon rate

from primary to secondary education :
Year t Year t + 1
Total enrolment in final 492 24
year of primary
Repeaters in final year 89 95
of primary
Total enrolment in 1st 274 318
year of secondary
Repeaters in 1st year 58 65
of secondary
When the exercise is done you can compare your results

with those given at the end of this module.
In many countries secondary education is not available everywhere.

For obvious reasons it tends to be concentrated in urban and semi-
urban areas, that is, in areas in which the population is large and
dense enough. This being so, children often have to go to a secondary
school in an area different f.rom the one in which they live and in
which they have attended primary school. To calculate transition
rates by zone one therefore needs to know where the secondary edu-
cation pupils come from and take this into account. In other words,
figures for a given zone must not contain pupils who come from other
zones. Conversely, if a zone has no secondary school this does not
mean the transition rate is necessarily nil.
The following example will give you a more definite idea of
the procedure to be followed. This refers to Cameroon's Nyong and
Mfoumou Department. This Department is split into five zones, two
urban and three rural. In it there are six secondary education in-
stitutions, numbered 1 to 6.
Enrolment in the last year of primary education in each zone,
and new entrants in the six institutions, by zone, are given in the
table below. It will be noted that :
(1) new entrants from each zone are spread among several in-
stitutions ;
(2) there are new entrants who come from other districts and
who therefore come from outside the five specified zones;
(3) transition rates vary quite considerably according to area.
You will find below a map which gives where first year secondary
pupils come from and which shows that the catchment area is parti-
cularly extensive.
Module II Section.2 ; Coverage of the educational system
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1—1 i—1 1—1 го
S-i
^ со ^
n last ye
EnrolmenI
of primar
year t
00 4t rv. <± 4t
00 <t m LO O г-*
CN LO
244
ГО 00 <t
• H
4J _ « ^
(district)
département
home zone
départemen
(districts
Pupils'
urban
rural
rural
urban
Other
Whole
TOTAL
o
E
В
A
Department of Nyong and Mfoumou : Home locations of pupils

in 1st vear of secondary education
—
.
Department boundary
Administrative "circonscription" /\
¿XZ
_ boundary / f ••
All-weather road
Seasonal road
Track
Village without school
Public school
Private school ,'' —4i
From outside (B)
R Bidja à
\ CEGT 3
/ Private 9
' "Lvcée" 170
Module II Section 3 : Internal efficiency of the educational system 40
SECTION 3
INTERNAL EFFICIENCY OF THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
If the internal efficiency of the educational system is defined as

its ability to educate the greatest number of pupils who have entered
the system in a year t, in the shortest time and with the least use
of financial and human resources, the flow of such pupils needs to
be followed throughout the system for the duration of each level
of study.
Apart from purely financial aspects, the means generally used
to follow this flow and to measure the system's internal efficiency
are the :
a) promotion, repetition and drop-out rates ;
b) chart showing the theoretic pupil-flow ;
c) retention rates.
I. Promotion, repetition and drop-out rates

The promotion, repetition and drop-out rates give us information
on how pupils pass through the school system.
Promotion rate : this is the percentage ratio between the number
of pupils who enter grade N, in the year t, and the number of pupils
in grade N-l in the year t-1.
1980
Example : _p_ II
x 100 = Promotion rate from grade I
1979
to grade II
E I
r, 1979
or : E
I = pupils in grade I in 1979,
1980
and p II = pupils promoted to grade II in 1980
Module II Section 3 Internal efficiency of the educational system 41
or in more general form : p

x 100 = promotion rate from
t-1 grade N-l to grade N
Vi
Repetition rate
The repetition rate is the percentage ratio, for a grade
N, between the number of repeaters for the year t and the enrolment
in the year t-1.
тД980
Example : R
x 100 = the repetition rate in grade I
1979
E
I
1980
when R = repeaters in grade I in 1980
, RC
or, in general, N x lQQ
t_
E
N
Drop-out rate
The drop-out rate is the percentage ratio, for a class
N, between the number of pupils who drop out between year T-1 and
year t and the enrolment in year t-1.
1979
Example : D I
x 100 = the drop-out rate in 1979
1979
E
I
1979
when = drop-out between the beginning of the
year 1979 and the beginning of the year
1980,
t-1
or, in general
x 100 = the drop-out rate in class
,t-l
N for the year t-1 to t
'N
Included in the drop-out are pupils who leave school during

the school year and those who leave between two school years, whether
or not they have been judged fit to go on to a higher grade.
Data on drop-outs are rarely reliable. Pupils considered by
a school to have dropped out may very well be enrolled in another
school elsewhere. Data on repeaters are usually more reliable.
The number of drop-outs is therefore estimated by subtraction.
The fictional example below shows how to calculate the number
promoted to grade II in the year t, as well as the size of the drop-
out from grade I in the year t-1.
Grade
Year
1979 Enrolment ! jTTh

Drop-out K—
1980 Promoted 29
Repeaters
Drop-outs 4
Enrolment 30° 28
The known figures are in boxes.

Module II Section 3 ; Internal efficiency of the educational system 43
Those who have been promoted to grade II are by definition those

who are not repeaters :
p1980 . E1980 . R1980 . 28 .3 . ^
t t t
In general
ь : P = E„ - R„
N N N
At the start of the school year 1980 one may ask oneself :
What happened to the pupils enrolled in 1979 in grade I ?
They each could have done one of three things - they could have:
a) been promoted to grade II ;
b) repeated grade I ; they would then be the repeaters
in Grade I in 1980 ;
c) dropped out.
Starting from the equation :
1979 = 1980 1980 1979
b e + R D
I il I l
drop-out in 1979 may be deduced

1979 ,.1979 „1980 „1980
D
I = E P • R
I II I
D^979 = 27-25-1-1
C
„t-1 = E'-l - P - RC
N-l N-l N N-l
We are dealing here with drop-out from 1979 to 1980 (or from
t-1 to t).
Module II Section 3 : Internal efficiency of the educational system
In this example, the different rates have the following values

25
Promotion rate I to II = — x 100 = 92.6%
Repetition rate I = — x 100 = 3.7%
Drop-out rate I 100 = 3.7%

27
This type of calculation assumed in theory that no new pupils

enter grade II in 1981 from other types of schools or from other
zones.
Complementarity of the three rates
Figure
100 pupils
year t-1 -> 4 drop outs (year t-1)
92 promoted (year t)
4 repeaters
(year t)
This figure, which shows the breakdown of an enrolment of 100

pupils in grade N-l, year t-1, enables us to understand that the
total of the three rates, for repetition, promotion and drop-out,
equals 100% :
Promotion rate Repetition rate Drop-out rate _ 1 CT/
üü
N=1 to N (92%) N-l (4%) N-l (4%) "
Module II Section 3 ; Internal efficiency of the educational system 45
Exercise 4 : Complete the table below and calculate

the promotion, repetition and drop-out
rates.
Grade I II III IV V VI Total
1975 Enrolment 438 392 338 342 271 364 2145

Drop-outs - - - - - - -
1976 Promoted - - - - - - -
Repeaters 122 87 74 59 53 125 520
Enrolment 451 372 340 319 290 388 2160
Compare your results with those given at the end of

the module.
If you have available the promotion, repetition and drop-out

rates by grade and by geographic zone, you will be able to identify
tne zones which have the best results from the point of view of the
extent of drop-out and of repetition.
However, one must be very careful in interpreting these three
indicators and their variations among zones. These are, in fact,
apparent rates and take no account of the possibilities of transfer
from one zone to another. Such transfers, if there are any, are
usually included in promotions : drop-out is reduced by their amounts
and you may find negative drop-out rates. This phenomenon is fairly
common when you work at the level of small geographical units (zones
or local parishes). At the national level the transfers cancel one
another out and negative rates are never found, except when transfers
are made from outside the country.
As an example, let us study primary education data for a region
of Cameroon.
Department of Nyong and Mfoumou, Cameroon, 1975/1976 :

Promotion, repetition and drop-out rates
Promotion rates
Zones I-II II-III III-IV IV-V V-VI
A urban 65.1 67.9 76.9 69.3 97.0
В rural 39.9 74.5 62.0 73.4 67.7
С rural 38.6 39.0 53.6 78.3 76.7
D urban 58.3 67.8 72.4 78.6 86.0
E rural 29.1 65.9 56.4 80.5 72.7
Whole dep artment 40.2 61.1 61.6 75.4 76.6
Repetition rates
Zones I II III IV V VI
A urban 27.8 22.2 21 9 17 2 19.6 34 .3
В rural 37.3 35.0 31 1 24 6 22.0 47 .6
С rural 31.1 10.9 25 6 21. 1 23.6 44 .4
D urban 20.7 26.7 23 0 21 4 25.1 40 Л
E rural 38.6 30.5 34 2 24 8 17.3 49 .5
Whole dep artment 34.7 24.8 28 8 22 4 21.2 44 5
Drop-out rates
Zones I-II II-III III-IVr IV-V V-VI
A urban 7.1 9.9 1.2 13.5 -16.6
В rural 22.8 - 9.5 6.9 20.0 10.3
С rural 30.3 50.1 20.8 0.6 - 0.3
D urban 21.0 5.5 4.6 0.0 -11.1
E rural 32.3 3.6 9.4 - 5.3 10.0
Whole dep artment 25.1 14.1 9.6 2.2 2.2
Promotion rates for urban areas are generally higher than those
for the region as a whole. This does not necessarily mean that the
proportion of those promoted is higher in the urban areas because
those promoted in 1976 may contain a large number of pupils coming
from rural areas during the cycle - in particular to join grade VI
so as to prepare for the entrance examination to secondary education,
the secondary schools being in urban areas.
Repetition rates are high in the first and last years of the
primary cycle (many of those who do not get into secondary education
repeat. It may be noted that the highest rates are found in the
two rural zones В and E and that it is the urban zone A which shows
for all grades rates lower than those for the region as a whole.
Drop-out rates may be negative, signifying :
. transfers from public to private education ;
. migration from rural to urban areas ;
. influx of pupils from other regions.
The negative drop-out rates (-16.6 and -11.1) in the urban zone
shown in the V-VI column, explained probably by the movements mentioned
above, do not permit the actual drop-out at this stage in urban areas
to be discerned. Conversely, drop-out rates in the rural zones are
over-estimated since it is not real drop-out if the pupils attend
other schools.
When transfers are very high it would be desirable to correct
the rates for migration. For this the schools would need to keep
very detailed registers of pupils who have been transferred during
the school year or between two such years.
We are concerned with net transfers - i.e. the number of pupils
enrolled in a school who come from other schools (T+) less the number
Module II Section.3 ; Internal efficiency of the educational system 48
of the school's own pupils who go and enrol elsewhere (T-)
Year of study I II III
Enrolment 1979
-Ï 9 •П E79
III
Net transfers (T+ - T-) J9

T T T79
I n III
p 80 80
Promoted 1980 P80 P
I II III
Repeaters 1980 R80 R80 R80

I II III
80
Enrolment 1980 E80 E E80
I II III
,80
Promotion rate I-II = II
.79 .79
+
,80
or II
E« + (T+ 79 . T.79
I I I
80
Repetition rate I-II = R
z\9 + (т+;9 T-
79
Drop-out rate I = 100 - Promotion - Repetition rate

This method differs from the preceding one in that we compare

those promoted and the repeaters not to enrolment at the beginning
79
of the previous year (E ) but to this enrolment plus the net number
of pupils transferred or minus the net loss. For this the schools
have to keep very detailed registers of pupi1-movement, noting exactly
whether a pupil transferred is considered as promoted or as a repeater.
Such records are rarely kept. Some institutions may know how many
of their pupils come from other institutions (T+) but they do not
know, or do not know exactly, how many of their former pupils are
enrolled elsewhere. In practice you will often have to be content
with rates not corrected for migration.
Promotion, repetition and drop-out rates may be calculated by

sex if you have indications that drop-out is higher or lower among
girls than among boys.
It may be noted that if there are no repeaters - as with automatic
promotion - the formulae become very simple :
Promotion rate E„
N
(also called apparent rate) = — x 100
Vl
N
Drop-out rate (apparent) = 100 - —- x 100
E ,
N-l
Lastly, we may note that the transition rate described earlier

is simply a promotion rate from one cycle to another.
Example
Transition rate = Those promoted to 1st year of secondary in year t
(primary to secondary) Enrolment in last year of primary in year t-1
Module II Sectibn 3 : Internal efficiency of the educational system 50
Remember that in this case you must correct the number of those
promoted to take account of where they come from (in this way you
can also calculate a transition rate for any areas, even those which
have no secondary institutions).
II. Theoretical pupil-flow and cohort re-construction

On the basis of promotion, repetition and drop-out rates a chart
can be constructed to show pupil-flow for, e.g., 1,000 pupils entering
the same year a given level of education. For this a few assumptions
may be made to simplify matters :
a) Promotion and repetition rates are assumed constant through-
out the period ;
b) All pupils are considered to have the same likelihood of
promotion or repetition, whether they have never repeated
or have repeated once or more ;
c) The possible number of times a class is repeated is limited
to 2 or 3 ;
d) There are no other entrants to the system apart from the
original 1,000.
This process is called the reconstruction of a theoretical cohort
The following table illustrates such a theoretical cohort, consisting
of 1,000 pupils, which entered primary school in 1975 in the Nyong
and Mfoumou Department in Cameroon. In this example we have assumed
that :
a) Pupils may not repeat the same grade more than 3 times;
b) The 1975/76 promotion and repetition rates apply through-
out the period.
Module II Section 3 : Internal efficiency of the educational svst em
* » *
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Module II Section 3 : Internal efficiency of the educational system
Of the initial group of 1,000 pupils, 294 will have successfully

finished the primary cycle, 48 without repeating, 86 repeating once,
89 repeating twice and 71 repeating three times.
Exercise 5 : You have the promotion, repetition and

drop-out rates in the Department of Nyong and Mfoumou -
t they have already been given. Try re-calculating

the hypothetical flow of this cohort and see if you
get the same results.
From the promotion and repetition rates you will be able to

reconstruct the flow of a theoretical cohort for each zone. You
will thus reveal the disparities between zones in the primary school
career of their pupils. The secondary level may also be included.
Of course, as we have stressed during the study of cohort admission
rates, it would be preferable to have actual rates. These, unfor
tunately, are not available or would require too costly studies to
obtain.
Ill. Retention rate

The retention rate shows the proportion ci pupils who entered
at the same time in grade I who reach grades II. Ш , IV, etc.
Apparent retention rates may be calculated thus :
Apparent retention rate _ E
from grade I to VI '
ET5
This indicator sufficies if there is a system of automatic promotion.

However, if there is a lot of repetition it is unlikely that the

pupils in grade VI in year t will be the same as those who entered
five years earlier in grade I. In that case the data for hypothetical
cohorts calculated earlier will have to be used.
Retention rate :
RR = E P.t
к к
x 100
4
when RR = Retention rate
к = Grade (1, 2, 3 ...)
t = I ... n years
P = Number promoted
E = Enrolment in grade I, year 1
In the example above of the Department of Nyong and Mfoumou

(Cameroon) :
vv * я TT 402 + 140 + 4 8 + 1 7 _ 607 _
RR for grade II = — ~тш - 60.7/.
*n * А ттт - 246 + 147 + 6 5 + 2 7 _ 485

RR for grade III = — Т Ш = 48.5/,
™ г J „I 87 + 116 + 9 1 + 5 6 350 ос п„
RR for grade VI = ш = Т Ш~ = 35.0/.
This last rate shows the probability of a pupil's attaining

grade VI : it is a useful indicator for inter-zone comparisons of
the system's capacity for retaining pupils.
54
Module II Sección 4 : Quality of education
SECTION 4
QUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL SERVICES
AND USE OF RESOURCES
Study of the quality of the educational services poses a series

of conceptual and methodological problems.
First of all, what do we understand by the quality of an education-
al service ? The answer to this question will obviously depend on
the judgment criteria used. Is one dealing with subjective criteria,
such as parent-satisfaction or a school's reputation, or with more
objective criteria, such as success in examinations, external effi-
ciency, etc.? The criterion generally used for judging the quality
of an educational service is that of pupils' achievements.
This leads us to ask a second question : What are the factors
which contribute to the quality of education ? What makes one school
better than another ? Is it the level of training of its teachers,
their degree of motivation, the contacts they have with pupils, the
methods they use, the availability of good teaching materials, the
attractive or functional character of the premises ? Research is
not, unfortunately, far enough advanced to give us clear and precise
answers to these questions, and so the problem of selecting indicators
still remains to be faced.
Imprecise ascertainment of the cause and effect relations between
means used and results obtained, and failure of an increase in resources
in terms of either teachers or premises automatically to entail an
improvement in pupils' achievement do not mean that there are no
such relations. There are probably degrees of quality below which
55
Module II Section 4 ; Quality of education
any additional allocat- n or improvement of resources will bring

real results, while above which additional means have a lesser or
even a negligible impact.
Apart from the quality of education the educational planner
is preoccupied with reducing costs. Teaching staff and the construc-
tion and maintenance of buildings cost a lot and the resources avail-
able for education are limited. Hence they must be put to the best
use possible.
In this section we will study various indicators which enable
the quality of education or the use of resources or both to be assessed.
Three main components in educational provision may be distinguished :
staff, buildings and equipment.
I. Diagnosis of staffing conditions : Analysis of teaching and

non-teaching staff
The object of this diagnosis is, of course, to find out the
present situation, but it is also to suggest where and how a reor-
ganization of the educational provision could improve teaching and
learning conditions and the use made of teachers.
Hence attention will be paid to the composition of the teaching
force by qualification, the numbers of pupils per class, pupil/teacher
ratios, teachers' working hours, etc. Where norms exist, your diag-
nosis will be made in comparison with these. Where they do not,
your task will be above all one of analysing divergences between
zones or institutions.
1. Staff distribution by function

Functional distribution of staff enables, firstly, distinctions
Module II Section 4 ; Quality of education 56
to be drawn among teaching staff, headmasters freed from teaching

duties, and administrative and service staff. Secondly, it enables
differences among regions in the availability of different types
of staff to be identified. In primary education in many countries
distinctions are made between school heads without teaching duties,
heads with teaching duties, class teachers and specialist teachers.
Very often it happens that specialised teachers are very badly distri-
buted among schools and that they are concentrated in the urban areas.
In the following paragraphs we will deal only with staff responsible
for teaching.
2. Quality of teaching staff

There is no satisfactory way of assessing a teacher's quality.
We usually assume that this is a function of such factors as :
a) the length of a teacher's general education ;
b) the length of his training as a teacher ;
c) the upgrading or refresher courses he has attended ;
d) his experience.
These factors do not by themselves guarantee quality in a teacher:
account must be taken also of the type of school in which he works
(e.g. its size and location), his working environment (e.g. relations
with colleagues and the composition of the school's teaching staff),
his age and his motivation. This last factor, however, is not easily
measurable.
a) Teacher distribution by qualification level :
This is a matter of studying the percentage distribution
of teachers according to their levels of general education and pro-
fessional training.
The definition of a qualified teacher varies from one country

to another. In some countries a qualified teacher is only one who
has obtained official recognition of his suitability for teaching
in view of his professional qualifications, such as a diploma or
certificate from a teacher-training institution. Other countries
will recognise as qualified teachers all those with a certain level
of general education (the first or second cycle of secondary education
for a primary school teacher).
Further, some countries give different professional status to
teachers with different levels of education and training though all
may be recognised as teachers of the same level, whether primary
or secondary.
What categories of teachers are considered in your

country as qualified to teach in primary and in secon-
dary schools ? What is the length of their general
^
education and of the professional training they have
undergone ?
Within the same country the structure by qualification of the

teaching staff may vary greatly from area to area and from school
to school. The reasons for these divergences may lie in the ways
of recruiting and training teachers, in the norms and criteria
applied for the establishment of new posts, or in regulations for
employing and transferring teaching staff.
Module II Section ,4 : Quality of education 58
.-J
TOTA
LT) чО чО чО
—
ii
а\ г-Ч
гЧ
I—1
Рч
m i чО 1 CN 1
<
с
о
•ч
4-1
с
о со
о о CU
и •н
cu Чч 4-1 >> с
lower
•н СО
в
Ш 1—1 О
и
CO
о
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со •И 4-1
о 3 4-1 тз СО
о с Ü i 1 CN г—1
л
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4-1
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<г ч
3 M Чч о 3
¡S 0) TD CU
о
Ё
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XI h-1
и
CU о со CU CJ
3 о
о
ЧЧ и
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XI
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X¡ г—1 О
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СО си
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СО
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•• h-1 со •н ?*. С CU Л "-1 >> С CU •'—) >ч
oí м CU 4-1 Ü и а) со и Рч
< м cu со g СО CU СО
S CU со
SCHOOLS
Q со 4-1 ТЭ
с и 4-1 ТЗ С м г-ч 4-1 *0
z g СО С и о i-i со С и о о СО С
о g > О cu - ч со > о CU -и О > О
и CO •И О > С Ü •и о > С X! •Ч О
ы и и си О 3 -н н CU О 3 О H CU
со и Рч СО Ü n ß Рч СО О "-) со Рч СО
г—1 CN ОО vf LH чО
Module II Section 4 : Quality of education j
Illustration :
The preceding table illustrates the differences in
the level of general education among the teachers in six secondary
schools in Cameroon.
Two private schools shown in the table have no teacher with
a higher education diploma and only one GCE "A" level. By contrast,
in the Grammar School, 617o of the teachers have a higher education
diploma and the lowest level of education is the GCE "A" level.
When data on teachers' qualifications have been collected it
may be useful to deal with them by zone, by governing body and by
size of school. It seems that there is often a correlation between
the percentage of qualified teachers at the two levels - primary
and secondary - and the degree of urbanisation (the largest schools
being found in urban areas).
b) Teacher distribution by years of service :
The significance of the indicator "years of service" is
difficult to ascertain. It is both an indicator categorising staff,
since it may affect their territorial distribution, and an indicator
of the quality of educational provision since it has undertones of
a certain quality of teaching linked with the teacher's experience.
However, it should be used carefully since a high percentage of very
long-serving teachers who have not attended refresher courses might
entail teaching of a lower quality than that which might be provided
by inexperienced teachers.
Generally teachers-attachment regulations are such that a teacher
who has completed his course in a primary or secondary teacher training
institution will be attached to a rural area. Unless he is attached
to his home village or town he will in most cases desire to go back
to working in a town. Hence there is a high percentage of teachers
Module II Section 4 : Quality of education 60
with a year's service or less in rural areas and a high percentage

of experienced teachers in urban areas.
Exercise 6 : In the following table, calculate the

percentage of teachers, by years of service, in the
urban and the rural area and in the whole of the pilot
area. Comment. Compare your results with those given
at the end of the module.
Ecuador : Iberra Division :

Distribution of primary teachers by years of service and by area
Distribution by
years of service
Number of teachers 0 1 2 3 4 +
Urban area 351 3 52 56 52 188

100%
Rural area 249 23 75 57 33 61
100%
Total for 600 26 127 113 85 249
pilot region 100%
It has been noted that generally an over-large number of in-

experienced teachers (with less than one year of service) is preju-
dicial to good quality education, especially if they are found in
Module II Section 4 Quality of education 61
isolated rural schools without much counselling and supervision and

teaching in multi-grade schools.
If in fact good education is less well ensured by teachers with
few years of experience, and if the distribution of teachers by year
of service and by zone is too inequal, it is desirable to take certain
measures designed to keep experienced teachers in rural areas, such
as providing staff accommodation, premises well-equipped with educa-
tional materials, allowances, etc.
The number of years of service in school may be an indicator
of :
a) high staff turnover (if few teachers have a considerable
number of years of service) ;
b) lower teacher-efficiency if there are many who have become
"fixtures" in the same school for many years.
Continuity of teachers in a school is linked with the school's
geographical location, with material teaching conditions, with pupils'
behaviour, with the stimulation given by the head and with the school
atmosphere.
This approach to teacher-continuity or otherwise may be completed
by measuring another factor : teacher-absenteeism.
It seems that in some countries or areas (usually rural) teacher-
absenteeism is in fact a real problem. It is important to be able
to measure exactly the extent of this. Data are unfortunately difficult
to obtain and the schools' statistics are probably not reliable in
this respect. If there is such a problem in your region, it is by
contacts with representatives of the community or with parents' as-
sociations that you will be able to get data.
Module II Section 4 Quality of education 62
c) Teacher-distribution by sex :
Here it is a matter simply of calculating, by area and
by different educational levels, the percentage of women among the
teachers. Experience shows that in countries where the schooling
of girls meets with resistance on the part of parents, the presence
of women teachers may contribute to overcoming such resistance and
so encouraging the participation of girls.
A very high proportion of women among the teachers may reflect
low salaries in the teaching profession.
2. Teaching organisation and the use of teachers

The pupil-teacher ratio and class size are often mentioned as
very important indicators of the quality of education. Teachers'
unions and parent-teacher associations struggle to obtain a reduction
in the number of pupils per class. A limited number of pupils should
enable the teacher to pay better attention to each pupil. However,
the results of international research show that the effect of class
size upon school results is weak. Classes with numerous pupils can
get good achievements. Conversely, in classes with few pupils the
results may be mediocre. All depends in fact upon what the teacher
makes of his class and on his teaching methods.
Probably there are thresholds which should not be crossed even

if one is not quite sure what they are. Going from 35 to 40 pupils
probably involves no major change in teaching conditions, but going
from 40 to 60 is quite another matter. In addition there is the
problem of great variations from the regional average among zones
and schools.
The organization of teaching and the allocation of staff are
Module II Section 4 : Quality of education
usually regulated by a number of nationally-defined norms. Your

task will be to check how far these norms are respected.
a) Norms :
- Norms for the number of pupils per class : a class is a
group of pupils who follow the teaching of a teacher at the same
time. The idea of a class does not necessarily coincide with that
of a grade. In fact a grade (or a year of study) may, if there
are a lot of pupils, by divided into several classes.
Example : In the 1st year of secondary education a school may have

three classes of 40 pupils each.
Conversely, a class may cover several grades, as in a one-teacher
school in which all grades from the first to the last year of study
are taught.
Norms for class size can be complicated. They vary according
to the level of education - primary or secondary. They may be for
upper or lower limits - pupils should not be divided into groups
greater or smaller than such-and-such figures. They may be different
according to whether they refer to classes covering one or several
grades.
What are the norms in your country concerning the

number of pupils per class in primary education
^ and in the first and second cycle of secondary ?
It is to these norms that you should refer when you

make a diagnosis in your region.
Module II Section 4 : Quality of education '54
- Norms in respect of teachers' service : these norms vary ac-

cording to the level of education.
In primary education usually a teacher is responsible for teaching
a single class. In this case the hours worked,are the same for all
teachers and equal the number of hours provided for in the pupils'
time-tables.
In secondary education official working conditions may vary accord-
ing to the teachers' qualification. The average number of hours a
teacher should work is specified, but maximum and minimum numbers
are given as well.
These official norms may not always be observed if :
the school's size is too small and the number of its classes
is too low for full use to be made of certain specialised
teachers ;
a subject is given little time in the curricula for the
various grades ;
certain optional subjects are not very popular ;
the teachers are very specialised.
Under-uti Iísat ion of teachers by comparison with official norms
for the number of periods to be taught may also result from poor or-
ganisation of the time-table.
What is the number of weekly periods which a secondary
^ school teacher should work in your country ?
b) Indicators :
- Enrolments by class and average audience : these two in-
dicators enable teaching conditions to be assessed and are indicators
of the quality of the educational service.
. , Total enrolment
Enrolments by class =
Number of classes
In primary education it is useful to analyse this indicator by

size of school and to compare the data thus categorized with national
norms. It is usually observed that class size does not take account
of the fact that the pupils in several classes may be grouped together
for some special activities, such as sport, or that a class may be
sub-divided into groups :
a) by sex, so that boys and girls may study different subjects;
b) for teaching reasons, such as splitting up for practical
work ;
c) for different optional subjects, such as foreign languages
or pre-vocational subjects.
For this reason, the number of pupils being taught may vary ac-
cording to subject and teaching method.
Hence it is useful to calculate a more complex indicator than
the enrolment by class ratio so as better to measure organizational
conditions. This indicator is the :
(Number of weekly class periods)x(number

fc of t pupils)
Average audience = * —t
Number of weekly periods taken by the teachers
The term "period" is used rather than "hour" since a teaching

period may vary from 40 to 60 minutes.
The average audience indicator is the average enrolment of the
groups with which one teacher deals, account being taken of the various
teaching arrangements possible and of the different pupil-groupings
they entail.
This indicator is not an easy one to calculate, the difficulties

lying in the gathering of data and in calculating the number of pupil-
periods a week.
For this calculation one starts with the detailed time-table
of pupils in a school. For each class the number of periods a week
given to each subject is multiplied by the numbers of pupils attending
the respective subjects. The sum of these calculations gives the
school's total pupil-periods.
The number of teachers' working periods a week is obtained by
adding up the number of periods taught by each teacher.
Example : Let us assume a class of 26 pupils, 14 boys and 12 girls.

The time-table provides for 29 weekly teaching periods in all.
Boys and girls are separated for 3 periods of physical education and
for 4 other periods, during which the girls attend domestic science
and the boys manual work. The numbers of weekly pupil-periods are
then calculated as follows :
Weekly
SUBJECT Weekly Periods Enrolment
Pup il-periods
Subjects taught in common

(mathematics, physics,
geography, languages, etc.) 22 26 572
Physical education
Girls 3 12 36
Boys 3 14 42
Domestic science (girls) 4 12 48
Manual work (boys) 4 14 56
TOTAL 36 754
Each pupil attends only 29 teaching periods a week but to provide

these it is necessary to allow for 36 periods worked by teachers.
The total number of pupil-periods is 754.
The average audience then is :
I pupil-periods _ 754 _ 20 9-1

No. of teacher-periods 36
Generally if the average audience is less than the number of

pupils per class this signifies that classes are often divided. If
it is higher, this means that combination of classes for certain sub
jects is a common practice. If there is no division or combination
the average audience will be the same as the average number of pupils
per class.
The average pupil audience is a more exact indicator than the
number of pupils per class for assessing actual pupil-grouping conditions
You will not really need to calculate it except in secondary education,
if various choices of subject are offered necessitating division or
combination of classes.
- Pupil/teacher ratio : the pupil/teacher ratio, like the pupil/
class ratio and the average audience, enables the pupil-organization
conditions, and so the quality of education, to be assessed. But
in addition, it is an indicator of the utilization of teachers and
of their costs.
In a given school or in an area comprising several schools, the
•-i /*. t. ^. / total of pupils ч . ... n . ,
pupil/teacher ratio (= _r r , ) is usually calculated by
v v J
total of teachers
level of education - primary and secondary.
When data are available it is useful to follow the development
of enrolments, numbers of teachers and pupil:teacher ratios over several
years. Comparison of such data by school or zone over several years

makes it possible to show clearly, for example, the schools or zones
in which efforts have been made in the past in respect of the allocation
of resources in the form of teachers ; or the schools or zones in
which the situation has worsened from year to year (a pupil : teacher
ratio above the national average and increasing as time goes on).
Set against the national average, the pupil : teacher ratio enables
comparisons to be made between zones or between schools, and inequali
ties in the allocation of teaching staff to be measured, so as to
select the areas in which reinforcement of the educational provision
is needed.
This ratio depends on the number of pupils per class and the
number of classes per teacher :
., , , . enrolment classes
Pupil/teacher ratio = : x г
classes teachers
E E C
x e = x
'- T с т
In primary education a teacher is usually generally occupied

with one and the same class, so the pupil/teacher ratio is then equal
more or less to the pupil/class ratio. It may, however, differ if
there are half-time classes or specialist teachers.
Experience shows that the pupil/teacher ratio often varies accord
ing to the size of school. In rural areas, where population density
is low, one finds low pupil/teacher ratios, often below the national
average, or lower anyway than in the urban areas.
Example : Pupils per teacher by size of primary school and by area,

Regional Directorate of San Ramon, Costa Rica, 1972
Zones Size of School

Less 51-100 101-200 201-280 281-400 More
than 50 than 400
A 26.5 25.1 26.5 29.5

В rural 17.5 19.2 20.8
С 18.8 22.7 26.6 28.8 32.0
D rural 18.0 20.6 25.6
Whole region 17.4 19.4 22.8 26.4 28.4 30.4
In secondary education the teachers are subject specialists and

the number of periods they are expected to teach is usually lower
than that of the periods attended by a class. Hence there is normally
an average of more than one teacher per class. If in addition the
teachers do not work their full official hours, the number of teachers
per class will be even higher and the lower the pupil/teacher ratios.
To check more exactly whether the time put in by teachers coin
cides or not with the official norms, and if there is under-utilization
of teachers (and hence waste), or on the contrary overloading, other
indicators are generally used. These are :
a) Teachers' average teaching load : this is the total number
of weekly periods taught divided by the number of teachers.
b) The number of full-time equivalent teachers : this equals
Total number of weekly periods taught by teachers

ft Normal number of weekly periods taught by one
full-time teacher
The result of this division gives the number of teachers

who would be used if each worked full-time according to
official norms,
c) The pupil/teacher (full-time equivalent) ratio : This is
Number of pupils
Number of full-time equivalent teachers
Example : A secondary school with 393 pupils employs 19 teachers.

If the school has to provide 537 periods a week of teachers' time
and if a full-time teacher's weekly work-load is 35 periods, the number
537
of teachers in full-time equivalent is = 15.3.
The pupil/teacher (full-time equivalent) ratio in this school

393
is thus : yjp 3 = 25.6:1.
Let us compare this result with the actual pupil/teacher ratio:

393
= 20.5:1
19
The pupil/teacher (full-time equivalent) ratio is higher than

the pupil/teacher ratio since in theory it would need only 15.3 teachers
to put in the teaching periods in fact provided by 19 teachers.
A difference between the two ratios reveals either under-
utilization of teachers (sometimes inevitable if the school is small
and if some teachers cannot work full-time in their subjects), or
the amount of voluntary part-time work done by the teachers.
The pupil/teacher and pupil/teacher (full-time equivalent) ratios

would be the same if all teachers were occupied full time. This would
require that either :
a) the school is big enough for a teacher to be occupied full-
time even in subjects with few weekly periods, or
b) the teachers teach more than one subject.
Such assumptions would be unrealistic, but in Module IV we will
see what size of school would enable the best possible use to be made
of the teachers.
Exercise 7 : In the following table, calculate the

different indicators and compare the teaching condi-
tions in the five secondary schools in the Regional
Directorate of San Ramon, Costa Rica.
Module II Section 4
School Enrol Pupils Total Average Teachers Total Average Average Pupil- Pupil:
ment per pupil- number of teacher number of audience teacher teacher
class periods periods periods periods ratio (full-
(average) per pupil per time
(1) teacher equi
valent)
ratio (2)
Quality of education
—
i1
ON
25.6:1
—
537 22.4 20.7:1

il
393 28.1 12055
<H
СП
818
CN
770 33.5 27489
<f
О
СП
808 34.9 30058 1008
О
<f
CS
247 27.4 8892 310
OO
LO
1149 34.8 45960 1325
<t
Total 3367 33.0 124454 37.0 160 3998 25.0
•
СП
1—1
LO
•н
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р — 1
о
со
СО
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и
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со
со
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3
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.
-
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1
72
73
Module II Section 4 Quality of education
II. Diagnosis of school buildings and equipment

School buildings pose problems in all countries, advanced or
developing, since buildings and equipment are expensive as is also
their upkeep. They should therefore be used intensively enough to
give a proper return, and should also enable education to be provided
in satisfactory conditions.
Within the purview of school mapping, the diagnosis of school
buildings and equipment should make it possible to :
a) assess the general availability and quality of school build-
ings ;
b) identify priority areas for action in respect of renovating
or extending buildings ;
c) identify the areas most disadvantaged in respect of equip-
ment available ;
d) assess true school capacity ;
e) show which schools are under-utilized or, conversely, over-
loaded.
The quality of school buildings is difficult to appraise. It
is also relative, depending on countries, regions, existing materials,
financial resources available, financing policy and, in particular,
on the division of responsibility among the central government, local
authorities and the parents of pupils, on the socio-economic conditions
of the communities in which the schools are located, and on climatic
conditions.
Diagnosis of the condition of buildings and the availability
of equipment, and of their degrees of utilization, should therefore
be made with reference to national standards.
After recapitulating to what such standards relate, we will study

the details of school buildings and the availability of equipment.
We will then see how to assess the utilization of premises with the
help of appropriate indicators.
The information needed for this type of study is not usually
available in the Ministry of Education's annual statistics and a special
survey will need to be made. Ways of collecting the data required
will be found in the next section.
1. Analysis criteria and reference standards

You will judge the quality of school buildings and the availa-
bility of equipment by reference to the objectives of educational
policy and the standards in force in your country. Such standards
of course vary with the levels of education, teaching practices, regions
and climatic conditions. They concern mainly :
a) average areas of general classrooms and of specialized rooms
such as laboratories and workshops ;
b) average areas for pupil-space in general and specialized
rooms, and for circulation, administration and other pur-
poses ;
c) degrees of safety and comfort : availability of running
water and of electricity, sanitation, lighting, ventilation,
heating, and other conditions ;
d) needs for school furniture and supplies. Here distinction
should be made between what is normally supplied by the
central authorities (Ministries), regional authorities and
local communities, and what may be bought by pupils' parents,
such as pencils, textbooks ;
75
e) time for which premises are used - minimum, normal periods

and maximum numbers of periods a day ; extent to which single-,
double- or triple-shift working is normal or acceptable
in primary and secondary education ;
f) minimum, maximum and standard sizes for schools : we will
come back to defining these in Module IV.
It is possible that standards for some things do not exist, and
then you should refer to :
a) guidance given by the Ministry (e.g. on school textbooks);
b) the national average - if you know it ;
c) international standards : you can refer to publications
by Unesco's Regional Offices. It is far preferable, however,
that you should use national standards laid down, taking
due account of the specific characteristics of your country
and of its different regions.
1. Details of school buildings

Your study will deal with construction materials and the condi-
tion and area of premises. It will be made by geographical area,
kind of school in primary education and by school in secondary edu-
cation.
a) Construction materials and the condition of premises:
During your survey you will ask, for each of the teaching
rooms, what materials were used in their construction -
either in a general way or specifying those for walls,
ceiling and floor.
You will enquire also about the state of the premises.
This information is not easy to obtain since it is fairly
subjective : each school head will probably have a different

way of judging the state of his school's premises. All
depends on what he considers normal or on the financing
he hopes to obtain. It is preferable, therefore, that the
enquiry should be conducted by an outside investigator who
applies the same criteria to all schools. The ideal would
be for the inventory to be made by an architect. In any
case, exact criteria must be used. We recommend that you
distinguish between premises in good condition, premises
in acceptable condition, premises in bad condition needing
substantial repairs and premises in very bad condition needing
extensive and immediate repairs. You will focus your atten-
tion especially on premises in bad and very bad condition.
Generally the condition of premises is closely linked
with the type of materials used. The proportion of classrooms
judged to be in bad condition or needing immediate repair
will be higher among those built with non-durable materials.
According to the building materials used one will be able
to judge whether or not it would pay to rebuild the premises
rather than to carry out extensive repairs.
The indicators will be the percentage distribution
of :
i) classrooms by building materials used ;
ii) classrooms in bad condition or needing immediate
repair.
The two following tables illustrate two different ways of
presenting the data.
77
y condition
immediate
ing
repair
CS чО О о с» СО m г* CN чО СУ CN чО СУ
-а . • • г-н • 1—1
• «st •
а> m о см чО со m 00
си г—I —
i I
-t
Xi
чО о чО Г- СО о СУ.
ooms
Bad
CM • CM • со • CN • г—1
• о • о •
m -et чО о о
m 1—1 1—1
CN
и
44
О и CN о СО Г» о m «st
•H со • «st • 00 • CN • «st • -st • о •
СО CN о СМ чО LH чО СУ. СО m
СО
1-1 fe CN m 1-4 1—1 1—1
Numbe
тз r«« о 00 о 1—1 CN Г«-

о «st • CM • чО • r—t
• о • СУ • см •
о CM чО m «st О CM о Г«« о 1—1
m 00 СО
чО CN Г««. CN «st СО Г-.
о г» со
и
erials
си СП о I—I LO со о CM m m су. «st m

Л CO • О • • • со • • «st •
4-1 CO о 1—1
о СТ\ 1—1 00
о
—
i I 1—I
•и
СО
ТЗ СУ\ m о О о «st .—:
е о m CO
• m •
CN
О • о • о • 1-4
CN
• г-н
CN
•
f^ о чО
о о о 1—1
СО 12 I—I
tí
О
•и •
ruct
efab
чО о 1—H со CN о CN
CN О Г-н 00
• • см » • «st • СУ
• г«-
CN
a
LO о со со 1—t «st m
1—1
•u
и
со См
с
о
u >«. чО о m СО чО «st m
СО CM • О • Ш • «st • чО a СУ. • чО I
>•> LO СО СО чО
Xi
т—t
о см m 1—1
су. со
г-Ч CN 1—1
и со 1—1
со
в
roo
CU
с 00 О СО m 1—1 г- 1—1 о со СО со о СУ. о
о r-4
• 0 СО е CM • Г-« 0 1—1
• m a
4-1 4-1 о —
г Г"« о г—i 1—1 r-H CN о
СЛ Ш СО «st [-s.
ю СО m
о
со
и
CU cu
umb
4-1
CU
1-1
г«. о CN со «st со чО
CJ
г tí
чО чО о о чО СУ» I—1 со CM со чО «st 1—1 in
чО г—1
оо 1—(
о i—1
CJ
и Rooms
cu чО СО m о г«« CN со
Xi 4-1 CO чО СО со «st 1-4
Е о со m
3
ban
1—1
СО
со sJ3 и •и
cu B-« 5-г ¡Г«- О"«- 3 5-2 5-5 0 5-2
С H
О < M О а ы fe
N
78
You will note that it is the urban area E with 51.3% of its class-
rooms built in stone, which has the most rooms in good condition (80.1%)
By contrast, in area F more than 50% of the classrooms are built of
materials other than concrete or stone (clay, prefabricated units,
wood, or other materials). Given the climatic conditions and national
standards it is perhaps more advantageous to rebuild than to repair.
Example 2 : Construction materials and kinds of schools.

"Arrondissement" of Kirundo, Burundi, 1982
Percentages of rooms built of durabl e or semi-

Number
durable materials: by constructional items
Kind of school of
rooms Walls Roofs Doors Windows Floors
State Schools
Central 102 91.2 95.1 85.3 67.3 75.5
Branch 90 57.8 76.7 64.0 37.1 14.4
Private Schools
1 !
AID 26 50.0 57.7 ! - ! - 11.5
Advent ist 10 40.0 60.0 ' 80.0 ; 20.0 40.0
Total 228 71.1 82.0 67.0 45.6 41.7
Some schools may have roofs of durable material but not the walls,
or vice-versa, so the picture is clearer if the data are separated
in this way, especially when the schools are studied one by one.
79
However, this increases the numbers of calculations to be made and

these are not easy to interpret at the regional level. The most im-
portant thing is to have the roof in durable material, and then the
walls, and then the floor. In the case of Kirondo, the State central
schools are by far the best. These are usually former missionary
schools which have been nationalised.
In some countries pupils assemble outside a classroom. Calculations
are then to be made of the :
i) number of classes held under trees ;
ii) number of classes held in unsuitable premises.
b) Analysis of building areas :

The following indicators may also be calculated :
i) average area per pupil in a general classroom ;
ii) average area per pupil in a specialized classroom ;
iii) average area of general classrooms ;
iv) average areas of specialized rooms - laboratories,
workshops, etc.
Calculations for average pupil areas in specialized rooms and
for the average areas of such rooms are mostly made for secondary
education since few primary schools have laboratories, workshops or
other specialized rooms.
These indicators may be calculated, as others above, by homogeneous
zone for primary education or by school for secondary education.
If one wishes to measure per-pupil space available, it is pre-
ferable to make the calculations by shift when a primary or secondary
school works double (or triple or quadruple) daily shifts.
If a school works double shifts - one in the morning and another

in the afternoon - the average space per pupil (S) must be calculated
for each of the two shifts since, while the areas of the rooms remain
the same, the number of pupils may vary according to shift. Then,
S
if enrolment in shift 1 is E , and enrolment in shift 2 is E , —
S
will be different from —
E
2
Example : Let us assume that a secondary school has 1,800 pupils,

28 general classrooms, 2 laboratories, 7 workshops and the following
areas :
Total floor area in

Number square metres
General classrooms 28 1,570

Laboratories 2 180
Workshops 7 410
Total school
surface area 65 3,741
Morning enrolment (1st shift) : 1,000 pupils

Afternoon enrolment (2nd shift) : 800 pupils
Calculations give the following indicators :
Average floor area of a general education classroom :
1,570 _
— — - 56 sq. m.
Average area of a laboratory :
i f = 90 sq. ».
Average area of a workshop :

410
- <;« A
—— = 58.6 sq. m.
Average area per pupil (in sq.m.)

Type of space For total
1st shift 2nd shift of pupils
General classroom 1.57 1.96 0.87

Laboratory 0.18 0.22 0.1
Workshop 0.41 0.51 0.22
Total 3.74 4.67 , 2.07
í 1
2. Availability of equipment
"Equipment" is here used to cover the equipment of buildings,
teaching aids used by the teachers and educational supplies used by
the pupils. There are several indicators, for example :
a) Equipment of premises (including furniture) -
percentages of :
schools with electricity and running water ;
schools with a sports ground, a garden plot ;
schools with teachers' living quarters ;
classrooms with pupils' desks - enough, not enough,
none ;
classrooms with a teacher's desk ;
, , number of seated tplaces ,nn\
pupils seated (= : x 100).
enrolment
82
Example 1 :
NUMBER OF % OF CLASSROOMS WITH NUMBER OF % OF TEACHERS

GEOGRAPHIC
CLASS A j A HAVING
ZONE
ROOMS BLACK TEACHER * S TEACHERS ALL NO
BOARD DESK TEXTBOOKS
TOTAL
i
b) Teaching equipment - percentages of :

schools without a blackboard ;
schools without enough geographic globes or maps,
or with none ;
schools with a library ;
c) Pupils' textbooks and supplies - percentages of

classes in which :
pupils have enough textbooks, exercise books or
slates, pencils ;
pupils have no textbook, exercise book, pencil.
83
Module II Section 4 Quality of education
d) Other - percentages of schools which arrange school

lunches, etc.
From among such indicators you will choose those which seem to
you the most appropriate for the situation in your region and the
level of education with which you are dealing . Your analysis
will be carried out in homogeneous zones. It might also be useful
to make your analysis by size of school since it is often the smallest
schools which have least teaching material.
Example 2 :
PERCENTAGE OF CLASSES IN WHICH PUPILS HAVE

GEOGRAPHIC SCHOOL
ZONE SIZE TEXTBOOKS EXERCISE BOOKS PENCILS
ENOUGH NONE ENOUGH NONE ENOUGH • NONE
Under
50 i
pupils i
i
50-100
A 100-150
150-200
Over
200
(1)
The indicators above are adapted mainly to primary education.
84
3. Analysis of use of premises

Arrangements should be made for premises and equipment to be used
to the fullest extent possible both by school pupils enrolled and
by out-of-school groups. The time for which school premises and sports
facilities are used may be increased by making them available to the
whole community.
So far as primary schools are concerned, indicators which may
be calculated for the use of premises are the percentages of :
a) schools which work double (or triple or quadruple)
shift ;
b) rooms which are used double (or triple or quadruple)
shift.
The percentages, calculated for homogeneous zones enable areas
to be identified in which the provision of additional facilities would
improve educational conditions by reducing the extent of multi-shift
working.
For secondary schools three indicators may be calculated for
assessing premises. These are the :
a) Time utilization rate, which compares the periods for
which the premises are actually used to the theore
tical duration of use.
Time utilization rate _ Number of periods actually used
(TUR) Number of periods for which use
is theoretically possible
Example : If in theory each room can be used for 50 periods a week

and if a room is in fact occupied only 25 periods a week,
the TUR is : Ц - x 100 = 50%.
This means that in theory it would be possible to double
enrolment without having to build more rooms.
This rate may - as also may those in b) and c) below -

be calculated room by room, or by a given type of room
(general or specialized education) or for the whole of the
school's rooms.
The number of rooms and their TUR may be shown dia-
grammatically (see the example below).
сн
п
D Ы
f-i CM
СЛ
С Q¡ —J
О _
oí
Q СП
>< К
ce H
<
Oí
<
Q и
н-< см
Эн û£
z яа ^тшЩ
ы < I
H ы
Oí
cu
чО
r-l
0
LIBJ
ф
1—1
О
LO œ
,
DS *
=>
<r
r-> Г*
—
j i
• VO
m
г—
2
^^
CM
< г—1
te _ #
г—1
s: р-
с 00
о
otí
о
Г—4
ел
СЛ CJv
<
- СО j
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A utilization rate of more than 807o is hard to achieve in

view of the difficulties of reconciling the time-tables of dif-
ferent classes. Besides, a higher rate is not really desirable.
An 80% rate assumes that the principle of each class having its
own room has already been abandoned, but it is indispensable
that at least one room be kept permanently free so that pupils
whose time-table provides for a free period may go there to work.
For specialized rooms, which are used for a few periods
only in each course, the time utilization rate is often much
lower. Good use of specialized classrooms is linked with school
size and with a minimum number of pupils who use these rooms.
In Module IV we will see what size of school ensures maximum
use.
The drawback of the room utilization rate is that it gives
no indication of how far room space is occupied, and hence an-
other indicator is calculated. This is the :
b) Space utilization rate or rates, which compare the
average size of the groups using a room with the
room's capacity.
Space utilization rate _ Average number of pupils per group
(S.U.R.) Room capacity
Example : A room built to accommodate 30 pupils is, on the average,

occupied by only 15, which gives a SUR of : — x 100 = 50%.
This rate is harder to calculate than the time utiliza-
tion rate because of the assessment which has to be made
of rooms' capacities. Should one consult the capacities
given in the rooms' construction plans ? Should one ask
3S
the school heads to assess each room's capacity ? One then

runs the risk that they may give as a room's capacity its
present number of places instead of the potential number.
One may also calculate a room's capacity by its area, divid-
ing this by the standard area per pupil.
When these two rates (TUR and SUR) have been obtained,
it is possible to calculate the :
c) Overall utilization rate, which combines the time
and space utilization rates.
Overall utilization rate = TUR x SUR
No. of periods used per week Average no. of pupils per class
Theoretical no. of periods Room capacity
per week
Example : If we take the rates already calculated :

25 15
Overall utilization rate = — x -rjr x 100 = 25 <c
This is the rate which should ue raised to the highest

level possible if the best use of premises is to be obtained.
Given the difficulties mentioned above, one must usually
be content with working out the time utilization rate.
?
Exercise 8 : Complete table 2 below from the data
in table I. All rooms may be used for 40 periods
a week. Comment.
Table 1 : Data on secondary schools : Canton of Ibarra, Ecuador
SCHOOL A В С D
ENROLMENT 1,800* 628 535 104
General education rooms

Number 28 16 13 3
Area (in sq.m.) 1,570 768 710 162
No. of periods used 1,288 522 329 81
Laboratories
Number 2 - 3
Area (in sq.m.) 180 230 -
No. of periods used 18 77
Workshops
Number 7 1 4 2
Area (in sq.m.) 410 54 205 108

No. of periods used 143 18 55 12
* double shift (1,000 pupils in the first shift)

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91
Module II Section 5 : Data collection for diagnosis
SECTION 5
DATA COLLECTION FOR DIAGNOSIS
In the preceding sections you have studied the three essential

aspects of educational systems diagnosis. These are :
Coverage,
Efficiency, and
Quality.
In doing so you have taken an overall look at the very varied informa-
tion needed for making such a diagnosis. Some of the data will already
exist and will be available in the Ministry of Education, while other
data will come from other sources. Your task will be to bring the
data together and study them. Some data, however, will not be available
in the form and by the units of analysis which you need to draw up
the school map. Hence you will have to arrange for a special data
collection to get the information you need. In this section we are
going to deal with two aspects of such a collection :
a) Recourse to data sources outside the Ministry of Education;
b) Preparation of means and arrangements for collecting sup-
plementary data from the schools.
Obviously, data available in the Ministry of Education or in
the regional education offices should pose no problems.
I. Recourse to data sources outside the Ministry of Education

Data collection in the field is an operation which is very cost-
ly in time and resources. Before deciding that a particular piece
of information should be collected, by a survey or otherwise, you
must make sure that it does not already exist, either within the
Module II Section 5 : Data collection for diagnosis 92
Ministry of Education or outside it. If it does, you should try to

obtain it.
As a general rule, to draw up a school map you need three cate-
gories of information, which are not often found in Ministries of
Education. These are information on the :
a) physical environment in which schools in the region you
want to study are situated ;
b) inhabitants of the area, especially with respect to age,
sex and geographic distribution ;
c) future development of this area, especially its economic
potential and progress.
1. Physical environment
To study the physical environment you will need maps. These
may be found in specialized institutions - such as, for example, a
national geographic institute. Further, it should be pointed out
that in conducting a population census, those responsible may have
produced special maps on the basis of aerial photographs. These en-
able you to locate population groups more accurately and can be very
useful as they give the exact locations of villages and hamlets.
Three kinds of maps will be particularly useful :
a) physical maps, giving elevations and enabling access dif-
ficulties and isolated places to be studied ;
b) communications maps, which enable travel problems to be
appreciated ;
c) administrative maps, which enable different localities to
be "placed" administratively and the boundaries of the various
administrative units, including those adopted for the popu-
lation census, to be determined.
The maps you use should be detailed enough for each school to
be exactly located and they should accurately reflect the distances
between schools. This accurate location of schools on the map is
an indispensable place of information both for diagnosis of the edu-
cational system and for proposals for future re-organization of the
school network.
2. Population data
Data on the population's age-structure are periodically gathered
at the time of the population census. According to country such data
may be obtained from the census bureau, the demographic institute,
the Ministry of the Interior's population division, the national sta-
tistics office, or by application to some similar body responsible
for the census and for processing the demographic data gathered.
Since a census takes place only occasionally - usually every
ten years - you will not always be able to make direct use of the
data to make your diagnosis. For the years intervening between two
censuses and for the years following the last one, you will have to
resort to :
a) population estimates made on the basis of census data and
official data on birth and mortality rates ;
b) population projections, likewise based on census data, and
on assumptions about the average rate of growth or on trends
in birth and mortality rates (see Module III).
Of course, the more recently a census has been held the more
useful it is since you will not have to make projections for too long
a period.
Module II Section 5 Data collection for diagnosis 94
3. Data on the region studied

Besides demographic data you will also have need of economic
and social data on the region with the twofold purpose of :
a) identifying the characteristics of the region and its ac-
tivities, and
b) forecasting its future development.
To develop your proposals for the re-organization of the school
network you will need to foresee as accurately as possible the probable
evolution of educational demand. Such demand obviously depends on
the population. At/ the local and regional level migrations may have
a very marked effect on population growth and on its distribution
among different localities. You should take into account internal
migration between zones in the region and immigration from or to areas
outside the region. Migration movements are often specific to a region
and largely depend on the level of economic activity of its various
localities.
In school mapping you should take into account also what is fore-
seen in any territorial development scheme which concerns the region
with which you are dealing. Close cooperation with those responsible
for regional development, and with specialists in this is indispensable.
II. Schools survey

A schools survey should supply you with information which is
not normally gathered by means of the annual or biennial questionnaires
sent out by the Ministry of Education. You should therefore :
a) identify the additional information needed to draw up the
school map ;
b) devise a questionnaire to gather this information ;
c) distribute the questionnaire to schools in the region.
1. Identification of information needed

The information which you need will vary with the educational
level concerned. In primary education, in which each teacher usually
teaches all subjects in the grade for which he is responsible, and
in which the premises consist almost wholly of general classrooms,
the information required is fairly limited. In secondary education,
in which each teacher is a specialist and in which, besides general
education classrooms, there is a whole range of specialized rooms
(laboratories, workshops, etc.), the items of information needed are
much more numerous.
Information on primary education

Information on primary education deals mainly with pupils, teachers,
buildings and educational materials,
a) Information on pupils :
You will, of course, need traditional data such as :
i) Pupil distribution by grade and sex ;
ii) Repeaters by grade ;
iii) Pupil distribution by year of birth and grade.
Probably part, if not all, of these data will have already been
collected by the Ministry of Education through annual or biennial
surveys. If this is so you will use the completed questionnaires
if they are available. You should, all the same, verify the reliabi-
lity of the data gathered and assure yourself that there are no prob-
lems in identifying the schools : you will in fact have to rely on
these data, together with additional data gathered by a special enquiry.
Such additional data deal mainly with the distance from home
to school and with journey time. As we have already seen in Section
2, it is not a matter of asking for exact distances and times but

rather of compiling distance categories of pupils who travel, for
example, less than 2 kms, from 2 to 4 kms, from 4 to 6 kms and more
than 6 kms, these distances being classed respectively as agreeable,
acceptable, burdensome and unacceptable. You will get this informa-
tion by questioning pupils and teachers together.
b) Information on teachers :
Information on teachers relates mainly to their distribution
by :
Age
Sex
Years of service
Level of qualification.
If the number of periods the teachers work varies, you are recommended
to get information on this as well.
c) Information on premises :
Apart from the number, size and purpose of premises, it
is useful to have also data on the constructional materials used and,
above all, on the present state of the premises.
Formulating questions on the condition of premises is fairly
tricky since judging the state of a school building is very subjective
and may differ widely from one school head to another. Consequently
questions should be put in ways which give the least openings to am-
biguity.
If you have to use terms such as good, average, bad, you will
need to say precisely what these terms mean. You could, for example,
give such indications as :
Good = well-maintained, no repairs needed;
Fair = lacking in maintenance ;
Bad = needs considerable repair ;
Very bad = should be re-built.
d) Information on equipment and teaching materials :

Here it is essentially a matter of knowing the state of
availability of school furniture, equipment for collective use (such
as blackboards) and supplies for individual pupils, such as textbooks,
exercise books, etc.
Information on secondary education

Besides the information mentioned above, you will need to gather
additional and more specific information for secondary education.
First of all, to ascertain the exact catchment area of a secondary
school you will need to know where each pupil lives and the primary
school to which he went before entering secondary school. This in-
formation should therefore be sought from each pupil separately.
One way of doing this is to ask the chief teacher of each class to
fill out a questionnaire similar to the one below, entering on it
each pupil's answers.
No. Pupil's Name Sex Place of Journey from home Primary

residence to school school
(one way) attended
Distance Time
To work out some indicators, such as the pupil:teacher (full-

time) ratio, you will have to get the number of weekly working periods
for each teacher. To calculate the average audience, to which you
were introduced in Section 4, you will need, in addition to the total
number of teachers' working periods, to have details on the timetable
of each class including, when sub-groups are formed - e.g. for labo-
ratory work or because two or more elective subjects are offered simul-
taneously - exact data on the number of pupils each contains.
Lastly, to calculate the time utilization rate for each room
in the school you- will need to get for each room, whatever its nature -
general classroom, laboratory, workshop, other specialized room -
the number of periods a week it is used. The rate can be worked out
on the basis of pupil timetable but it is preferable to ask for the
room timetable if documentation of it exists.
2. Preparing a survey questionnaire

Preparation of a survey questionnaire comprises three stages:
a) preparation of a draft questionnaire ;
b) testing of the draft questionnaire by visits to a series
of schools, which have different characteristics and may
be considered as representative of the different situations
in which the questionnaire will be used ;
c) construction of the questionnaire in final form.
a) Preparation of the draft questionnaire

Preparation of the draft questionnaire implies that the
information to be collected has already been identified, as we have
done above.
99
i) Question formulation :
Question formulation is extremely important since upon it
depends the reliability - i.e. the exactitude - of the in-
formation obtained. You should in particular :
check that the questions are clear and present no
interpretation problems ;
ask only for information which can be got easily,
ii) Structuring the questionnaire :
In structuring the questionnaire, you should take into account
the convenience of those answering it. It is recommended
that you should :
begin the questions concerning identification ;
group the questions by the main fields for which you
want to get information - data on pupils, teachers,
buildings, equipment, teaching materials, etc.
You should also take care that the format and typography
should be such that the questionnaire is :
easy to handle ;
easy to read ;
easy to fill out ;
easy to examine.
b) Testing of the draft questionnaire

Once the draft questionnaire is finished, you should test
it by trying it out.
This stage is very important because it enables assessment to
be made of the efficiency of the tool which you have fashioned. It
is recommended that you should apply the draft questionnaire in a
Module II Section 5 ; Da ta collection for diagnosis 100
dozen or so schools, making sure that these latter are well represen-
tative of the situations you are likely to meet in the course of the
survey.
The chief object of this testing is to check whether all the
questions asked have been properly understood, without any mistakes
in interpretation, and that the replies given to the questions cor-
respond exactly to the information sought, without any ambiguity.
c) Drawing up the final form of the questionnaire

On the basis of the draft questionnaire and of the reactions
of those answering which you may have observed through the testing,
you will be able to draw up in final form a questionnaire which will
be used in all schools.
An illustration you will find below is an example of a question-
naire used for primary education. The aim of this is to show you
what a questionnaire may be like. Obviously, it will be for you to
prepare your own questionnaire, taking into account the specific cha-
racteristics of your country's educational system and those of the
region you want to study.
3. Application of the questionnaire to the region's schools

To apply your questionnaire you may resort to the method generally
used by a Ministry of Education for gathering data. This consists
of distributing questionnaires among the schools and asking the school
heads and teachers to fill them out, and then collecting them again.
In this case it would be helpful if at the same time you circulated
an instructional leaflet explaining the aim of the questionnaire and
how it should be filled out correctly.
If you have the means needed for the questionnaire to be applied

by investigators working for you, then the reliability of the data
gathered will be increased. Such investigators, however, should be
trained so that they understand properly the aim of the questionnaire
and the sort of information which you hope to obtain.
TYPE OF QUESTIONNAIRE USED FOR A PRIMARY SCHOOLS SURVEY
I. School Identification
1. Name of school :
2. Location Village :
Ward :
District :
3. Status : Government / / Private / /
II. School Enrolment

A. Enrolment by sex and repeaters
Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Total
Boys
Girls
Total
Repeaters
Number of
streams
В. Attendance of day of survey
Stream Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 ]Total

!
1
2
3
Total i
1 !
C. Pupils by year of birth
Year of New in-j Enrol- ; Enrol- , Enrol- ' Enrol- Enrol-

birth take j ment ' ment ¡ ment j ment ment
Grade 11 Grade 2'. Grade 3¡ Grade 4: Grade 5 Grade 6
1976
1975
1974
1973
1972
1971
1969
1968
1967
1966
and
before
Total
•г ,-N т \ <-t -
Module II Section 5 : Data collection Hag: 103
В. Pupils by length of journey and tuce taken
1
— — — — ^ —
Total
Over
60'
Time taken
-60'
t
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m 1
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III. Teachers' particulars and length of service
Names of teacher Sex Subject or Training or Length of Periods

grade educational service taught per
taught level week
Remarks
Fair Bad Very bad
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Roof
Construction
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с СО
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Width Area
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Dimensions
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V. Other premises
Nature Construction
Dimensions State
of materials
premises Length Width Surf. Walls Roof Good Fair Bad Very
area bad
Director's
office
Store
Dining
hall
Other
premises
(specify)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
VI. Services available in the school
Type Yes No Remarks
Water
Electricity
Sanitation
Playground
Library
Workshop
Garden plot
Other (specify)
1.
2.
3.
10"
M o d u l e II S e c t i o n 5 • п я г я c o l l e c t i o n for d i a g n o s i s
Very
insuff icient
и in su ff icient
С
4) Sufficient
Cl
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О
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и
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Very
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Sufficient
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Module II Annex 1 : Selection of geographic units for school mapping 108
ANNEX
SELECTION OF GEOGRAPHIC UNITS FOR SCHOOL MAPPING
DIVISION INTO HOMOGENEOUS ZONES OF THE

REGIONAL DIRECTORATE OF SAN RAMON, COSTA RICA
The Regional Directorate of San Ramon has 101 primary schools

(one being a private one) and 5 secondary schools, located in the
region's four towns.
The region coincides approximately with four cantons (see Map 1 ) .
Each canton is divided into districts - the smallest geographic units
for which we have demographic data. In all there are 33 districts.
The cantons are :
Canton San Ramon Capital and headquarters 9,000 inhabitants
of the Regional Direc-
torate : San Ramon
Canton Naranjo Capital Naranjo 12 500
Canton Palmares Capital Palmares 3 050
Canton Alfaro Ruiz Capital Zarcero 2 150
We have the following data :

a) For each primary school in the region :
. enrolments and repeaters by year of study, age and sex;
for several school years ;
. teachers by level and function, also for several years;
. premises and school equipment for the base year (obtained
by an inventory) ;
. distances travelled by pupils (obtained from a survey).
Module II Annex 1 : Selection of geographic units for school mapping
b) For each secondary school :

. pupils by year of study, age, sex and specialized field
(for several years);
. repeaters by year of study, age and sex (also for several
years) ;
. premises and equipment : their availability and use
(survey results);
. distances travelled by pupils, and primary schools from
which pupils come (survey results) .
We have data also on the total population, by age and district.

Not all these data are reproduced here, as we want simply to
show the approach used.
Preliminary study of the data enables us to say that :
a) enrolment rates in primary education are near to 100% for
the region as a whole and no village is left out of the
school network (see Map 2, which shows where the primary
schools are located and how they are served by the road
network);
b) at the secondary education level, enrolment varies consi-
derably between districts according to whether or not there
is a secondary near by (see Map 3, which shows the secondary
schools' catchment areas);
c) the size of primary schools varies from 15 pupils (the smallest)
to 1,500 pupils (the largest school : situated in San Ramon
and working double shift). In the rural areas, especially
in the north-west (Canton of San Ramon), there is a large
number of one-teacher schools which, while not in poor con-
dition, have little pedagogical material ;
Module II Annex 1 ; Selection of geographic units for school mapping
110
away from the main east-west and north-south roads journeying

is very difficult, especially in the rainy seasio : there
are only tracks which vehicles can negotiate only with dif-
ficulty.
Policy objectives
The policy objectives are to :
1. improve the condition of the schools and the equipment avail-
able in both primary and secondary schools ;
2. establish a basic 9-year course of education, with all children
having access to the 1st cycle of secondary education ;
3. establish a new administrative structure based on school
clusters (núcleos). A number of primary schools will be
grouped together under a Director who will have special
responsibilities for supervision, help in teaching, manage-
ment, etc.
What should we take as the geographic unit in diagnos'
1 ing educational development and conditions in the

region ?
The canton cannot be taken because it contains for too much diver-
sity. In the canton of San Ramon one finds the best primary and second-
ary schools but at the same time one finds the most isolated schools
and those which provide the poorest educational conditions. In the
town of San Ramon all pupils have access to secondary education but
in the district of Los Angeles no pupils - or almost none - have a
change of entering secondary education.
Module II Annex 1, : Selection of geographic units for school mapping
The district ? There are far too many. To work out indicators
for 33 districts would take a very long time and would not necessarily
be justified since several districts have the same characteristics.
What must be done then is to re-group the districts which have
the most features in common and so to determine homogeneous zones.
In each zone the schools' characteristics should be as similar as
possible and the contrasts between zones should be as strong as possible.
Different groupings are made of districts and tested by the cal-
culation of certain key indicators. By successive correction and
repetition, homogeneous zones get defined.
In the case of the San Ramon Regional Directorate, four criteria
for grouping will be used î
a) the sap of the administrative boundaries which determine districts
(since the districts are the smallest administrative units for
which we have demographic data the homogeneous areas must be
groups of districts (Map 1) ;
b) the terrain and the state of the road network - indicators of
the ease of communication (Map 2) ;
c) the secondary schools' catchment areas (Map 3) ;
d) primary school sizes : very often it is in the smallest schools
that the worst conditions for education are found.
These criteria have been chosen because they enable us to test
how far the present school network attains the country's educational
policy objectives. Which are the districts which for the moment have
no access to secondary education ? Which are hard to reach and dif-
ficult to travel in ? This will have implications for the possibili-
ties of access to secondary education and for the establishment of
Module II Annex 1 : Selection of geographic units for school mapping
school clusters. Also, the information required is very easy to

, h . (1)
obtain
Suggested procedure for division

The procedure suggested for dividing up the region is to super-
impose the different maps, reproducing on the map of the administrative
areas the zones obtained from the combined analysis of the secondary
schools' catchment areas and of the road network. Other criteria
will be applied to verify the proper allocation of districts when
it is unclear whether they should be attached to one zone or to another.
1. The secondary schools' catchment areas enable five areas to be
distinguished : one round each of the towns of San Ramon (including
San Juan), Naranjo, Zarcero and Palmares, and one in which there is
very little access to secondary education, composed mainly of the
canton of San Ramon.
2. The road network enables three areas to be distinguished :
. that along the east-west road axis and all of the south : this
is well served ;
. that along the north-south road axis ;
. the rest of the region - served mainly by tracks.
3. Combination of the :
a) administrative area map ;
b) school catchment area ;
c) density of the road network ;
with priority given to the first two, ends up with a division into
five zones, with some districts, which pose special problems of al-
In situations in which the problem is not access to secondary

education but enrolment in primary schools, other guidelines will
need to be used. An indicator easy to calculate as an approximate
enrolment ratio is : total enrolment divided by the total population
of the districts.
Module II Annex 1 ; Selection of geographic units for school mapping 113
Map 1 : Location of primary schools in districts and cantons
Areas in the cantons of San Ramon and¡

Alfaro Ruiz but not in the San Ramon j
;,.,.,_,jP.i-- Regional Directorate j
===b
E Щ Ш Щ | Areas belonging to the Regional Direc
V torate but not the cantons of San
Ramon arid Alfaro Ruiz
~ff***^* a
\CIUDAD QUfSADA
t
Los Angeles 8
- . . В •••-••
Tapesco 3 о у
*"••. S^^ T"«"" i Palmira S
%V. у/ °Laguna 2 ° Lo
\
1
*>ч Guadalupe 4 V ' Zar ce r o 1 i—«*
\o o \ 0 \ ~5~~"ТП
Van José \ C i m 1} °g \
Piedades Norte 4 Volio 1 0
Zapota! 12
/ • "
s' «
/ о Y
.*.?>•
/' « ^
--Yo?.o rf c en Juan
^
•o s\ о : <ОА
/ Juar ...CU
..''•' O o \ о
Piedades Sur 5
Alfaro 9
"7-'"-v—ч ••' S a n \
/
Isidro
\ о w ara njo
a
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к W
/ о
v——-"",*ч О
JÛ--.
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i о \ о
> .
4 X
У /6> о // &
SanMiguel/
\ O /Rosario
0 ¡ CANoTON\^
Santiago 2 °San ¡PAPLMARES*
Rafael ¿ л °
Regional Directorace
boundary
Canton boundary
District boundary
Primary school Km
urn
Map 2 ; Regional Directorate of San Ramon ; Relief Map
л
<—* .)
i.y/.^.;...:f.:~;!;Xy , . :\j
j(
(с <
Module II Annex 1 ': Selection of geographic units for school mapping 115
Map 3 : Secondary school catchment areas
I—
:ARC|RÖ.
v
„«*«"
Inst
(LMAREÍ
I
I
0-10 pupi.
10 - 20 pupils
20 - 40 pupils
over 40 pupils
I Km
Canton boundary
location, left out. Attaching these districts to one area or another

will be done on the bases of school size and primary-secondary transi-
tion rate.
The final division arrived at is shown in Map 4, which contains:
a) two urban areas ; San Ramon (SRU) and Naranjo Palmares urban
(NPU);
b) two semi-rural areas - Zarcero (ZA) and Naranjo Rural (NAR) ;
these are semi-developed agricultural areas, of average popula-
tion density for the region, and lying along the north-south
axis J
c) a rural area (SRR) with a dispersed population and rather dif-
ficult to travel in.
117
Module II Annex 1 ; Selection of geographic units for school mapping
Map 4 : Location of primary schools in the districts

and geographic units
Module II Annex '2 : The idea of accessibility 118
ANNEX 2
THE IDEA OF ACCESSIBILITY
(Extract from G. Carrón and Ta Ngoc Châu : Reduction of regional dis-

parities : the role of educational planning, H E P , pp. 57-59)
There is very little difficulty in interpreting the objective

of opening schools in such a way that all children enjoy equal op-
portunity of access to them. Indeed it seems to be a basic element
of all policies to reduce disparities. Generally, though, accessibi-
lity is defined solely in terms of physical accessibility.
To measure this we would have to take into account distance,
relief, communications, and the time taken to travel between school
and home, bearing in mind available means of transport. The problem
therefore consists in determining the catchment areas of existing
schools in order to identify, on the one hand, the population that
lies outside these catchment areas and is therefore deprived of any
education service for reasons of physical accessibility, and, on the
other hand, to estimate, inside the catchment areas (i.e. in the areas
reached by the school system) the proportion of school-age children
actually managing to find places in the schools.
As, moreover, the education system is arranged in the form of
This is one of the problems of the school map. See J. Hallak,

Planning the location of schools : an instrument of educational
policy, Paris, Unesco : H E P , 1977, Chapter ^11.
Module II Annex 2 ; The idea of accessibility 119
succeeding cycles , the transition from one cycle to the next often
involves a change of school. The problem of accessibility therefore
needs to be considered for each cycle. It is scarcely conceivable
that the full range of cycles could be offered in every locality.
The equalization of accessibility therefore involves laying on for
pupils all the different services needed to reduce either the time
spent in transport (school buses), or the frequency of journeys (school
meals, boarding accommodation). These may be vital indicators which
are relatively easy to obtain, but they are not always available.
But we can go further and consider the concept of economic ac-
3
cessibility also . This concept is rooted in the idea that the barriers
separating the clientèles of a service such as the school are not
only physical but also financial. Essentially, then, this concept
is bound up with inequalities of a socio-economic character far more
than with disparities of the regional type. It would therefore be
particularly useful to study this last kind of disparity in infra-
regional analyses. But measuring economic accessibility raises prob-
lems, for it requires precise information concerning the cost of
schooling as such (school fees), other costs to the family (school
There may be several cycles within any one level of education.

Moreover, there may be a considerable difference between the
official structure and the real structure. For instance, primary
education may be composed of one 6-year cycle, whereas in practise
it is divided into two cycles because of the existence of incom-
plete schools of only four grades in the rural areas.
OECD, Measuring social well-being3 Paris, OECD, 1976, p.21.
Module II Annex 2 : The idea of accessibility 120
supplies, transport, school meals, boarding accommodation) and, above

all, the opportunity cost of staying on in school.
However, the concept of opportunity cost calls for some discussion.
All too often this cost is thought of as representing an equivalent
sacrifice to all families no matter what their circumstances. In
fact, though, this is a highly relative notion for several reasons.
To begin with, it is essentially analysed as income forgone, but this
income forgone is real only if the type of work offered to the child,
taking into account his level of education, is compatible with the
family's social status. If this work is unacceptable to the family,
then the income forgone is only a theoretical one.
Next, this income forgone represents additional or marginal income
for the family. The utility of this additional income therefore de-
pends on the family's existing income level. For well-to-do families,
for instance, this utility is low. For less well-off ones, on the
other hand, the utility may be considerably greater.
Lastly, this income forgone is perceived differently according
to one's likelihood of finding work. If this is low, then the income
forgone is only a potential one. In the countryside, the child's
labour may constitute a real contribution to increased output or,
at the very least, may help lighten the effort or the burden of work
falling on the parents. Clearly, lost production produces different
effects from those produced by a more or less probable loss of income.
For these three reasons, the opportunity cost is a far more de-
cisive factor in deciding whether or not studies should be pursued
for less well-off families than for the better-off ones. An indicator
of opportunity cost ought to be able to take this factor into account.
Module II Annex 2 : The idea of accessibility 121
The concept of socio-cultural accessibility is even more difficult

to measure. When it comes to results, it has been observed in several
countries that certain groups eliminate themselves. Parents fail
to send their children to school, or else take them out of school,
for reasons totallyunrelated to questions of physical or economic
accessibility. This has often been interpreted as the outcome of
some cultural inhibition on the part of these parents. But even the
fact of using a term such as cultural inhibition implies a value judg-
ment. Does it not assume a priori that "school culture" is the right
one, that there is no reason to question it ? But does the school,
as it functions in many countries, possess the cultural universality
to which it lays claim ? Certain sociologists (Bourdieu and Passeron,
Bernstein, etc.) have sought to demonstrate that, on the contrary,
the values inculcated by the school system and the code employed there
are the prerogative of the dominant groups in society. Can we, more-
over, speak of inhibition when, for example, cultural and/or linguistic
minorities reject the school because it imposes the culture of the
majority ? In such circumstances, surely the aim of making school
accessible to all implies also transforming the content and methods
of teaching as well as measures directly concerning the family ?
Measuring the cultural distance (which may range from identification
to outright rejection) between the school and its clienteles will
therefore always be a relative affair, since it is always a specific
type of school that one measures. Obviously, moreover, it raises
much more complicated problems regarding the instruments of measurement
than when we are dealing with physical or even economic accessibility.
On top of this gap between family ethos and school-promoted values,

we should add that the way school is organized, its timetable, the
122
Module II Annex 2 : The idea of accessibility
way holidays are fixed, all are based on Che assumption that the child
is entirely available for school work and that, when he goes home,
he will be looked after by his family. Consequently, the school time-
table is planned solely on the basis of a certain conception of the
child's learning pace, and of the convenience for the teaching staff
and the school. It does not take into account the specific needs
of the family, especially in rural areas, where work is seasonal and
where children are needed to give a hand in the fields at certain
times in the year.
Module II Annex 3 : Answers to exercises 123
ANNEX 3
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
Exercise 1
Description, based on an index, of the development of a given
situation :
The data were :
Enrolment 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983
Zone A 1812 1961 2086 2299 2467 2754

Zone В 5839 6119 6603 6986 7348 7532
If for the base year 1978, the index is 100, its value for zone
A will be :
X 10 = 108
in 1979 : TITT 0 -2
in 1980 : -^рЦ x 100 = 115.1

io 12
etc.
Similarly, for zone B, the value of the index will be
in 1979 : ~^~ x 100 = 104.8
Do J У
in 1980 : H ^ l x 100 = 113.1

JJ7
Expressed by the index, the development of the two zones may

be described as follows :
1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983
Zone A 100 108.2 115.1 126.9 136.1 152.0

Zone В 100 104.8 113.1 119.6 125.8 129.0
It may be noted also that growth in Zone A has been more rapid
than in Zone B, although absolute growth in Zone A from 1978 to 1983
(2754-1812=942) was lower than that in Zone В (7532-5839=1693).
Exercise 2 (Enrolment rate)

1. Gross enrolment rate in primary education :
total enrolment 3534
x 100
7-12 age-group 570 + 552 + 531 + 512 + 489 + 470
= 3534 x 100 = 113.1%

3124
The rate in excess of 100% obtained is due partly to children

entering school before che age of 7 but mainly to those who stayed
on in school after the age of 12 as a result of late entry or - es
pecially - of repetition.
2. Net enrolment rate :

Enrolment (age 7 to 12) 488+503+501+467+432+409
S s Y 11)11
7-12 age-group 570+552+531+512+489+470
=
| ^ x 100 = 89.6%
3124
The percentage here is under 100% because the figure is for the
children aged 7-12 who are in fact in school.
Specific-age enrolment rate :
Age Total Enrolment in primary Specific-age enrol-

population education ment rate (%)
5 614 29 4.7
6 590 178 30.2
7 570 488 85.6
8 552 498 90.5
9 531 506 95.3
10 512 467 91.2
11 489 432 88.3
12 470 409 87.0
13 448 243 54.2
14 425 183 43.1
15 403 82 20.3
16 378 19 5.0
You can see that, although the official entry age is fixed at
7 years, a certain number of children are admitted at the age of 6
and even of 5.
The specific-age enrolment rate gradually rises until the age
of 9 because late entrants more than compensate for any drop-out.
After this age the enrolment rate goes down because of drop-out and
of those leaving after finishing primary education.
Exercise 3 (Transition rate)

The following are the data
year t year t+1
Total enrolment in final year of
primary education 492 524
Repeaters in final year of
primary education 89 95
Total enrolment in 1st year
of secondary 274 318
Repeaters in 1st year of secondary 58 65
Module II Annexe : Answers to exercises 126
By definition the transition rate to secondary education is the

percentage of pupils in the final year of primary education in a year
t who enter secondary education the following year - i.e. the year
t+1.
Total enrolment in the final year of primary in the year t is
492.
The number of new entrants in the 1st year of secondary in the
year t+1 equals total enrolment minus repeaters. Hence the number
of new entrants is :
318 - 65 = 253
and the transition rate is :
253
* 10° = 51.47-
492
Exercise ^ - Promotion repetition and drop-out rates in primary

education for urban zone A
!
Grade T II III TV V VI Total
1975 Enrolment 438 392 338 342 271 364 2145

Drop-outs - - - - - - -
1976 Promoted - - - - - - -
Repeaters 122 87 74 59 53 125 520
Enrolment 451 372 3^0 319 290 388 2160
Promotion, repetition and drop-out rates for urban zone A.are

shown in the table on page 51.
Example of calculation :
Promotion rate I-II x 100 = 65.1%

'i-II 438
122
Repetition rate I x 100 = 27.8%
438
31
Drop-out rate I-II x 100 = 7.1%
•38
l 1 !
I-II J II-III III-IV IV-V V-VI ¡ VI
Í
i
Promotion rate ! 65.1 | 67.9 76.9 69.3 97.0 !
Repetition rate : 27.8 i 22.2 21.9 17.2 19.6 34.3
Drop-out rate
i 7.1 9.9 1.2 13.5 -16.6
I
I
i
1
exercise с :
Canton of Ibarra, Ecuador : Distribution of primary teachers
bv years of service and bv area
Distribution by years of service
Number of teachers 0 1 2 3 4 -l-
Urban area 351 3 52 56 58 188

100% % 0.9 14.9 16.0 14.8 53.5 i
i
Rural area 249 23 75 57 33 61 1

100% % 9.2 30.1 22.9 13.1 24.5
Total for 600 26 127 113 85 249
pilot region 100% % 4.3 21.2 18.8 14.2 41.5
While in urban areas most teachers have four years or more of

service, in rural areas 39.3% of teachers have only one year or less
of experience and 63.27o have less than 3 years. From one point of
view this reflects the youth of the teaching force but from another
it reflects a high teacher turnover rate in rural areas. It is the
young teachers coming out of training colleges who are the first to
be assigned to rural areas. When they have gained some years of ex-
perience they can ask to be transferred to urban areas.
There is thus a paradox : it is to the rural areas, where teaching
conditions are the most difficult and where several grades have often
to be taught in one class, that the least experienced teachers are
sent, and these have no real desire either to become part of the local
communities.
Module II Annex 3 : Answers to exercises
Exercise 7
valent)
teacher
Pupil i
ratio
(full-
equi-
; time
m
0.3
8.0
7.9
2.9
5.6
o.
гм Г"! CN CN PO CN
и
Average Pupll-
audience 1 teache
rat io
o
0.2
2.3
3.9
3.3
pv.
о CN CN CN CN
о CN —'
о
и
31.1
28.7
34.7
29.8
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Module II Annex 3 : Answers to exercises
Three schools have a pupil/class ratio close to the national average

(schools 2, 3 and 5 ) . For schools 2 and 5 the average audience is about
equal to the pupil/class ratio, which indicates that there has been
no combining or splitting of streams - or that these each compensate
for the other. For these two schools, the pupil/teacher ratio is higher
than that of the region (21.0) but lower by 10 than the pupil/class
ratio. However, the pupil/teacher (full-time equivalent) ratio in these
two schools (32.9 and 30:1) indicates satisfactory use of teachers,
with only slight under-utilization.
By contrast, for the two smallest schools (1 and 4) it may be noted
that the pupil/class, average audience, pupil/teacher and pupil/teacher
(full-time equivalent) ratios are below the average for the 5 schools:
the numbers of pupils per class are not enough and the teachers are
under-employed.
Exercise 8 : Area available per pupil (in sq.m.) and time utilization
rate in four secondary schools : Canton of Ibarra, Ecuador
195:
•ea available per pupil

I sq.m . )
Class Educatio nal Total Labora orkshops a n o i
rooms sp ас е '- 1 ! space : Г 0 OIE S tories orkroess
i i
i
A 2.16 3.7^ 115.05 2 2.5% 1 51. 1%
i 1 i
• E 1.22 1.31 i . 4Ü ! 81.6? ~5 . 0%
I , 17 2.14 Ч . 56 63.3? I 64.2' IL
1.56 2.60 1 Q 67.5? • -j . U
. -i- / Classrooms + laboratories + workshops and workrooms

Since school A works more than one shift it is natural to find

a utilization rate in excess of 100%, the rooms being occupied for an
average of 40 periods a week.
For school D, the areas available per pupil (in dq.m.) are large
in rooms of all types since enrolment is low (104 pupils). One can
see that likewise the utilization rates are low, confirming under-
utilization by the school of time and space.
Two schools have no laboratories. It must be recognized that these
are very little used even in the schools which have them (especially
in school A ) . There is a problem here.
The workshops are under-utilized in all the schools. These can
take in more pupils than they now do. This would assume construction
of some additional general education classrooms in schools A and B,
plus a laboratory in В and in D.
TRAINING MATERIALS IN EDUCATIONAL PLANNING,
ADMINISTRATION AND FACILITIES
MODULE III
ESTIMATING DEMAND :
DEMOGRAPHY AND ENROLMENT PROJECTIONS
Section 1 : Demographic analysis and school mapping

Section 2 : Enrolment projections
This module was prepared by Guy Porte, Consultant
Policy and Planning
International Institute of
U N E S C O


local level
Module III : Estimating demand ; demography and enrol-

ment projections
Module IV ; Preparation of the prospective school map

of school mapping
Module III : Contents
MODULE III : ESTIMATING DEMAND : DEMOGRAPHY AND ENROLMENT PROJECTIONS
CONTENTS : SynopsiB and objectives 1
Section 1 : Demographic analysis and

school mapping 3
Section 2 : Enrolment projections 25
Annex 1 : Answers to exercises 41
Annex 2 : Dividing five-year age groups

into single-year groups : the
Sprague multipliers 47
Module III : Synopsis and objectives 1
MODULE III
ESTIMATING DEMAND ;
DEMOGRAPHY AND ENROLMENT PROJECTIONS
In planning the future of any educational system, the first problem

to arise is that of estimating its potential users. The first years of
schooling especially are organized in direct relation to the size of the
population concerned. Hence school mapping and micro-planning require
the collection and processing of local demographic data. These help to
determine the present coverage of the educational system (see Module II
Section 2) and serve also to enable estimates to be made of future users.
It is on the basis of population projections that those of enrolments are
made.
In this module we thus enter the forward-looking phase of school
mapping, with the object of showing the planning the minimum of information
needed for population estimates and enrolment projections to be made at
the regional level.
Section 1 is given to local demographic analysis. It deals with data
collection and shows what indications can be drawn from simple demographic
analysis at the local level. Methods of projecting the school age popula-
tion by zone are then given.
Section 2 gives methods of projecting enrolments - first the applica-
tion of the national plan's objectives to the regional level, then entry
projections and lastly projections of enrolments by grade.
Objectives :
After reading this module you should be able to ;
1. Assemble the demographic data needed for school-mapping in one of
your country's regions.
2. Use these data to diagnose the different demographic situations in
the various zones of the region.
3. Project, by a simplified method, the demographic data needed for
school-mapping in the region.
4. Project, on the basis of the objectives set for the region, the en-
rolments for the latter's various zones.
Module III : Synopsis and objectives 2
Several exercises will be set during the course of this module, the
answer to each being given immediately after the exercise. If this answer
is the one you have given, you can continue reading. If you have not got
the right answer after repeated attempts, you will find detailed answers
to the exercises put together as an annex at the end of the module.
We hope that study of these detailed answers will suffice to make
the ideas put forward completely clear.
Have beside you a good stock of paper, your pencil and rubber, your
calculator and - determination.
Module III Section 1 ; Demographic analysis and school mapping 3
SECTION 1
DEMOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS AND SCHOOL MAPPING
Estimating the school-age population is one of the most difficult

stages in school mapping or micro-planning.
You are one of those - we hope - who have available the results of
a 1980 census. It is possible, however, that these results are not yet
available by age and region. You will therefore have to use the 1970 data.
It is possible also that in your country the census took place during the
period 1973 to 1978 and that you cannot get more recent data.
All the same you have to get some estimate of the present school age
population so as to check the education system's level of development.
You will also have to make longer-term projections. Population pro-
jections needed for school mapping are usually medium-term ones - for five
year, or ten at most.
Demographers have devised advanced techniques which enable :
i) projections to be made on the numbers of births on the basis of data
on the level of fertility ;
ii) estimates to be made of those surviving, among both the present gene-
rations and those yet to be born.
Example : Children aged 6 in 1983 were 3 years old in 1980. Hence
estimating the school-age group of 6 to 12 years in 1983
amounts to estimating the number of children, aged from
3 to 9 years in 1980, who have survived until 1983.
To estimate the population aged 6 to 12 years in 1990,
estimates and projections must be made of the numbers of
children born between 1978 and 1984.
These calculations need fairly detailed data on mortality and ferti-
lity to be available. Such data are not always available at national level,
still less at the regional or local levels. At these the task is made
still more difficult by migration. Some regions get people coming from
other regions, and so have a positive migration balance. Others lose people
and have a negative migration balance. Data on such movements are, unfor-
tunately, hard to obtain at regional level and their age distribution is
still more difficult to get.
For these reasons, and since our aim is not to make a demographer
of every local-level planner or administrator, the methodology presented
to you in the following pages is a simplified one. It represents the mini

mum that a person responsible for school-mapping needs to know in order
to estimate the school-age population in each territorial unit in his ad
ministrative area.
I. Recapitulation of analysis terminology and geographic level

To undertake your work in school mapping and micro-planning, you have
chosen a region or a sub-region in your country. In the pages which follow
we will refer to this geographic entity as the "region or district".
When you carry out your diagnosis of the educational system in this
area you will need to select geographic units of analysis in it. For
primary education, these units will be the smallest territorial ones for
which you have demographic data, short of the census enumeration area.
In this series we will in future call this unit a "basic territorial unit"
or "local council area".
What is this unit called in your country ?
Г \ Ц Vv ti Г • о о в » в о в е в о е в 9 0 « а о о о о о о е в о в о о в
This is the term which you should substitute for "local

council area" where this term is later used here.
If the number of these basic territorial units is really very high

in your region, you will find it advantageous to select an intermediate
administrative unit, if homogeneous enough. Otherwise we suggest that
you should instead determine homogeneous zones (see Module II Section 1).
We will use either the terms "local council area" or "zone" to denote the
geographic units of analysis.
II. What data are to be sought and where can they be found ?
1. Total population in each local council at two different times
The most useful source is, of course, published results of recent
official censuses.
Do the published results of the two of your country's censuses selected
give the total population for each of your local council areas ?
If so, perfect. But be careful : some censuses cover the resident
population, others the population present on the census day, and there
may be differences. Make sure that you in fact have two comparable sets
of data for your local council areas.
If data by local council area are not published, they may perhaps
be in the census office, unpublished but filed, and the office might make
them available.
You can also apply to the regional and local authorities, who may
often have gathered such items "en passant" while the census was being
organized. The documents and questionnaires produced by the census agents
themselves are usually filed - where, you will have to find out. In them
you may find the information you are looking for, as well as a lot of other
things.
Without being official censuses, surveys are often made at the local
level by various services - agricultural, fiscal, health, for example -
and on various occasions, such as elections, armed services recruitment,
etc. Local authorities have such information for their own use but you
should be wary of taking it at its face value.
Your imagination and your knowledge of the structure and customs of
your country will undoubtedly lead you to an acceptable solution to your
problem. Let us therefore take it that you have the populations of your
local council areas at two different times.
2. Age-structure of the population

The population's age-structure is an indispensable element for
further planning. You need the distribution of your population, if not
by age (for which data are rarely available), at least by five-year age
groups.
If this is not available at the local council level (which it probably
will not be), look for regional data, trying again the possible sources
mentioned above. As a last resort, you will have to be content with national
age-structure.
3. Concentrated and scattered populations

Information on this may be found, in various forms, either in
the census or from local authorities.
Module III Section 1 : Demographic analysis and school mapping 6_
In some cases you will find the population of each "local council
area" simply divided between the two categories (with the local definition
of these two categories).
In other - rare - cases you will find the population divided by size
of village inhabited.
You will therefore have to define a level below which you consider
it is no longer possible to speak of a concentrated population area. Where
this division comes matters little, provided that it is the same for all
the local council areas you are studying, so as to enable objective com-
parisons to be made.
4. Population distribution by sex

Population distribution by sex is useful to know if you wish
to study and project school enrolment by sex, when one or the other (usual-
ly girls) sets a special problem.
If you do not have local or regional data on this matter you will
not be far wrong even if you divide the child population equally between
the sexes.
5. Other data
If the foregoing information has been collected, you will seek
to gather data on :
a) births by "local council area" and their evolution over several
years ; these figures you will get from the local authorities
and the appropriate central government offices (perhaps grouped
by region from your central statistical office) ;
b) migration : emigration and immigration ; these data you will
get either from the census or from the local authorities.
III. Data adjustment

Before being used, data sometimes need adjustment. Two cases in
particular merit attention Î
1st case : The boundaries of the educational administrative areas differ

from those for which demographic data are available.
/
/
educational administrative
area boundary
local council area boundary
Population of the educational administrative area =

populations of local council areas - population of
A + population of B.
The problem lies in computing populations A and B. A special on-

the-spot study should be made with the local authorities, along with con
sultation of such documents as the census agents' notebooks. One may also
reckon up the households in A and В and so get figures, if areas A and
В are not very extensive. One may also, failing more exact information,
estimate the populations of A and В in proportion to the ratios of their
areas to those of the 'local council areas" to which they belong (the areas
may be estimated from the maps).
2nd case : The local council areas' administrative boundaries have changed
between censuses.
This often happens and is not always easy to find out. New "local
council areas" may have been created between the two censuses but the names
of the old ones have been kept and one may not know exactly what area the
new ones cover. In this case you will have to apply to the census office
and get the maps used in the two censuses. If all else fails, you can
distribute the populations proportionately to the areas.
Module III Section 1 : Demographic analysis and school mapping 8
t
Exercise 1
Al Bl A2 B2
1st census 2nd census
P , = 5500 inhabitants P = 5400 inhabitants

Al A2
P = 3850 inhabitants P = 3900 inhabitants
Bl
P = 1880 inhabitants
С
С has been created by taking approximately 1/4 of the area
of Al and 1/8 of that of Bl.
What were the populations of A2, B2 and С at the 1st census?
Answer : A2 = 4125
See calculations in Annex 1
B2 = 3369
if necessary
С = 1856
One thus has the populations of A2n B2 and С at the two census dates.
If the censuses are more detailed and give within local council areas
the populations of the villages/concentrated population areas or of the
census enumeration areas, more exact calculations can be made.
Exercise 2
?
The same data are used as for exercise 1 but with the
following additional figures :
1st census :
"Local council area" Al - concentrated population area a 325
b 410
с 210
scattered population 4,555
TOTAL 5,500
Module III Section 1 ; Demographic analysis and school mapping
"Local council area"Bl - concentrated population area d 620

" e 415
TOTAL 3,850
2nd census :
"Local council area"A2 - concentrated population area a 380
" b 505
TOTAL 5,400
'Local council area"B2 - concentrated population area d 750
TOTAL 3,900
"Local council area" С - concentrated population area с 300
" e 430
TOTAL 1,880
Compute the populations of A2, B2 and С at the time of the

first census by re-distribution the figures for the scattered
and concentrated population areas.
Answer : A2 = 4151
B2 = 3083 (See working in Annex 1)
С = 2126
We think these will suffice. You now have (or are able to get) :
a) the total population, at two different times, of each of the
geographic units of analysis (local council areas and zones);
b) data on the age structure of your population at the regional
level ; such data may be by single years of age or five-year
age-groups ;
c) if possible, data on the proportion of the population in concen
trated population areas in each "local council area" or in the
region ;
d) also if possible, data on the population by sex for the region.

If this has all been understood we can now go on to using these data
for
a) assessing the local demographic situation with respect to educa
tional problems ;
b) projecting the data we need to continue with school mapping and
micro-planning.
IV. Diagnosis of the local demographic situation
Speaking quantitatively, is it easier to meet the educa

tional needs of :
a) a rapidly-growing or of a stable population ?
b) a concentrated or a scattered population ?
No doubt you have replied that it is easier to meet the

needs of a stable and concentrated population.
In which local council areas is population growth highest ? In which

is the population the most scattered ans so the most difficult to get into
school ? You should be in a position to give exact answers to these
questions.
1. Population evolution
Between a time о and a time n the population of a "local

council area" changes from Po to Pn. What are the factors
which come into play to determine this evolution ?
Factors which increase population :

a) births from о to n ;
b) immigration by people coming into the local council
area from о to n ;
c) deaths between о and n ;
d) emigration by people leaving the local council area

between о and n.
Evolution will then be positive if the first group of
elements is the greater, negative if it is the lesser.
This evolution may be studied in two ways : one by studying the ab
solute and relative growths, the other by studying the annual growth rates
a) Study of absolute and relative growths : the difference between
populations Pn and Po give the absolute growth. Thus :
(Pn - Po) = absolute growth, when :
Pn = population in year n,
Po = population in year o,
n = number of years elapsed.
Example : Local council area X had in 1966 a population of 2435 and

in 1975 one of 3024.
Absolute population growth was then 3024 -2435 = 589 inhabitants.
One may want to calculate the growth in relative terms. This
is done by expressing the absolute growth calculated above as the
growth per cent of the total population in the base year.
Po
In the example we have taken above :
?75
" ?66 = 196 x 100 = 2 4 Л 8 %
P 2435
66
The population of the local council area grew by 24.187o between 1966
and 1975.
One may also calculate what is called the Pn to Po growth co-
p
efficient. In the example above : 75 3024
P 2435 " b 2 4 1 8
66
Module II Section 1 : Demographic analysis and school mapping 12_
Exercise 3
t
Calculate the absolute and relative growths and the growth
coefficient for local council area Y between 1966 and 1975;
Population in 1966 : 1896
Population in 1975 : 2410
Absolute growth : 514

Relative growth : .-|èr x 10
° =
27.11%
107D
Growth coefficient : 1.2711
If these results are compared with those for local council

area X, one observes that the latter has a smaller relative
growth than local council area Y but a greater absolute
one. To cope with the increase in its population, local
council area X has needs for development efforts greater
than those of local council area Y, although this has a
higher growth rate.
You can calculate population growth between censuses in each of your

chosen local council areas and rank them. This will show the local council
area which will need provision of the greatest additional means if growth
continues according to the trends so far observed.
b) Calculation of annual growth rates :

For comparative purposes it is useful to calculate annual growth
rates. To do this the compound interest method needs to be used.
Let r be the annual population growth, and Po the base-year
population. Then :
P = Po(l + r)
2
P =P(l+r)=Po(l+r)
2 1
Expressed generally :
Pn = Po(l + г ) П
The foregoing calculations on the growth coefficient enable us to

calculate (1 + r) . What we are looking for now is the annual growth co-
efficient (1 + r) and the annual growth rate r.
/Pn
1 + r = nj
Po
If you have no compound interest tables, or a suitable calculator
you can do the calculation in the following way :
Log (1 + r) = _ log (Pn / Po)

n
1 + r = antilog of log (1 + r ) .
Exercise 4
Calculate for local council area X the annual growth rate
between 1966 and 1975 :
P = 3024
P = 2435
66
Answer : 1 + r = 1.0243
r = 0.0243 or 2.43%
The annual growth rate of the population of local council
area X has been 2.43% from 1966 to 1975.
You can calculate the same rate for all the regions, local council
areas or zones and easily rank them.
Applying the same calculation to the total population of the region,
you can obtain the annual growth rate for the population of the region.
You can then re-group the local council areas - or the zones - into three
groups, those in which :
a) the annual growth rate is close to the average rate for the re-
gion (between 0.8 and 1.2 times this rate, for example);
b) those in which the rate is below that of the first group ;
c) those in which the growth rate is above that of the first group
and in which the needs for educational provision are therefore

growing particularly fast.
We should note that if the population is stable,once universal primary
education is attained and adequate educational provision has been made,
simple management and upkeep of this will be enough so long as educational
standards are not changed or there is no large-scale migration.
2. Population dispersion
Study of a population's evolution gives us information on the extent
of the efforts to be made to satisfy quantitatively the additional demand
for education due to it.
Study of population dispersion is indispensable to get an idea of
the difficulties (and not merely the quantitative extent) of providing
educational services.
a) Population density :
For each local council area or zone, the simple population-
density indicator is given by the formula :
P d = density
d = т. -, .
-—T-. — : г Р = population
A (in sq.miles or km.; .
^ A = area
The area is sometimes given in the census. It may also be ob

tained from local authorities or from the topographical services.
As a last resort one can easily calculate it for oneself from
administrative maps on a known scale.
This indicator is simple, but is it enough ?
Imagine for a moment two administrative units of the same size
and population. Their density will be the same. But the popu
lation of one may be grouped in a large town while that of the
other is scattered among isolated farms. Do you think the diffi
culties in putting children in school will be the same in both?
Obviously not. This is why we should, if possible, get more
precise information.
b) Population in different-sized villages and degree of concentra
tion of population :
Suppose we have the following data :
Module III Section 1 ; Demographic analysis and school mapping 15_
....
Population living in
Local counci 1 area X Local council area Y
villages of :
1000 inhabitants and over 1 252

500 - 999 inhabitants 1 453 772
200 - 499 inhabitants 893 615
100 - 199 inhabitants 428 328
50 - 99 inhabitants 273 510
Less than 50 inhabitants 159 982
TOTAL 4 458 3 207
Area of the local council area 162 sq . km 131 sq. km.
Exercise 5
Calculate the population density of each local council
area.
Answer : d = 27.5 inhabitants per sq.km.
dY = 2 4 . 5 inhabitants per
г sq.km.
ч
These densities are very close to each other.
_. Exercise 6
Calculate the percentage of the population living in villages
of more than 200 inhabitants in each of the two local council
areas.
Answer : For X : 80.7%

For Y : 43.27o
While the population density of the two local council areas
is almost the same, it seems that it will be easier to pro-
Module III Section 1 : Demographic analysis and school mapping lb_
vide schooling for X's population since this local council

area has villages which could probably justify construction
of a school, or the grouping of a large number of school
pupils for arranging school transport.
Thus, in the pre-Sahara areas of Tunisia, Algeria or Morocco, popula-

tion density is very low - less than one inhabitant per square kilometre,
but the population is on the whole grouped in oases amid immense stretches
of desert, which have been included in the density calculations. The prob-
lems of providing schools for the people settled in these areas are much
less difficult than with much denser but scattered rural populations, as
in the Moroccan "Gharb" or north-west Tunisia, for example.
You are now in a position to classify your local council areas accord-
ing to their demographic characteristics :
a) Population evolution characteristics :
Absolute and relative growth ;
Annual growth rates.
b) Population dispersion characteristics :
Density ;
Concentration.
You can draw up a table of your local council areas or zones with
the indicators for each. You can ring with red the most unfavourable in-
dicators. You thus have before you the zones in which the demographic
conditions (over which you have in practice no control) will be the least
favourable for the action you plan. You will therefore have to be parti-
cularly on the watch for these zones. Here you have already a valuable
pointer to future action.
However, you still have work to do in the field of demography, not
how to analyse the situation but how to prepare the items for which you
will later have urgent need.
V. Projecting the school-age population

In dealing with projecting the school-age population, we will limit
ourselves to the problems of :
1. Estimating total population, now and for the years to come ;
2. Projecting population age-structure to estimate :
Module III Section 1 : Demographic analysis and school-mapping 17
a) the population reaching school entry-age ;

b) the school-age population.
1. Estimating total present and future population

The total population which we have used to analyse the demographic
situation has been that of the most recent census. This is not the present
population, so how are we to estimate this ?
Possible answers are :
Question the local authorities or those responsible for the sta
tistical services, though you will in this way get only a first
estimate ;
Project, for each local council area or zone, the population
at the last census, using annual growth rates previously cal
culated .
Example : let us take again the data in exercise 4 : local council

area X had in 1975 a population of 3024 inhabitants,
and the growth rate noted from 1966 to 1975 was 2.43% p.a. What
was its population in 1982 ?
With a population growing at 2.43% p.a. (r) the population for

a given year is obtained by multiplying the population in the
preceding year by 1.0243 (the annual growth coefficient : 1 + r ) .
Then :
P = P (1 + r)
n о
In our example :
n = 1982 - 1975 = 7
Hence, P 0 0 = 3024 x 1.02437 = 3577.
82
What do you think of this method ? In what conditions

is it reliable ?
This method is simple : that is its advantage.

Its main drawbacks are :
Module III Section 1 : Demographic analysis and school mapping 18^
a) It assumes that the trend observed from 1966 to 1975

has continued. This assumption is justified only if
there have been no major changes in fertility, mortali-
ty and migration rates.
b) It assumes that the gross rate calculated for the local
council area or the zone is itself reliable. If the
estimates for 1966 and 1975 of the populations of X
came directly from the census, their reliability is
satisfactory. But if one or both of them result from
adjustments, the growth rate itself is only approximate.
Use of an adjusted growth rate :

If the annual growth rate obtained for a local council area seems
abnormally high or low in relation to the regional average it may
be preferable to use an adjusted rate. This would be the mean bet-
ween the local council area's rate and the average rate of the
other rural local councils, if one is dealing with a rural local
council area, or of the other urban local council areas if one is
dealing with an urban one. Such correction would have the effect
of lessening what may be merely the effect of :
i) a simple change in local council area boundaries ;
ii) under-estimation in one of the censuses of the local council
area's population ;
iii) an abnormal occurence in the local council area between .1966
and 1975, which the foregoing method would continue in full
as a trend.
Project the population by the "quota" method :

The principle of this method is "The share of a local council area's
growth in the region's growth is a constant".
A numerical example will make this principle clear.
POPULATION POPULATION ANNUAL

DIFFERENCE
1966 1975 GROWTH RATE
Local Council area X 2 435 3 024 589 2.4370
Region 18 662 24 757 6 095 3.19%
From 1966 to 1975

The population of X increased by 589 inhabitants
The population of the region increased by 6 095
inhabitants
The share of X's growth in the regional growth was
589 X 100 = 9.66%
6095
At the regional rate R = 3.197°, the region's population
in 1982 will be :
P 82 = P 75 (l+R) 7
= 24 757 x 1.03197
= 30 843.
From 1975 to 1982, the regional population will have
increased by 30,843 - 24,757 = 6, 086 inhabitants.
In this regional growth, the share of local council
area X stays constant and amounts to 9.66%, as it did
from 1966 to 1975.
The growth of local council area X will therefore be:
6086 x 9.66 = 588
100
The 1982 population of local council area X thus cal-
culated will be :
3,024 + 588 = 3,612.
Which method should be chosen ?

Which method is chosen will depend on the degree of certainty of your
basic local council area data, on your knowledge of the region and on the
confidence which may be placed in any local estimates. Taking these fac
tors into account you can choose whichever methods seems to you the most
suitable.
To get a future year's population, you make the same sort of calcula
tion, using the same rate as before. Check, however, with the land develop
ment or regional administrative authorities that there are no development
projects specifically planned for the region. Obviously, if there are
going to be projects for irrigation, land re-grouping, new crop development,
etc., these could influence migration rates and so the total population
growth.
2. Projecting the population's age-structure

Projection of the population's age-structure poses two problems :
getting the structure for a given year (such as the census year) and pro
jecting the structure for any future year.
a) Analysis of the age-structure in the census year :
As we have said, it is unlikely that you will find data by local
council area ; it is more likely that you will have to be content with
regional data.
The items to look for are the г
population of primary school entry-age ; this is usually 6 or
7 years ;
population of school age, or which should be in school ; general
ly one takes a period of years equal to the duration of the
course concerned, starting with the age of admission.
For example, if the legal age of admission is 6 years and the primary
school course lasts 7 years, the primary school-age population will be
aged 6 to 12 years inclusive. If the length of the first cycle of second
ary education is then four years, the potential school population at this
level will be composed of young people aged 13 to 16.
The data required are rarely found directly available. Usually they
are divided into five-year age-groups : 0 - 4 years, 5 - 9 years, 10 - 14
years, etc. These have to be split into single years of age. The technique
used is that of the so-called "Sprague multipliers". In Annex 2 of this
module you will find the procedure - fairly complicated - for employing
these very useful multipliers. So far as possible, it is desirable to
use a suitable calculator programmed for these multipliers. Manual calcu
lations are in fact fairly long but will have to be used if you cannot
get the use of programmed calculators.
Starting with a population given in five-year age-groups, you will
arrive at a re-distribution of this population by single years of age.
The population aged 6 or 7 is readily obtainable. Its share of the
total population is easy to calculate, varying with the country - in most
developing countries it is some 2.57o to 3%.
The potential school population is also easy to compile once split
up by application of the Sprague multipliers. Its size of course varies
with the country and the length of the school attendance concerned.
As with the total population, the age-distribution thus obtained is
rarely one for the year for which one wants to use it. The problem then
is to bring the age-structure up to date.
b) Projection of population by age for a given future year
Base Year
Ъ
Global population
Year Y
a
*
Base b ?
Population by age - г^>
Year w
The diagram above shows clearly the two approaches possible, either:
i) distribute by age the global population we have calculated for
the year desired ; or
ii) follow the evolution of the age-group concerned from the census
year until year Y.
First approach :
This is simpler and the one you will no doubt more often apply.
Let us take a local council area A. The 1980 census, split up by use
of the Sprague multipliers, enables us to draw up the table below :
1980 : Total population 4,640

Population aged 6 128, i.e. 2.76% of the total
Population aged 6-12 755, i.e. 16.27% of the total
Annual growth rate r = 2.5%
Exercise 7
Calculate the populations aged 6 and aged 6 - 12 in 1985 by
projecting the total population and distributing it accord-
ing to the 1980 structure.
Answer : 145 and 854
This method has the advantages of being simple, quick and needing little
calculation, but it is not very exact. Further, it can be applied only in
countries in which fertility is relatively stable.
In countries in which one finds a rapid decline in fertility, involving
a decrease in the number of births over several years (e.g. Costa Rica,Jamaica,
etc.),, this simplified method cannot be used. Hence one must have re-
course to the second approach.
Second approach :
The second approach to the projection of age-groups is based on esti-
mates of births and calculation of the number of survivors.
This is the approach which we have presented briefly at the beginning
of this section. It assumes that you have reliable data, at the regional
level at least, on :
- the population by age for a recent year (for example the results of
the 1980 census) and/or on:
- the evolution of the number of births during recent years.
Let us suppose that you have the age distribution of the population
in 1980 : you will then need to make projections of the number of births
only if you have to estimate the school-age population for the years 1987
and after. Thus, if you need the school-age population in 1990, you will
have to project births for the years 1981, 1982, 1983 and 1984. In view
of the relatively short period for which the projections are needed, the
simplest course would be to start with the evolution of the numbers of
births recorded during recent years and extrapolate the trends.

The biggest problem is to calculate the survivors, starting either from
the distribution of population by age in a given year, or from the evolution
of births.
To calculate survival one needs to have data on mortality - and in par-
ticular life tables. In many developing countries where there are no com-
plete or reliable data on mortality, recourse must be had to model life
tables. On the basis of these, survival rates may be calculated. You are
advised to apply to your country's demographic services which will show you
the life table - or, better still, the survival rates - to use in your re-
gional projections. The survival rate t gives the proportion of persons
aged " a " who will live to age " b " . Furnished with this information, you
will be able to calculate the annual age structure for the region up to the
target year.
Example 1 :
Age on Population on Survival Rate Population on

1.7.1980 1.7.1980 1.7.1983
3
3 p80
3
fc
6 'Г
4
<° Ü
4
7 A3
5 5 3
P80
5
t
8 'S
6
6 P80 3
^
6
7
7
P80
7 *\l
8
P83
8
'2° ii
p 3
8
9 r°° <г 12
Module III Section 1 ; Demographic analysis and school planning 24
Example 2
Birth date Number Survival Rate Population on

1.7.1990
1.7.1983 to N84 tn P90

'6 6
30.6.1984
3
when : t. = survival rate from 3 to 6 years ;
t. = survival rate from birth to 6 years

6
83
P = population aged 6 in 1983 ;
6
90
P = population aged 6 in 1990.
It is easy next to apply the distribution by age, as a percentage of

the total population obtained for the region (i.e. the percentages of chil-
dren aged 6, 7, 8 and up to 12 years) to the total population of each of
the zones or local council areas and so obtain the population by age for
each of them.
You may have to correct the data to take account of migration. You
can apply a net rate of migration (positive or negative) if you have data.
If these are not perfect, remember that on so small a scale an error in the
estimates is not serious anyway : a few units more or less or a dozen pupils
more or less should not make much difference to your proposals.
It is a different matter in towns, where migration can be very large.
Under-estimation of migration could significantly affect school mapping
data. You are advised to work very closely in the towns with the town plan-
ning services, which are the best placed to make population projections.
All the same, do not be too worried about the precision of your data
and the certainty of your forecasts. On so small a scale, demographic laws
are only approximations. The number of births see-saws year to year and
economic or social measures may sharply modify migratory habits. What is
needed above all is to make up a framework, bring out the main trends and
promote the planning of educational structures with the maximum efficiency.
Module III Section 2 ; Enrolment projections 25
SECTION 2
ENROLMENT PROJECTIONS
Future enrolment depends on the growth of the school-age population,

the policy regarding expansion of the educational system and the social de-
mand for education. The last two factors affect both the proportion of
children who enter the system - the admission rate - and that of those who
remain in it - promotion and repetition rates.
Usually there are four stages in projecting enrolments :
a) determine what admission rates will be for the period concerned;
b) calculate new admissions ;
c) estimate the probable promotion, repetition and drop-out rates,
as well as the different transition rates from one level to
another ;
d) calculate enrolments by year of study.
The choice of assumptions on the development of the different para-
meters - admission, promotion, repetition, transition and drop-out rates -
is crucial, and will depend both on educational policy aims and on past trends.
I. Choice of assumptions
1. Projection of past trends
The working procedure chosen here is extrapolation of past trends
noted in prior analysis of the system.
The information thus obtained is not aimed at indicating the most like-
ly or the most desirable development. On the contrary, continuing past
trends may lead to results which those responsible will judge altogether
undesirable. The value of these projections is merely that they will show
any need to take steps to modify such trends.
The problem here is determining the trend. For this one must neces-
sarily have a series of fairly numerous observations. Study of this series
will lead to one of the following conclusions - that there is :
a) a continuous upward or downward trend ;
b) stagnation ;
c) no trend observable.
1st case - A trend emerges : if, by advanced mathematics, this trend can
be expressed as an equation, projection is easy, in accordance with the
function obtained. More generally, graphic representation of the observa-

tions enables the trend to be projected. If one of the observations made
seems completely out of line, and thus foreign to the series, it can be
omitted and the trend determined on the basis solely of the other values.
2nd case - No trend emerges : in this case there is usually a see-saw

movement. Only knowledge of the setting and experience of the region can
enable an assumption to be made. Prudence counsels that certain limits
should be observed and that a mean should be chosen between the extremes
observed. Observations should be as numerous as possible so as to reveal
any trend which might emerge. In any case, special attention should be paid
to the most recent values.
Let us suppose some examples of series of gross admission rates ob-
served during the last 6 years are :
1. 66% ; 69% ; 68% ; 71% ; 73% ; 74%.
The trend is definitely rising. A graph will give the rates to be
considered for future years, but these should be kept within reasonable
limits.
2. 57.6% ; 56.5% ; 57.9% ; 60.3% ; 56.6% ; 58.2%.
The trend is to stagnation despite some aberrations. This stagnation
will be retained by using, for example, either the average of the rates
observed :
57.6% + 56.5% + 57.9% + 60.3% + 56.6% + 58.2%
= 57.85%
6
or the mean of the extremes :

56.5% + 60.3%
= 58.4%.
2
3. 66% ; 82% ; 71% ; 69% ; 70% ; 72%.

In this case, the figure 8270 should be dropped. On the other figures
the trend is one of a slight rise, especially if the last three figures are
extended.
4. 68% ; 80% ; 72% ; 58% ; 81% ; 67%.
Here no trend emerges : it seems that low and high rates alternate.
The last figure is almost the same as the first. Projection of a static
figure, on the basis of an average or mean rate (see 2nd case above) seems
wisest.
Module III Section 2 : Enrolment projections 27
In what case would one proceed to make projections on the
4>
basis of past trends ?
1. Operationally, in the absence of any guidelines and any

L_
knowledge of changes in the means implemented to modify
trends.
2. For reference, to show the effects of implementing a new
policy. This involves comparison of the results observed
after implementing such policy with the results foreseen
on the basis of past trends.
2. Projections on the basis of objectives set

Projections on the basis of objectives are made in a quite dif-
ferent situation. With the first, one has a local situation, well-analysed
by a diagnostic process on the lines set out in module II, while with the
other, one has general objectives fixed at the national level.
The projections must reconcile these two. This requires adaptation
of overall objectives to each local situation, as well as their concertation
with those implied in the implementation of appropriate measures to attain
the objectives.
There is no general way of adapting a national plan to local conditions
For this a realistic approach, based on full knowledge of the particular
situation, should predominate.
Nevertheless, the system of "homothetic reduction" of differences may
be suggested. An example will show how this works better than any explana-
tion.
Example : The enrolment rate is 50% and the national aim for enrolment
in the target year is 60%. How is this aim to be adapted
to various local conditions ?
A ceiling of 100% will be considered fixed for all rates of
100% or more. The present difference between the national average
and the maximum is then 100 - 50 = 50.
For the target year the difference will be : 100 - 60 = 40. Thus
for the target year the difference will be 4/5 of the present one.
This same reduction - i.e. to 4/5 of the present figure - is
applied to all differences.

Thus, for example, one could on this basis draw up the following
table (in percentages) ;
Present Difference from Final difference Final rate

rate 1007o maximum (4/5 of present)
100 0 0 100
70 30 24 76
48 52 41.6 58.4
39 61 48.8 51.2
This simple method ensures a progressive reduction in differences

while respecting national directives. This is the stock model which
planners suggest, although there is no guarantee it will be realistic
in every case. According to specific local conditions, larger or
smaller adjustments could be made to this theoretical progressive
basis, after concertation with local authorities.
In the present example, the ceiling by reference to which diver-
gences are to be calculated is easy enough to fix, but it is not al-
ways so. Before applying this method one must first determine the
value to be attached to the first line of the table. Sometimes this
will be easy to decide, sometimes much less easy.
Exercise 8
A list is given below of indicators used for projections
and for later decision on the resources to be allocated,
for which the national plan gives present and target figures.
For which of these can you fix without difficulty the floor
or ceiling level which will serve as the reference figure?
Put this figure or your comments in the last column. You
will find some suggestions in the annex to this module.
Present Target Reference

INDICATOR average figure floor
figure or
ceiling
figure
1. Gross admission 68% 80%

rate
2. Net enrolment rate 55% 75%
at age 6
3. Percentage of
girls in primary 32% 40%
enrolment
4. Repetition rate
in 6th year 40% 20%
primary
5. Transition rate
from primary to
secondary educa- 30% 40%
tion (examination
pass rate)
6. Pass rate in the
secondary school
leaving certificate 65% 72%
3. Time span
The length of time for which future estimates are needed varies
with the use to be made of them. Three main purposes and projections for
them are :
a) if one intends merely to arrange for good conditions for the
start of the next school year and for this to find out how many
pupils and classes there will be at each level, projections for
one year ahead will be enough ;
b) if the forecasts are to serve for getting everything needed ready
so as to receive the enrolment foreseen - buildings, staff, furni-
ture, support services - the time needed for these to be got
ready must be taken into account. Projections should then nor-
mally be made for at least 2 or 3 years ahead;
c) if the school map forms part of national planning, then the work
involved will be closely linked with national plans, and these
are usually 4 or 5 year ones.
The longer the time-span the greater will be the uncertainty of the
forecasts.
Given your situation, do you think projections should

be made :
a) on past trends, or
b) for attaining defined objectives ?
You may be in a mixed situation. For example, you may have

to apply quantitative admission targets but have to foresee
the flow from grade to grade, or from primary to secondary
education, on the basis of past trends.
For how many years ahead do you consider it necessary to

make local projections in your region ?
II. Projections of new admissions

Two approaches are suggested for new admissions projections. The ad-
mission rate will need to be used for both. In the examples below, target
rates have been arbitrarily fixed. You have seen above how such rates should
be fixed, in accordance with the guidelines given, so we will regard this
matter as settled.
All projections in the examples are made for 3 years. It will be for
you to retain, lengthen or shorten this period in your actual work. This
does not pose any particular technical problem.
1. Projection based on admission rates by age

The following setting is assumed : the legal entry age is 6 ; the
number entering at this age is negligible but a large number of pupils enter
at the age of 7.
The diagnosis shows that the present admission rate is 527o at the age
of 6 and 25% at 7. Changes foreseen in these rates are shown in the work-
ing tables, as well as the 6 and 7-year old age groups in the coming years.
Let us first study the matter of admission of children aged 6.
Exercise 9
Complete the table : Local council area (Zone) X
Population Admission rate Number of children

aged 6 foreseen foreseen
Base year
t
(Actual 185 527c 96
data)
Year
t + 1 192 55%
t + 2 195 58%
t + 3 204 60%
Answer : Year t + 1 = 106 (55% of 192)

Year t + 2 = 113 (58% of 195)
Year t + 3 = 122 (60% of 204)
Let us now look at the question of children aged 7. It is assumed that
all children aged 6 who entered school in a given year will still be in school
the following year, or that if some have dropped out and re-enrolled, they will
be considered as repeaters and not as new entrants.
Exercise 10
On the foregoing bases, complete the following table :
Population Admission rate New entrants

aged 7 (%) aged 7
Base year
t
(actual 182 25 46
data)
Year
t + 1 185 25
t + 2 191 24
t + 3 194 24
Module III Section 2 ; Enrolment projections 3_2
New entries resulting : year t + 1 = 46

year t + 2 = 46
year t + 3 = 47
Total numbers of new entrants foreseen :
Aged 6 Aged 7 TOTAL
Year t + 1 106 46 152
Year t + 2 113 46 159
Year t + 3 122 47 169
What is your opinio>n of this method ?
It is undoubtedly the surest but in the diagnosis one needs

to have calculated the net admission rates at the ages of
6 and 7, which is not always possible.
Try to use this method whenever you can. The two working tables have
here been separated for training reasons, but you will find below a table
which combines them. You should adapt this to your own data. Familiarize
yourself with the technique by additional exercises.
You can insert as well other ages - 8 , 9 etc. The calculation will
be longer but what is wanted will be the same.
Make sure when aggregating the age-group entry rates that the total
does not exceed the whole of the generation which was 6 years old in the
base year, the total being :
the admission rate at 6 years of age in the year t
+ the admission rate at 7 years of age in the year t + 1
+ the admission rate at 8 years of age in the year t + 2
+ the admission rate at 9 years of age in the year t + 3, etc.
should never exceed 100%. If the admission rate at 6 years of age increases rapid-
ly, the admission rates at 7 and 8 years of age and more may stagnate and
even decrease.
Module III Section 2 Enrolment projections 33
Population Admission Admitted Population Admission Admitted Total

YEAR aged 6 rate aged 6 aged 7 rate aged 7 Entry
of 6-year of 7-year
olds olds
Base
year
actual
figures
t
t + 1
t + 2
t + 3
.
2. Projection of gross admission rates

Example ; Entry age 6 years : local council area X
Year Population Gross admission Entrants

aged 6 rate
Base year
(actual data) 185 76.7% 142
t
t + 1 192 79.37o
t + 2 195 80.87o
t + 3 204 82.37,
New entrants will be :

_ , 192 x 79.3
Year t + 11 = = 152
100
Year t + 2 = 195 x 80.8 = 158
100
204 x 82.3 .,Q

Year t + 3 = = 168
100
This method appears the simplest but its drawback is that it is diffi-
cult to grasp the evolution of the gross admission rate when late entry is
common. This rate may regularly rise to over 100%, after which it has to
fall to reach 100% again.
Let us assume a year in which the admission rate is 100% at 6 years
of age, 20% at 7, and 15% at 8. The gross admission rate - equal to the
total of entrants as a percentage of the 6-year age group - will then be
above 100%. The next year, however, there could be no entrants aged 7 since
all children of that age would have entered the year before, so the gross
admission rate would have to drop progressively to 100%. The difficulty
lies in setting the limit figure above 100%. (In some countries the rate
stays steady at a level above 100% for a fairly long time : this is probab-
ly due to the fact that some children re-enter the educational system after
having dropped out and are counted as new entrants.)
A large amount of preceding data should be gathered so that a graph
can be drawn. Comparison of this with the very hypothetical graph below
enables one to place the stage at which one finds oneself and so to direct
the future level of the gross rate. This, however, is still hazardous and
unprecise.
Gross rate
Time
This method will be used for two cases especially, in which the prob-
lem of projecting gross rates is easier to solve. These are those in which:
a) the gross rate is very much below 100%. One can then suggest
projections of this growth rate based on past trends, or planned,
without much risk of differing widely from what one would get
with more sophisticated techniques ;
b) when entry has reached its full : the rate is then stabilised
at a figure of near 100%.
For other cases, the preceding method has the advantage of dealing
with the problem of each age-group separately.
III. Enrolment projections for subsequent grades

1. Apparent promotion rates model
This model consists of forecasting enrolment in a grade, for a
given year, by simple extrapolation of enrolment in the grade below the year
before.
This process implies that one can beforehand, by some other method,
determine enrolment in the 1st grade, since there is no grade below this.
Enrolment in the 1st grade is composed of new entrants (we have just studied
two ways of estimating these) and of repeaters, whose number we shall then
have to decide. It is therefore imperative to have data on the numbers of
repeaters in the 1st year if we are to project enrolment in this.
Example : Local council area X
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6 th TOTAL
Enrolment 161 152 149 140 165 209 976

79/80
Enrolment 156 153 148 144 142 243 986

80/81
The apparent promotion rate is obtained by dividing the number

of pupils in one year by enrolment in the grade below the year before.
The apparent promotion rate Pa 1 - 2 from 1st to 2nd grade =
Enrolment in 2nd grade 80/81
Enrolment in 1st grade 79/80
In this example then :

Pa 1 - 2 = 153/161 = 0.950
Pa 2 - 3 = 148/152 = 0.974
Pa 3 - 4 = 144/149 = 0.966
Pa 4 - 5 = 142/140 = 1.014
Pa 5 - 6 = 243/165 = 1.473
By calculating such rates for several consecutive years one can ex-
tract a development trend for them which one can continue or modify accord-
ing to the course chosen.
The method of projection is then extremely simple : one applies to
the enrolments in a grade the rates adopted.
Example : If the same rates are kept, what will be the enrolments
for local council area X in 1981/82 ?
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th
80/81 156 153 148 144 142 243
Rate 0.950 0.974 0.966 1.014 1.473
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th
81/83 ? 148 149 143 146 209
It can be seen that enrolment in grade 1 cannot be determined

by this method.
Exercise 11
Project enrolments for the next 3 years in the table below.
Enrolments for the 1st year have been calculated elsewhere.
The apparent promotion rates are marked on the arrows.
(For answer see annex.)
BASE YEAR
+ 1
.98o\o,975 \0.880X1,300
+ 2
H nZrO '
\o.98o\o.C
+ 3
г—I\I—i\i
What are the advantages and drawbacks of this method ?

When can it be used ?
Its advantage is the simplicity of its calculations.

It can be used when :
a) there is a system of automatic promotion. The promo
tion rates are then real rates. Enrolment in 1st year
is equal to entry ;
b) repetition is low ;
c) a quick projection of enrolment is desired.
If repetition is high, the main drawback of this method lies
in the impossibility of controlling the evolution of the
promotion and repetition rates, these parameters not being
explicitly included in the projections.
Hence, this model is useful when one does not have data on repetition,
but it is better not to use it if such data exist. It has the advantage
of simplicity but it will be avoided if it is desired to improve the in
ternal efficiency of the school system.
2. Flow-rate model
The flow-rate model keeps much closer to reality. Enrolment in
a given grade and year is divided into those promoted from the grade below
and repeaters.
The projection table can be constructed on the lines of the model in

exercise 11. Each box corresponds to a level in a given future year. In
the box are shown :
a) at the top left the number of new entrants to the level concerned.
This number may be the number of pupils :
i) newly admitted to the 1st grade : these are calculated by
one of the methods given above ;
ii) coming from another level of education, according to a set
transition rate or objectives concerning guidance in diffe-
rent streams ;
iii) coming from the grade below and promoted according to the
rate stated on the arrow;
b) at the top right the number of repeaters. This number is obtained
by applying the repetition rate given on the arrow to the total
enrolment of the same grade the previous year ;
c) underneath, the total of new entrants plus repeaters.
New entrants Repeaters
Total
t Exercise 12
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
BASE YEAR t
t + 1
t + 2
t + 3
See the annex for answer.
At the end of the 5th year, with the help of transition rates to a
higher level of education, one can without any difficulty foresee the an-
nual number of entries into this level. This forecast will be carried in
the first column of a similar table constructed for this level of education.
In addition a third arrow could have been placed from each box showing
the number who drop out at each stage.
So far as possible, this method should be preferred to the preceding
one if the number of repeaters is large.
Calculations should be made separately for each zone or local council
area, applying the appropriate admission and promotion rates for each.
It will have been noted, while doing the exercises suggested, that
once the rates have been determined, the calculations are of the same nature.
Module III Section 2 ; Enrolment projections 40^
Use of mechanical means for these projections will make it possible

to :
a) save time ;
b) guarantee greater accuracy in calculation ;
c) make several simulations on the same base.
Module III Annex 1 : Answers to exercises 41
ANNEX I : ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
Exercise 1
С was formed by taking 1/4 of A and 1/8 of В
The population is taken to be proportional to the area, failing more

exact data.
The population of С was then at the first census :

1/4 of the population of A , that is : 5,500/4 = 1,375
1/8 of the population of Б , that is : 3,850/8 = 481
TOTAL = 1,856
The population of A at the first census was :
5,500 - 1,375 (C) = 4,125
The population of В :
3,850 - 481 (С) = 3,369
The total of A + В + С at the first census was then

2 2
4,125 + 3,369 + 1,856 = 9,350, which is exactly that in the census
for A, and В which then covered the same area.
1 1
Exercise 2 :
The initial population of the concentrated population areas should
be attributed to the local council area in which these areas appeared in
the second census.
The scattered population is then distributed as before, С taking 1/4
of A 's + 1/8 of В 's population.
Population of С at the first census :

Concentrated population area С 210
Concentrated population area e 415
+ 1/4 of the scattered population in A
i.e. 4,555/4 = 1,139

+ 1/8 of the scattered population in Б.
i.e. 2,815/8 352
TOTAL = 2,116
Population of A at the first census :

Concentrated population area a 325
Concentrated population area b 410
Scattered population : 4,555 - 1,139 (C) 3 416
TOTAL = 4 Д51
Population of В at the first census :

Concentrated population area d 620
Scattered population : 2,815 - 352 (C) 2,463
TOTAL = 3,083
So one has :
2,116 + 4,151 + 3,083 = 9,350 (the total initial population)
Exercise 4
n 75
1 + r -
\J 66
n
P-= =
75
1975 - 1966
3 024
= 9
2 435
66
3 024
1 + r = 1.242 = 1.0243
2 435
r = 0.0243 or 2.43%.
If a ninth root cannot be extracted with your machine, there are two
other possibilities :
a) Use logarithm tables :
log x
log \рг =
Hence, i) look up the logarithm of 1.242 in the tables,
ii) divide it by 9 ; you now have the logarithm of 1 + r ;
iii) look up in the tables the figure corresponding to this
= 1.0243.
b) Use compound interest tables ; these are to be found in the ap

pendices to arithmetic and commercial education books ; bankers
and money-lenders use them every day.
Example :
N. Г
2.0 2. 1 2.2 2,3 2,4 2,5 2,6
П >w
9 1Л951 1,2057 1,2163 1,2271 1,2379 1,2489 1,2599
10
11
The values given in the table are those of P2/P1 as a function of n

and r.
In the line n = 9, we see that the ratio 'P-.r-l'P which we have found
ID DD
equals 1.242, falls between 1.2379 (which corresponds to r = 2.4) and 1.2489
(corresponding to r = 2.5). By simple interpolation, we find that the
value corresponding to P /P = 1.242 is r = 2.43%.
75 66
Exercise 5
D F D=A
=i -*> ïtr= 27 - 5
For Y, D = - ^ p = 24.5
Exercise 6 :
For X, the population living in villages of 100 inhabitants or over
is 1,252 + 1,453 + 893 = 3,598.
Out of a total population of 4,458 inhabitants, this equals 80.7%.
For Y, the population living in villages of 100 inhabitants or over

is 722 + 615 = 1,387.
Out of a total population of 3,207 inhabitants, this equals 43.27o.
Exercise 7 :
Global population 85 = P o n (1 + r)
5
4,640 x 1.025 = 5,250
т.
Population r in
aged, 6 . 1985
-.««г = 5,250 x 2.76 = 145
100
Population aged 6 to 12 in 1985 = — °- = 854

100
Exercise 8 :
1. When dealing with a gross rate which may exceed 100%, it is diffi
cult to fix a limit. This problem will be considered later.
2. Net rate : maximum 100%

3. Maximum : 50%
4. One will need to know whether the rate of 20% is a final or an
intermediate objective. One could obviously take 0% as the bottom value
and reduce the divergences on this basis, but is it realistic ?
5. The same situation. Is the rate of 40% a final objective, to-
wards which one should reduce the regions now above this, or is the overall
transition to be increased ? In this case, however, a ceiling rate of
100% seems very unrealistic.
As the ceiling rate, one could take that of the area which has obtained
the best results - e.g. 6270.
Then : 62% > 62% Difference 32% fc 22%
30% £40% Reduction to : 11/16
6. 100%. Here it is a matter of passing an exam and not of transi-
tion. The rate observed is already high. One can only hope that all pupils
succeed in the secondary school leaving certificate.
Exercise 11 :
Results rounded.
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CN
ro CO
о о ce ст>
ro го m го CN
CN CN CN CN
о *3* n
CO
О m ro
CN
СЛ
ce СО *—i
1Л
CN *-t
LT,
LT) О О «3«
»-H
Pá
•• <; CN
CN w
>н
ГО
+ +
ы
<U ел
со <
•и ю
о
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CJ
X
И
Module III Annex 2 ; The Sprague Multipliers 47
ANNEX 2
DIVIDING FIVE-YEAR AGE GROUPS INTO SINGLE-YEAR GROUPS :

THE SPRAGUE MULTIPLIERS
taken from :
"Demographic Aspects of Educational Planning",
Ta Ngoc Chau : H E P , 1969
The Sprague method of interpolation is based in principle not only on

the number in the age group which is being considered, but also on the num-
bers in the two preceding and the two following age groups. Since this
method presupposes a knowledge of the numbers in the two preceding age groups
and in the two following age groups, it cannot be strictly applied to very
young age groups (0-4 and 5-9) or to very old age groups (70-74 and more
than 75 years). That is why the interpolation of the 0-4 age group is made
on the basis of the numbers in the three following age groups, and the inter-
polation of the 5-9 age group on the basis of the one preceding group and
the two following groups. The same procedure is adopted for the very old
age groups, the interpolation of the 70-74 age group being based on the num-
bers in the preceding groups and the one following group while the interpo-
lation of the more than 75-year age group is based on the numbers in the
three preceding groups.
Under the Sprague method, tables of coefficients are established in

order to facilitate the computations. In accordance with what was said
above, several tables are necessary : a first table for the 0-4 age group,
enabling the interpolation to be made from the numbers in the three follow-
ing groups : a second table for the 5-9 age group, for making the interpola-
tion on the basis of the numbers in the one preceding age group and the two
following age groups : and an intermediate table which can be used for the
successive age groups, since in each case the numbers in the two preceding
and the two following age groups are known. Two new tables of coefficients
would of course be necessary for the two groups corresponding to the oldest
ages.
An educational planner will especially need the first two tables and
the intermediate table. These are given below.
If F is the number in the age group under consideration, F F
and F the numbers in the three following age groups, and F and F the
Module III Annex 2 : The Sprague Multipliers 48
numbers in the two preceding age groups, and if, furthermore, F , F , F ,

a b c
F , and F represent respectively the first, second, third, fourth and
d e
fifth age years of the group, the table of Sprague multipliers can be pre-
sented in the following form :
Sprague multipliers
F_, F_, F, F-n F+, F+,
First table
F, +0.3616 -0.2768 +0.1488 -0.0336
Fb +0.2640 -0.0960 +0.0400 -0.0080
Fe +0.1840 +0.0400 —0.0320 +0.0080
F„ +0.1200 +0.1360 -0.0720 +0.0160
F, +0.0704 +0.1968 -0.0848 +0.0176
Second table
F. +0.0336 +0.2272 -0.0752 +0.0144
Fb +0.0080 +0.2320 -0.0480 +0.0080
Fe -0.0080 +0.2160 -0.0080 +0.0000
Fd -0.0160 +0.1840 +0.0400 -0.0080
F, -0.0176 +0.1408 +0.0912 -0.0144
Intermediate table
F. -0.0128 +0.084R +0.1504 -0.0240 +0.0016
Fb -0.0016 +0.0144 +0.2224 -0.0416 +0.0064
Fe +0.0064 -0.0336 +0.2544 -0.0336 +0.0064
Fd +0.0064 -0.0416 +0.2224 +0.0144 -0.0016
F, +0.0016 -0.0240 +0.1504 +0.0848 -0.0128
By way of illustration, the following is the procedure for estimating

the numbers of children of 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11 years when the numbers of
individuals in the 0-4, 5-9, 10-14, 15-19 and 20-24 year age groups are known,
The given figures are the following :
0-4 age group : 161300

5-9 age group : 139515
10-14 age group ; 71225
15-19 age group : 47300
20-24 age group % 38820
As has been noted above, to interpolate the 5-9 age group we will use
the second table of Sprague multipliers, while the intermediate table will
be used for the 10-14 age group (or any following age groups).
The number of 6-year olds, for example, corresponds to line F in the
b
second table above. Therefore :
Module III Annex 2 ; The Sprague Multipliers 49
Number of 6-year olds = 0.0080 F + 0.2320 F Q
- 0.0480 F + 0.0080 F + £
= (0.0080 x 161300) + (0.2320 x 139515)

- (0.0480 x 71225) + (0.0080 x 47300)
= 1290 + 32367 - 3419 + 378
= 30616
Estimate of numbers of children of 6, 7, 8 and 9 years of age
161 300 139515 71225 47ЭО0

multiplied by multiplied by multiplied by multiplied by
corresponding corresponding corropondine correspoodiag
Age coefficient coefficient coefficient coefficient Total
6 + 1 290 + 32 367 -3419 + 378 30 616

7 - 1 290 + 30 135 - 570 0 28 275
8 -2581 + 25 671 + 2 849 -378 25 561
9 - 2 839 + 19644 + 6 496 -681 22 620
Estimate of numbers of children of 10 and 11 years of ige
161300 139515 71225 47300 31820

muliplted by multiplied by multiplied by multiplied by multiplied by
corresponding correjpooding corresponding corresponding corresponding
Age coefficient coefficient coefficient coefficient coefficient Total
10 -2065 + 11831 + 10712 - 1 135 + 62 19 405

11 - 258 + 2009 + 15840 -1968 + 248 15871
MODULE IV
PREPARATION OF THE PROSPECTIVE SCHOOL MAP
Section 1 : Norms s standards and catchment areas

Section 2 : Planning the location of schools
This module was prepared by Françoise Caillods (HEP)

and Jocelyne Caselli, Consultant
Policy and Planning

UNESCO


local level
Module III : Estimating demand : demography and enrol-

ment projections

of school mapping
Module IV : Contents
MODULE IV : PREPARATION OF THE PROSPECTIVE SCHOOL MAP
CONTENTS : Introduction 1
Section 1 : Norms, standards and

catchment areas 3
Section 2 : Planning the location of

schools 21
Annex 1 : Answers to exercises 43
Table 1 (Section 1) : Standards regarding numbers of

pupils per class in primary and
secondary education in certain
countries 5
Table 2 (Section 1) : Nigeria : Facilities' use-factors

and pupil/teacher ratios in diffe-
rent sizes of secondary schools.. 13
Table 3 (Section 2) : Data on primary schools in the

Rural Council of Arashkol 31
Module IV : Introduction 1
MODULE IV
PREPARATION OF THE PROSPECTIVE SCHOOL MAP
INTRODUCTION
In this module we deal with the last stage of the process of preparing
the school map at the regional level. This comprises the working out of pro-
posals to extends rationalize or restructure the school network - or in more
general terms the educational services - so as to :
i) solve certain of the problems identified in the diagnosis (Module
ID ;
ii) satisfy the previously-estimated demand for education (Module III).
To prepare these proposals the official in charge of school-mapping needs
to fix criteria and lay down the rules of the game. He must, for example,
determine :
i) what will be the minimum size for a primary and for a secondary
school ;
ii) how far a child should reasonably walk to attend school.
Hence to begin with we will study two very useful concepts : standards and
catchment areas.
We will then study techniques for planning school location. There might be
several ways of organizing the educational services and their advantages, dis-
advantages and costs need to be compared.
After reading this module, you should be able to :

i) fix the minimum standard and maximum sizes of primary
and secondary schools ;
ii) plan rational locations for schools so that they can
take in the enrolments estimated (as described in the
preceding module) ;
iii) assess additional resources which need to be committed
to enrol the projected number of pupils.
This module concerns particularly those who are responsible for school-
mapping at the national, regional or local level. It will also be of value
Module IV : Introduction 2
for local teachers, educational officers and community representatives, whom

it will help to understand better the problems posed by rationalization of
the educational services and the criteria applied in effecting this.
Module IV Section 1 : Norms, standards and catchment areas 3
SECTION 1
NORMS, STANDARDS AND CATCHMENT AREAS
While studying Module II, you will have encountered the terms norms,
standards and catchment areas. In the section on the coverage of the edu-
cational system, the value was explained of knowing and analysing the geo-
graphic location of school-pupils' homes and of determining the schools'
catchment areas - i.e. the geographic areas they serve.
Module II dealt with norms and standards for the number of pupils per
class, for teachers' teaching load, for space per pupil, and for utilization
of premises. We have used such norms and standards as reference figures in
diagnosing educational conditions.
We are now going to study norms as principles to be observed during pre-
paration of the prospective school map and deciding on the means to be pro-
vided. First we are going to see why and how maximum, standard and minimum
sizes for schools should be fixed. Secondly we will deal with the idea of
catchment areas, theoretically and then from the point of view of regulations
closely linked with the idea of norms.
The exercise in this section will show the inter-reaction between stan-
dards of school sizes and catchment areas.
I. Norms and standards

Whatever the level of education, an educational institution could not
reasonably function with one teacher and one pupil : its running costs would
be prohibitive.
Conversely, an educational institution which is too big would not be ad-
ministratively manageable and would not provide the best educational conditions.
Hence arises the need to set norms for minimum and maximum sizes for
schools, reflecting the school-mapper's preoccupation : i.e. to keep costs
to a minimum and ensure a satisfactory utilization of resources (this sets
the minimum size) and to guarantee good educational conditions (this sets the
maximum size).
Such norms may often be only implicit : a school which gets too few
pupils is closed and schools which are thought to be too big are not proposed.
You should in the first place inform yourself on the norms and standards
in force in your country, both in respect of the size of primary and secondary
schools and on the distances to be travelled by pupils. The school-mapping
objective here will be to check whether such norms and standards are still
suitable or pertinent in the light of regional conditions and educational
policy aims. If there are no specific norms nor standards, the school map-
ping objective will be precisely to establish some.
It is useful also, when new schools have to be built or existing ones
rationalized - e.g. in enlarging or dividing them, or by changing their equip-
ment to suit subjects and teaching methods - to define standard sizes of
schools. This has been done in numerous countries. In France, for example,
at the beginning of the 1960s, as part of the preparation of the national
second level school map, introduced in 1963 for the first cycle (covering the
compulsory schooling period up to the age of 16) and in 1965 for the second
cycle ; standard school sizes for the firstcycle were fixed at 400, 600, 900
and 1200 pupils.
Standard sizes for schools result from a concern to ensure both a satis-
factory utilization of premises and teachers and the maintenance of good edu-
cational conditions.
Let us see for each educational level in turn how to determine minimum,
maximum and standard sizes for schools. First it will be useful to recall
the meaning of norms and standards for class size.
1. Class size
The first standard relates to the size of a class - defined as a group
of pupils who are taught the same subject together. It is generally acknow-
ledged that the greater the number of pupils in a class the worse are the
educational conditions. However, research results show that there is no
strict or linear correlation between the size of a class and the pupils'
achievement, even though there are probably thresholds which should not be
crossed. On the other hand, the greater the number of pupils in a class the
less the number of teachers needed and the less the cost. Norms and standards
for class size are therefore fixed with due account taken both of teaching
considerations and of the means available, such as numbers of teachers and
financial resources.
Standards usually fixed are ones for the normal number of pupils per
class, a maximum number above which a class should be split and a minimum
Module IV Section 1 ; Norms, standards and catchment areas 5
number below which the class should be abolished and the pupils absorbed into
other classes or schools.
Table 1
Standards regarding numbers of pupils per class
in primary and secondary education in certain countries
Primary education Secondary education
Jamaica (1983) 40 40
Costa Rica (1973) 35 35
Ecuador (1981) 25 min. 45 max.
Tanzania (1982) 40 40
Cameroon (1978) 50 40
Indonesia (1977) 40 40
What are the standards in your country for the normal,

minimum and maximum numbers of pupils per class ?
2. Minimum school size

The minimum number of pupils which a school should have to justify its
opening varies with the educational level. It should be borne in mind that
the aim of educational planning, for whatever level, is to secure the best
possible use of teachers, premises and equipment, while guaranteeing satisfac-
tory educational conditions.
a) Primary education
The minimum size for primary schools depends on various factors,
notably :
i) the standard number of pupils per class ;
ii) the number of grades or years of study ;
iii) the possibility of one teacher dealing at the same time with
pupils in different grades ;
iv) the number of shifts for which the premises may be used.
The minimum size for a primary school is a one-teacher school, the same
teacher dealing with all grades. Where this educational practice is accepted
the minimum size is equal to the standard number of pupils for one class.
This will be, for example, 30 pupils where the requirement is for at least
30 pupils per class.
However, this practice is not always accepted. Some educators deny that
one teacher can deal at the same time with several groups of pupils belonging
to different grades. The minimum size of a primary school then equals the
number of pupils per class multiplied by the number of grades or years of study.
To take again our example above, if the aim is to have 30 pupils per class
and there are six years of study the minimum school size is : 30 x 6 = 180
pupils.
In practice, to make it possible for children to attend school in sparsely-
populated regions and in isolated communities with poor outside links, this
minimum-size rule often has to be relaxed.
In many countries it is considered that one teacher can teach up to three
or four grades at the same time. If the primary cycle is one of six years,
a complete school can then be started with two or three teachers. In the Sudan,
for example, the Ministry of Education recommends the opening of complete
schools with 6 teachers - i.e. schools of 300 pupils (6x50) but where popula-
tion density is too low for this number to be assembled, schools with three
classes, with a capacity of 150 pupils (3 x 50), may be started.
The example of France is even more notable. A 1970 circular defined the
minimum size by saying "the closure of schools with less than 16 pupils should
be considered". In 1975 another circular brought the minimum size for one-
teacher schools down from 16 to 12 pupils within the framework of government
policy against the population decline in rural areas. In 1977 this minimum
size was reduced again, this time down to 9 for villages in the rural areas,
although the pupil:teacher ratio in primary education was 30:1.
Other courses which could make it possible to avoid starting or keeping
open primary schools with too few pupils - and hence expensive - are :
i) maintaining one-teacher schools with low enrolments, as we have
seen, but giving the teachers other responsibilities, such as adult
literacy, or domestic science or agricultural education ;
Module IV Section 1 ; Norms, standards and catchment areas 7_
ii) opening incomplete schools - where for example only the first three
grades would be taught - linked to a neighbouring central school;
iii) starting schools which bring together pupils from several villages/
settlements by means of school transport ;
iv) establishing boarding facilities for some primary schools.
The last two courses must be rejected in many countries for lack of
money, roads and transport. Boarding should be only exceptionally a solution,
where there are, for example, nomadic peoples.
b) Secondary education
The problem of determining the minimum size for a school is
encountered again in secondary education, but in even more complex form in
that the teachers are subject specialists and sometimes there are specialized
premises, such as laboratories and workshops. Hence ensuring full use of staff
and facilities may demand fairly large numbers of pupils and classes.
To this is added the fact that to be merely of the same size as a primary
school a secondary school must have a much more extensive catchment area :
all primary pupils do not go on to the secondary level. A large catchment
area means school transport or lodging facilities at the school, with the same
attendant problems as for primary education.
The minimum size of secondary schools thus depends upon ;
i) the length of the course and the size of classes, as in primary
education ;
ii) the degree of teacher-specialization - i.e. how many subjects each
of them can teach ;
iii) the curricula and the number of possible options ;
iv) possibilities of getting to the school.
When these last are limited and policy is to avoid boarding (in lower
secondary, at least), the minimum size of a secondary school may be fixed
fairly low. It is probable, however, that pupils in such schools will have
less equipment and fewer options than those in larger ones.
2. Maximum school size

You will encounter the problem of maximum school size in very densely
populated areas, especially large towns.
In determining the maximum size for a school, of whatever level, the
criteria used are both administrative and educational. There is general agree-
ment that it is difficult to ensure good administrative and financial manage-
ment of a very large school and that communication difficulties among manage-
ment, teachers and pupils may be detrimental to its atmosphere.
In primary education in France, it is laid down that the elementary
school should be of proportions that suit the child and this consideration
risks being lost sight of when a school takes in 360 pupils (12 classes).
In the first cycle of secondary education the maximum size fixed in 1963 was
1200 pupils. This size is now judged to be too big so first cycle secondary
schools are now being planned for 900 pupils at most. For the second cycle
the maximum size in theory is 2,400 pupils. In practice, attempts are being
made to split existing schools of this size into two separate educational
units, even if physically the two have to co-exist in the same premises.
You will therefore have to decide on maximum sizes, not to be exceeded,
for primary and secondary schools in the light of the priorities fixed and
of the characteristics of your country's educational system. It may not,
however, always be possible for you to keep to such limits in very urbanized
areas : the scarcity and high price of sites as well as needs for school
spaces may force you to exceed the norm so as to get as many pupils as pos-
sible into school.
3. Standard size
A standard size for a school is one which, while ensuring good educa-
tional conditions, enables full use to be made of teachers and premises. We
will speak of standard and not of optimum sizes since thorough research would
be needed before any size considered as optimum from an administrative and
educational point of view could be determined.
a) Primary education
In school mapping at the primary level, the main thing is to find
out how many classes should be allowed for in the different grades so as to
have satisfactory class sizes.
Example : In a country in which promotion from grade to grade is not automatic,

one needs to know how the pupils are distributed among the different grades,
given the promotion, repetition and drop-out rates. Suppose enrolment distri-
bution among the grades is :
Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4
40% 30% 20% 10%
If the standard number of pupils per class is 35, with a maximum of 40 and
a minimum of 30, let us find out what school size would be preferable :
The smallest number of classes for grade 4 would be 1 and to keep to
the norm, the number of pupils per class would be 35. Since these form 10%
of the school's total enrolment, enrolments would be :
Grade 1 : 35 x 4 = 140
Grade 2 : 35 x 3 = 105
Grade 3 : 35 x 2 = 70
Grade 4 : 35 x 1 = 35
Total enrolment = 350
Distribution by grade of pupils and of teachers and classes would be :
Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Gr,ade 4 Total
Pupils 140 105 70 35 350

Teachers
& classes 4 3 2 1 10
The number of pupils per class (350 / 10 = 35) conforms to the norm and
a primary school of 350 pupils and 10 classes may be considered a standard
sized school. Other standard sizes would be multiples of 350 pupils and 10
classes.
If promotion between grades were automatic, standard school sizes could
be :
i) a school with one class for each grade, i.e. 4 classes and 140
pupils :
Example : Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4
40 37 33 30
ii) a school with two classes per grade, i.e. 8 classes and 280 pupils;
and so on.
b) Secondary education
The problem of determining standard sizes is more complex in
secondary education owing to the existence of different streams, more diver-
sified school buildings and teachers who are subject specialists.
To reach a decision on standard sizes one needs to start from the curri-
cula for the various grades, taking due account of the options possible and
of the necessary splitting of classes into groups. These data will make it
possible to determine the number of periods to be given to each subject by
all classes in the school. By reckoning up the possibilities of teachers'
taking one, two or three different subjects, and the maximum length of teach-
ing hours, one can calculate the number of teachers needed for all the periods
to be taught.
In the same way one can calculate the number of rooms needed on the basis
of the number of periods to be taught, by subject, and of the maximum number
of periods a week for which the rooms are used.
Illustration
The simplified example below illustrates the type of calculation made.
Let us suppose that a first-cycle secondary school has a three-year course
and nine classes in all - 3 classes in each grade - 1st, 2nd and 3rd - and
the curriculum is as follows :
Subject Weekly number Type of room

of periods
per class
National language 7 General

English 5 General
Mathematics 5 General
Science (physics
and natural science) 7 Laboratory
History and
geography 4 General
Agriculture 5 Out of doors
Physical education 2 Out of doors
TOTAL 35
How many teachers will need to be foreseen if each can teach

a maximum of 25 periods a week ?
How many general classrooms and laboratories will be needed?
What will be their rate(s) of utilization assuming each room
can be used for 40 periods a week ?
Answer : The number of teachers to be foreseen must be cal-

culated subject by subject. We cannot in fact assume that
a teacher of one subject can teach several : usually a
teacher of English cannot teach mathematics. To calculate
the number of English teachers needed one proceeds thus :
Each class has five periods a week of English. There are 9
classes, so 9 x 5 = 45 periods of English have to be taught.
Hence one must foresee 45/25 teachers - which means in fact
two teachers of English.
The calculation is repeated for each subject.
Subject Number of weekly Number of

periods taught teachers
National language 7 X 9 classes = 63 3

English 5 X 9 classes = 45 2
Mathematics 5 X 9 classes = 45 2
Science 7 X 9 classes = 63 3
History and
geography 4 X 9 classes = 36 2
Agriculture 5 X 9 classes = 45 2
Physical
education 2 X 9 classes = 18 1
TOTAL 315 15
In all, 15 teachers will be needed, whereas if they could work

full-time - i.e. if enough teachers could teach two or more
subjects - 13 (315/25) teachers would suffice.
As for premises :
189 periods a week are given in general classrooms ;
63 periods a week are given in laboratories ;
63 periods a week are given in the open air.
Hence 5 general classrooms and 2 laboratories need to be fore
seen (189/40 and 63/40 respectively).
Utilization rates are computed this way (see Module II) :
189
General classrooms : x 100 = 94.57o
5 x 40
с. о
Laboratories x 100 = 78.77o
2 x 40
The next step is to determine the school sizes which would produce
satisfactory pupil:teacher ratios and rate of utilization of premises. Stan
dard sizes are fixed by successive approximations, varying the number of
classes per grade.
The table below gives the results of this calculation for the first cycle
of secondary education in Nigeria. This example shows clearly the smallest
schools (Type 1) are very costly owing to the low rate of utilization of teach
ers and laboratories. Standard sizes could be those of type 4 (400 pupils)
or type 6 (600 pupils) : these are the school sizes which enable the best use
to be made of premises and teachers. However, if the aim is to get pupils
into school in rural areas without providing boarding facilities, schools of
type 2 would be acceptable.
In France, standard school sizes for lower secondary education are 400,
600 and 900 pupils, for upper general secondary they are 400, 600 and 800,
for the upper technical secondary they are multiples of 108 and for the
upper technical secondary (short cycle) they are 324, 432, 540 and 648.
If any changes occur in curricula and teachers' working hours, standard
school sizes will need to be re-calculated and modified if necessary.
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II. Catchment areas

Let us recall the definition of "school catchment area" : this is the
geographic area served by a school.
The extent of catchment areas varies enormously with the educational
level. Usually you will find that with primary education the catchment area
is determined by the distance which children can walk between home and school,
i.e. a few kilometers. By contrast, an institution such as one giving highly
specialized training, e.g. an engineering or a national administration in-
stitute - may have a catchment area which covers the whole country.
The idea of a catchment area may be considered from the point of view
of description, theory or regulation.
Analysis of existing school catchment areas may show up imbalances and
suggest measures to be taken, e.g. :
i) If, for example, a large number of children go on foot for too long
a distance every day you should study the possibility of opening
new schools or of arranging transport,
ii) If a lot of pupils do not enrol in the school near their homes be-
cause it is not as good as the one further away, you should consider
measures to improve educational conditions in the former school.
As we shall see later, one of your aims will be to rationalize the exist-
ing schools1 catchment areas.
From the theoretical point of view the catchment area may be thought
of as a circle having as its centre an existing or potential school, and as
its radius the maximum distance which pupils can travel. If we know the den-
sity of the population, or preferably the density of the potential school-
age population, we can calculate the numbers for whom schooling should be
provided within this catchment area.
If the catchment area A of a school is a circle with as radius r the
maximum distance from home to school (in kms), the area of this catchment
2
area will be 3.14r sq.km.
If d is the density per square kilometer of the potential school-age
population in the area under consideration, the potential enrolment E will
2
be : E = A x d = 3.14r d.
To be quite exact d should be replaced by the density of the population
which is going to enter school - i.e. the density of the potential school-
age population d multiplied by the school enrolment rate.
Module IV Section 1 : Norms, standards and catchment areas L5
Showing catchment areas by circles has the disadvantage of not covering

the whole of the geographic area concerned. Areas can be shown more satis-
factorily by hexagonal honeycombing :
For a hexagonal catchment area, enrolment is calculated thus :

E = 2.6r d
Such representations are, of course, theoretical since very rarely does

a catchment area have exactly the form of a circle and still more rarely that
of a hexagon. More often the shape of a catchment area follows that formed
by the grouping of habitations along roads, streams or rivers, in the valleys
more often than on mountainsides, etc.
However, such theoretical representation is not without its value. In
the first place it can serve as a guide in rationalising the catchment areas
of existing institutions. Secondly, if you have to foresee the establishment
of a large number of schools in regions so far badly served, it can help you
to decide in what sort of region or area you will be in a position to open
complete schools or ones of minimum size, in view of the population density.
Example : What is the minimum density of the school population

aged 12 to 15 required in a catchment area for it to be possible
to start a first-cycle secondary school for 300 pupils ? It
should be added that according to the norms, the pupils

should not have to travel more than 5 kms to get to school.
300
Answer : d = 4.6 pupils per sq.km.
2.598 x 5'
(hexagonal catchment area)

If 300 pupils is the minimum size for a secondary school, no
school can be opened in rural areas with less than 4.6 ado-
lescents (aged 12 - 15) per sq. km.
The foregoing formulae can also give an idea of the number of schools
and classes needed in a given area.
Example : If it is policy to have 30 pupils in a class, how

many schools and classes should be foreseen in :
^
i) a hexagonal catchment area with a radius of 4 kms and an
average density of 3 children aged 6 to 11 per sq.km.
ii) an area with the same population density covering 250 sq,
km. ?
Answer :
i) The extent of the catchment area will be :
2
2.598 x r = 2.598 x 16 = 41.5 sq.kms.
The number of pupils = 41.5 x 3 = 125
The number of classes = 125/30 = 4 (plus 5 pupils)
Hence : a school with 4 classes.
ii) In an area of 250 sq.km. there will be need to foresee
6 schools of 4 classes = 24 classes in all.
Such theoretical work, let us remind ourselves, can give no more than
an approximate estimate of the number of classes and schools to start. It
presupposes in fact :
i) an even distribution of the population ;
ii) the same easy possibilities of access from all parts of the catch-
ment area ;
iii) full enrolment of the school-age population, unless the enrolment

rate and the concept of the population actually entering school
are introduced.
The first two conditions are rarely found. Despite this, the estimates
obtained can be useful, especially for planners working at the central or
regional level. They should be accompanied by a very detailed analysis in
the field. This is what we will look at in the next section.
Meanwhile, this theoretical approach is valuable in that it lays stress
on the standard maximum distance that pupils can travel. This of course de-
pends on the means of transport used, the lie of the land and also the age
of the children concerned. It is generally accepted that in primary educa-
tion the children should be able to get to school in not more than some 45
minutes. This corresponds to some 3 kms on foot on level ground, less in
mountainous areas, some 15 kms on a bicycle and about 30 kms in a car or a
bus.
In secondary education, norms regarding distances vary more but are
greater than those for primary education - some 5 to 7 kms on foot, 20 to
30 kms on a bicycle, and still more by bus. The maximum distance acceptable
varies greatly from country to country. The lower the population density
or the higher the minimum size of school, the greater the distance.
The legal and reglementary aspect concerns the requirement that all
children living in a given geographic area should attend the school or schools
in that area. It is in fact very difficult to plan the provision to be made
in a given area if pupils are free to select whatever school they like whether
inside or outside the area, or if the schools in which they enrol have no
connection with their places of residence. In some countries, to facilitate
national integration, secondary schools draw - or used to draw - their intake
from the whole country. Boarding is then the rule and it matters little where
the schools are placed. In such cases school-mapping or micro-planning
cannot be supplied.
In practice fixing catchment areas for schools in rural areas poses very
few problems : most pupils enrol in the schools nearest their homes. In urban
areas the situation is much more difficult. Some schools enjoy great prestige
and have pupils who come from all sections ; those are generally from families
in the more well-to-do social classes. Other pupils may attend schools close
to where their parents work rather than near their homes. Consequently there
Module IV Section 1 : Norms, standards and catchment areas 18^
can be great confusion and overlap of catchment areas. One of the tasks of
school mapping will be progressively to regularize such situations so as to
make existing arrangements more rational.
Fixing catchment areas (sometimes called * zoning1') for schools presumes
that there is equality of teaching/learning conditions among the schools.
Such^zoning"enables certain objectives of school-mapping to be attained and
also facilitates attainment of social objectives such as ethnic integration
and the mingling (or the opposite) of different social backgrounds.
To test how far you have grasped the idea of catchment areas and of norms
and standards, we suggest you should do the exercise below.
Exercise 1 (on data for Tanzania)

1. Catchment area
If we imagine a region where :
i) there is already universal primary education ;
ii) children aged 14 form 2.1% of the total population ;
iii) the admission rate to secondary education of children
aged 14 is 107o ;
iv) norms and standards applied in the country are :
a) 40 pupils per class ;
b) 7 kms maximum distance for walking to secondary school,
Calculate :
i) the extent of the catchment area (circular in shape) of
a secondary school ;
ii) the minimum population required for starting a secondary
school with two streams of four grades each (8 classes
in all) ;
iii) the minimum population density required.
2. Number of teachers needed in the secondary school

The time-table for grades 1 to 4 in the agriculture and domestic
science streams is as follows :
Weekly periods
Subject
Agricultural stream Domestic science stream
Grade Grade
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Agriculture 8 8 10 10 _ _ _ _
Domestic science - - 8 8 10 10
Political education 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
National language 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
English 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
Mathematics 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
Biology 3 3 4 4 3 3 4 4
Chemistry 3 3 4 4 3 3 4 4
Physics 3 3 4 4 3 3 4 4
Geography 3 3 3+ 3+ 3 3 3+ 3+
History 2 2 3+ 3+ 2 2 3+ 3+
Religion 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Music 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+
Arts 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+
Foreign language 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+
Teacher Education - 2+ 2+ - - 2+ 2+
Physical Education 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
TOTAL (excluding optional

subjects) 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42
+ = Optional subject (each pupil chooses one)

Calculate :
i) The number of teachers needed in this school, which has
an agricultural stream and a domestic science one, on the
assumptions that :
a) teachers' working hours are 24 periods a week ;
b) the science teacher can teach physics, chemistry
and biology ;
c) the history teacher can teach geography ;
d) teacher education can be taught by all teachers ;
e) for optional subjects, classes in the agricultural
and domestic science streams are merged. They are
split afterwards according to the option chosen by
the pupils.
ii) The full-time equivalent number of teachers and the pupil:
teacher ratio, there being 40 pupils per group, i.e. a
total of 40 x 8 = 320 pupils in the school.
iii) The number of rooms of different types required and their
rate of utilization, given that :
a) the physics, chemistry and biology laboratories are
combined ones ;
b) there is a special room for domestic science ;
c) physical education takes place on the sports field;
d) half of the agricultural periods take place out-of-
doors in the fields ;
e) all other subjects are taught in general classrooms.
The total number of periods a week for which rooms are used
is 50 ; the normal rate of utilization of the rooms is 80%.
Cheer upl You will find the answers to this exercise at the
end of the module.
Module IV Section 2 : Planning the location of schools 21
SECTION 2
PLANNING THE LOCATION OF SCHOOLS
There are no universally applicable techniques for planning the location

of educational institutions. The method may vary according to the :
i) level of education being planned : in the compulsory stage, the
demographic is the determining variable. Priority will be given
to placing a school in the immediate neighbourhood of the population.
This consideration will not have so much weight for education after
the compulsory stage,
ii) norms and standards adopted by the country. It is easier to orga-
nize the educational services if the standard school sizes are not
too big ;
iii) type of environment : the problems to be solved are different in
urban and in rural areas ;
iv) form of demand evolution : it is sometimes more difficult to plan
the reorganization or re-structuration of a school network after
a drop in enrolments than to plan for its rapid development.
You should choose the method which seems to you the best suited to the
particular situation you are studying. In all cases, however, certain prin-
ciples will apply.
i) Rational organization of the school map implies coordination of
different educational networks. To draw up the map for a given
educational level, you will have to take into account the location
of educational institutions at the level immediately below. You
are therefore recommended to begin by rationalizing the primary
school map, then draw up that for the first cycle of secondary edu-
cation, then the map of the second cycle, and so on.
ii) The organization of a network of institutions should satisfy certain
conditions. It should :
a) ensure a suitable geographic distribution of educational supply
and secure a balance in each geographic zone between such
supply and demand-;
b) keep to the country's norms and standards, especially in res-
pect of the maximum and minimum sizes of schools ;
с) be as cost-efficient as possible.
The greater the enrolment in a school, the higher will be the pupil:
teacher ratio and the facilities' rate of utilization. On the other hand,
it will probably be necessary to organize a system for collecting the pupils
or to provide boarding facilities. A model could be constructed as an attempt
to determine an "ideal" school network. The problem would be to optimize
a cost function (transportation or boarding costs) or an enrolment function
(with regard to various educational objectives) under certain constraints
(travel time and minimum school size). Constructing such a model, however,
would encounter many obstacles and it is not certain that what might be best
economically determined would be considered satisfactory from a social or
political point of view.
It is suggested that you should work in a much more empirical fashion,
building up your proposals by successive approximations and using a set of
criteria selected according to the characteristics of the region you are
studying and according to the type of schools to be established.
Generally, the preparation of proposals is done in four stages :
1st stage :
Estimate the numbers of pupils to be enrolled, village by village, in
primary education or, school by school of the level immediately below
for other levels of education.
2nd stage t
Ascertain the capacities of existing schools and their catchment areas.
3rd stage :
In the areas not yet served by the present educational network, identify
the places where new schools could be built. Determine the catchment
area of each new school and calculate its enrolment. Check as often
as is necessary until the only villages left outside the school network
are those with too low a potential school population to warrant the es
tablishment of a school, or which are too far away from a neighbouring
school. For these villages, special solutions will have to be found.
4th stage :
Estimate for each school the facilities and teacher requirements.
5th stage :
Compare the costs and advantages of different possible solutions.
Module IV Section 2 : Planning the location of schools 2_3
Let us examine each of these stages in detail.
First stage ; estimating the numbers of those to be enrolled

This will be done village by village for primary education, primary
school by primary school for lower secondary education, and so on.
Obviously it is not a matter of making for each village projections of
the school-age population and of enrolment in the same detail as those we
have done by zone in Module III. All the same it is indispensable to have
estimated of potential enrolments village by village.
The simplest course is to find a formula which enables the potential
school enrolment on the part of a village to be linked with the latter's total
population. It may be assumed that the ratio identified will be the same
for each of the villages in a zone as for the zone itself.
Example 1 :
Let us assume a zone has a total population in the base year t of 10,000
inhabitants. Let us also assume that in making estimates of demand
(Module III) we have estimated enrolment at 2000 for the year t + 5.
If we calculate a ratio :
2000
Enrolment in year t+5 in Zone A _ n _ 9f)(y
Total population in year t in Zone A 10,000
and if we apply this ratio to the total population of each of the villages
in the zone, we reach a rough estimate of the potential school-goers
in each village in the year t + 5 . In doing this, we assume that each
village will have г
i) between the year t and the year t+5 the same rate of population
growth and the same age structure as the zone as a whole ;
ii) the same enrolment rate as for the zone in the year t + 5 .
In most cases, these assumptions are not unrealistic. (There is, however,
one exception : in the towns, demographic growth and age structure could
differ greatly from one quarter to another. Separate estimates will
need to be made quarter by quarter.)
To estimate the numbers entering secondary education the same method

can be used, estimates of those to be admitted to school being made village
by village, local council area by local council area, or district by district.
The administrative unit you choose will depend on the level of education :
for primary and even the first cycle of secondary education, this will be
the smallest unit for which you have data on the total population ; a larger
unit will be used for the second cycle. Another method also can be used.
There is a direct relation between enrolment in 1st grade of primary in the
base year and the number entering secondary education x years later, x being
the length in years of the primary course.
Example 2 :
Let us assume that in Zone A there are 400 pupils in 1st grade in the
base year 1983 and that we have estimated at 300 the number of pupils
who will enter secondary education six years later. If the length of
primary education is six years, the ratio
300/400 = 0.75
expresses the approximate proportion of entrants to primary education
in the base year who will have succeeded in gaining entry to secondary
education six years later. We can use this same ratio to estimate the
number of primary pupils from each school who will be able to enter
secondary education. We are here assuming that each school will have
the same rates for drop-out and for transition to secondary education
as those for the whole zone.
Second stage : determining the capacity of existing schools and defining their
catchment areas
1. A school's capacity does not necessarily equal enrolment in the base
year : it may be greater or less if the premises are under-utilized or over-
loaded. Capacity may be estimated on the basis of the area of the rooms used
for teaching and of the regulations in force on the area required per pupil.
In making this estimate, you should omit facilities which are in too poor
a state to be repaired.
In secondary education, the normal length of time for which the premises
may be used should be taken into account. A school's capacity will be cal-
culated either by applying an estimated rate of utilization of 80 to 907o
(see Module II Section 4) or by comparing it to the school standards which
you have calculated beforehand (Section 1 of this module). It may prove ne-
cessary to add a classroom, for example, or a specialized room.
Module IV Section 2 ; Planning the location of schools 25
This problem will occur especially when there is a change in the regu
lations on the length of time for which premises may be used - if policy is
to resort no longer to double (or triple) shift working or, conversely, if
double shift working where possible is recommended.
2. In defining existing schools' catchment areas, one must take account

of the farthest acceptable distance a child may walk or the longest journey
time when transport is available. As we have seen above, the catchment area
may take the form of a circle, a hexagon, a star, a tube along a road or
river, etc., according to the nature of the school's environment.
With the catchment area thus defined it is easy to calculate future en
rolments in existing schools by adding up the previously estimated enrolment
from each village and hamlet included in the catchment area (or from the
primary schools if it is a matter of estimating enrolment in secondary edu
cation) .
In rural areas defining catchment areas does not usually cause any diffi
culty. When two schools are near each other and their theoretical catchment
areas overlap, all one has to do, providing each school has enough pupils, is to
define the catchment area of each one in a way which will minimize the distances
which children will have to go, and in case of need, take into account the
schools' capacities.
If one of the schools is too small to allow good utilization of its
teachers and if the condition of its premises is not satisfactory, closure
could be suggested, and the neighbouring school alone used. Alternatively,
if the premises are in good condition the best course might be to merge the
two schools and to arrange, for example, for children in grades 1, 2 and 3
to go to school A and those in grades 4 to 6 to go to school Б.
1st case
2nd case
3rd case
It is not unusual to find in one zone a concentration of primary and

even secondary schools less than 3kms apart from one another while in a neigh-
bouring zone there are not enough schools or teachers. In the first zone,
the communities are probably very active : they have established their own
schools and prevailed upon the Ministry to send one or more teachers for each
school while in the second zone, the communities are probably too poor or
at any rate less influential. Closing some schools or merging them with others
may be an indispensable condition for attaining a rational use of human and
financial resources.
The situation of each school with an enrolment below the minimum standard
should be carefully examined. Closure or re-grouping could be suggested if
it is near enough to another school, with due regard to the terrain and the
road network. As communities are quite rightly attached to their schools,
it is usually preferable to suggest a merger rather than a straightforward
closure of a school.
In an urban area defining catchment areas can be a real headache, given

the mutual proximity of schools and their concentration in certain quarters.
This state of affairs is in fact often due to a town's historical development,
but it is due also to the high cost of land which results in the State or
the municipalities not always building schools where they should but where
they can.
In defining catchment areas due account must be taken of the potential
school population in the various quarters and the capacity of each school.
In some cases, it is impossible to determine separate catchment areas for
all schools. There then has to be a grouping of schools drawing upon the
same catchment area.
Finally, it should be noted that in large towns or in the capital cities
quarters are often characterized by a social class or by a dominant ethnic
group. The well-to-do and middle classes often live in sharply-defined areas
at varying distances from the shanty-towns and immigrant quarters. The de-
fining of catchment areas may favour - or avoid - social or ethnic mixing,
so there may here be policy decisions to be taken.
At the end of this second stage you will have, for each of the region's
zones, lists of schools to be closed, to be kept as such, extended or recon-
structed and, lastly, of villages not yet reached by the existing school net-
work.
3rd stage : establishment of new schools

1. In primary education, you are advised to :
i) Separate out :
a) high density areas in which there could be complete coverage
by well-equipped schools ;
b) areas of moderate population density which could have complete
schools, provided that a school could serve several neighbour-
ing villages ;
c) sparsely-populated areas for which special arrangements need
to be made, such as one-teacher schools, boarding, bi-annual
intake, school transport, or satellite schools linked with
central schools.
ii) Identify the most important villages which have no schools as yet
and which should have priority in the building of new schools.
Villages considered the most important would be :
a) those with the largest populations, or which are regional de-

velopment poles. For these latter, exact data need to be
gathered on short and middle-term development plans for the
region, on road-building programmes and opening up of lands;
on projects for cooperatives and health centres ; and on deve-
lopment prospects for agriculture, industry, mining and tourism;
b) those best served by the road network or at crossroads ;
c) sub-regional hubs : these one can identify by weighing the
distances separating several localities against the number
of potential pupils to be reached in each locality.
You should take due account of the ease of communication and of
the terrain in estimating the travelling time needed and choosing
the central village where the school will be established,
iii) Define the catchment areas of each of the new schools, grouping
and re-grouping villages until you arrive at satisfactory sizes
for the schools. Again, you must take account of the maximum travel
time or the maximum travelling distance acceptable for pupils,
iv) Identify the villages which will not be served by any of the schools,
existing or proposed, and repeat the process described above until
the only villages left out of the network of schools are those with
a potential school population too low to justify starting a complete
school. For these villages ad hoc arrangements must be made, such
as :
a) one-teacher schools, in which the teacher is in charge of all

grades at the same time. We have seen that this practice is
not always accepted. It is criticized on the grounds that
it does not provide good educational conditions. To this might
be added that if the teacher is absent, the school is complete-
ly closed. Nevertheless, if the teacher is good and has been
trained to teach in such conditions, the practice can be peda-
gogically workable ;
b) a two- or three-teacher school : when it is possible, this
arrangement is preferable to a one-teacher school ;
c) a satellite school, offering only the first three or four grades
of the primary course. This needs to be attached to a central
school which provides the remaining grades of the course.
Experience shows that if the central school is not located

within a reasonable distance (at most 4 or 5 kms) from the
satellite schools, pupils leave in large numbers after the
third or fourth grade ;
d) school transport : collecting pupils, either by using existing
public transport or by arranging special rounds, enables under-
attended and over-costly schools to be avoided or closed.
It also enables schools to be established big enough to have
a complete range of equipment and good pedagogical organization.
However, this is not always the ideal solution since it needs
a roads infra-structure which permits of it, and journeys too
long in distance or time for young pupils risk having negative
effects on the latters' ability to listen or learn.
All told, it is not certain that transport is always a better
arrangement, either for results or for costs, than the one-
teacher school.
e) Boarding, formal or informal : the pupils move from their homes
to live formally in a hostel or informally in the neighbourhood
of the school - with relations for example. Given its cost,
formal boarding is usually out of the question for primary
education, except perhaps for nomads.
v) Establish schools of adequate size, while seeking to keep to a mini-
mum the costs of school transport and of boarding.
Illustration and Exercise 2
Organization of the primary school map in the rural

council of Arashkoul, Sudan
The rural council of Arashkoul is one of the six rural councils
of the Ed-Dueim district in the Sudan. In the base year
(1980/1981) it had 21 primary schools, mostly situated along
the Nile. The enrolment rate for the 7 to 12 age-group was
27% in 1980/81. The aim is to increase this rate to 50% by
1990/91 for the settled population.
Map 1 shows the location of existing schools, how they are
served by roads and the potential enrolment by village estimated
for 1990/91 assuming a 50% enrolment ratio of the 7 to 12 age
group.
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Module IV Section 2 ; Planning the location of schools
Table 3 : Data on primary schools in the Rural Council of Arashkol
Vil läge Type Number of Number of Number of NumbeT of rooms

number pupils classes teachers Total to be repaired
22 В 262 6 8 6 6
22 n 239 6 10 6 3
1 с 72 2 2 2 2
27 с 327 6 7 6 2
30 с 151 4 4 4 -
20 с 110 6 9 6 -
15 с 211 6 7 4 »
16 с 321 6 7 6 6
9 в mu 6 7 6 6
9 G 193 6 6 6 4
7 С 130 3 5 3 3
11 С 222 6 7 6 4
3M с 233 6 7 6 3
28 с 256 6 7 6 4
29 с 233 6 8 6 6
55 с 187 6 9 6 4
50 с 114 2 4 2 2
65 с 226 6 8 6 5
72 с 174 6 7 6 6
33 с 166 4 4 4 4
39 с 205 6 4 6 -
TOTAL 4176 105 137 109 70
В = Boys ; G = Girls ; С = Coeducational.

Table 3 gives information on the primary schools existing in

1980/81.
The country's regulations are :
i) a pupil should not have to walk more than 5 kms to go
to a primary school ;
ii) the standard number of pupils per class is 50 ;
iii) so far as possible schools should have 6 classes or more,
i.e. 300 pupils or more. Where population density does
not allow of establishing schools of 300 pupils, schools
with 3 classes are acceptable. No school will be opened
if it has not at least 100 pupils.
What will be in 1990/1991 enrolments in existing schools?

How many schools will have to be started, and where, so
as to :
i) allow 507° of children aged 7 to 12 to be in school
in 1990/1991 ;
ii) ensure equality of school access opportunity in the
Rural Council ;
iii) observe national norms and standards concerning
school sizes ?
Example ; North-east of the rural Council

First the catchment areas of existing schools are defined and
then proposals are made for the establishment of new schools.
School no. 1 : this is more than 5 kms from any other village.
Catchment area : village no. 1 ; enrolment : 228 in 1990/91.
School no. 11 : this is more than 5 kms from any other village,
particularly as there is a sand hill between it and
village no. 14.
Catchment area : village no. 11 ; enrolment forecast for
1990/91 : 125 (below enrolment in 1980/81). This drop
is probably due to the fact that at present the enrolment
rate for the children of village no. 11 is well above
507o. As a reduction of enrolment would be very badly
regarded by the people, it is proposed not to reduce it
but not to increase it either, so as to lessen dis-

parities .
School no. 15 : this is also more than 5 kms from any other village.
Catchment area : village no. 15 ; enrolment 217 in 1990/91.
School no. 16 : Catchment area - villages nos. 16 and 17.
Enrolment 1990/91 : 282 + 67 = 349.
School no. 7 s Catchment area - villages nos. 7 and 8.
The dune prevents inclusion of villages 4, 5 and 6.
Enrolment 1990/91 : 151 + 65 = 216 pupils.
School no. 9 : Catchment area : villages nos. 9, 10, 12 and 14.
Enrolment in 1990/91 = 778 pupils.
Establishment of new schools
Location proposed Catchment area Enrolment 1990/91
Village no. 18 Villages 18 and 19: 269

less than 5 kms.
There is a passage
between the dunes
Village no. 52 Village no. 52 282
Village no. 13 Village no. 13 146
Village no. 3 Villages 2, 3, 4, 5 349
and 6
Have you understood the principle ? Try now to make pro-

posals for the whole of the Arashkol rural Council. Equip
yourself with a pencil, rubber, pair of compasses and ruler
and - go to it. Compare your proposals with those given at
the end of the module.
2. In secondary education the approach will be very similar, comprising:

i) estimating for each primary school the potential number of pupils
who could or should enter secondary education, due account being
taken of target transition rates ;
ii) identifying centres and towns which are not yet served by secondary
schools and where a first cycle one could be built. Such a centre
would be selected by the use of criteria similar to those we have
suggested for primary education. One should watch - perhaps a little
more closely than with primary education - that the community in
which it is located has social and economic facilities adequate
to provide satisfactory living conditions for staff and pupils ;
iii) define the catchment area of each new school proposed, taking into
account regulations on how far a pupil should be expected to walk
and the possibilities of transport. The area will be defined by
repeated grouping of the primary schools - or of villages, local
council areas or districts - until a minimum or standard size of
school - as defined above - is reached ;
iv) identify the areas still not served by the school network, actual
or proposed, and begin the foregoing process over again ;
v) if, within a catchment area of reasonable size (of 5 - 1 0 kms
radius, or more if transport is available), it is not possible to
establish a minimum-size school, the use of school transport or
boarding should be studied. For financial reasons, boarding tends,
in an ever-increasing number of countries, to be an exceptional
resort at first cycle secondary level. According to circumstances
and local custom the possibility of informal boarding - with rela-
tions or in families - should be studied;
vi) try to propose the establishment of schools of sufficient size to
make the best possible use of teachers and premises while keeping
transport and boarding costs to a minimum ;
vii) if application of different criteria results in divergent solutions,
it is desirable to formulate more than one proposal, each reflecting
a different strategy. One proposal could rely on small schools
while another proposal could give preference to big, well-equipped
schools, capable of supplying the boarding needed. Then it will
be a matter of comparing their advantages, disadvantages and costs.
The locations of second-cycle schools will be decided on the

basis of the first-cycle school-map. Except in very densely-popu-
lated areas boarding cannot be avoided at this level (or else doing
so results in pupils in rural areas becoming very definitely dis-
advantaged). Second-cycle schools are usually located in the
chief towns of the regions and sub-regions and may or may not be
combined with a first-cycle school. It is good, however, to decen-
tralize their placing since their presence can :
- have positive effects on pupils at the lower-level in deciding
whether to continue their studies;
- be an important development factor in the towns concerned ;
- give access by first-cycle schools in their catchment areas to
more specialized and expensive equipment such as, for example,
specialized workshops.
In all these cases, the school norms and standards are to be observed.
3. In the towns, whatever the level of education, there is a tendency to

expand existing schools to take in additional pupils. According to circum-
stances this may mean putting up additional buildings on the sites available -
sometimes sports fields - or of increasing shift-working. In some towns the
primary or secondary schools work three or four shifts. There are, however,
limits to the expansion of existing schools and regulations on maximum size
need to be observed.
For the establishment of new schools you are recommended to work in close
cooperation with the town-planning services. They will be in a position to
inform on :
i) prospects for the development of the various town quarters, and
on the population growth and age-structure foreseen ;
ii) available sites owned by the State or the municipality ;
iii) possibilities of purchasing new sites.
In the old quarters you room for manoeuvre in siting new schools will
be limited. It is precisely for this reasons that it is very important that
the Ministry of Education should, in cooperation with the town-planning ser-
vices, provide in advance for sites to be reserved for schools in new urban
areas being developed.
4th stage ; estimating needs for school premises and teachers

When estimates have been made, for the target year, of the number of
pupils to be provided for in each school, it is very easy, if one knows the
regulations on the minimum, standard and maximum numbers of pupils per class,
to calculate the number of classes.
In primary education the numbers of teachers and classrooms needed are
usually the same as the number of classes. There may, however, be exceptions
if :
i) school heads do not teach ;
ii) specialist teachers have to be foreseen ;
iii) teachers have other responsibilities, such as participating in
literacy and post-literacy programmes ;
iv) there is part-time teaching in some grades.
Exercise 3 : Using the data in Exercise 2 above, calculate

the number of teachers and of classrooms required by the
f school in the Arashkol rural Council, given that :

i) the number of pupils per class should be between 50 and
55 ;
ii) 1.33 teachers and one classroom are needed per class
(single shift).
The answer can be found at the end of this module.
In secondary education the calculations made above on standard school

sizes enable immediate estimates to be made of the numbers of teachers requires
and of general or specialized classrooms needed in schools of different sizes
(see, for example, the calculations made for Nigeria in Table 1 in Section 1 ) .
5th stage ; comparison costs and effectiveness of different proposals

To choose among alternative courses of action and to have criteria for
deciding, it is usual to undertake a cost/benefit analysis or, when monetary
appraisal of benefits is not possible, a cost/effectiveness analysis.
A cost/effectiveness analysis may in theory take one of three forms :
i) Comparison of the costs of different solutions with the same
performance, i.e. attaining a given objective to proportionately
the same extent. The least costly solution will then be the best.
ii) Comparison of the performance of different solutions having

the same cost. The solution offering the best performance
will then be preferred,
iii) Comparison of solutions which differ both in terms of cost
and effectiveness. Here it is not obviously a matter of keep-
ing the cost:effectiveness ratio to a minimum. The analysis
can only show up the advantages and drawbacks of the competing
programmes considered without, however, identifying the best
of them on a cost/effectiveness basis.
It is really only this last form of analysis which fits actual situations,
and it can be a valuable means of rationalizing decisions.
When proposals for re-organizing the school network have to be compared,
analysis is often limited to what can be quantified, such as needs for teachers,
buildings and equipment, the distances travelled by pupils, needs for trans-
port, and capital and recurrent costs.
These estimates should, however, be supplemented by qualitative appraisal
of the effects of each of the solutions proposed on - for example - the :
i) difficulties of recruiting and of sending teachers to rural areas;
ii) enrolment of girls ;
iii) equality of opportunity ;
iv) school environment ;
v) possibilities of using school premises for community activities;
vi) economic development of certain regions or, conversely, rural de-
population ;
vii) reactions of local people.
The main aim of this analysis will be to bring to light and set before
the decision makers the main advantages and disadvantages of the courses of
action proposed.
These conclusions should be accompanied by recommendations on complementary

measures to be taken, in line with the results of the diagnosis made.
Possible example :
i) change the school calendar ;
ii) secure better distribution of school materials ;
iii) modify, as needed, teaching loads, teacher-recruitment procedures
or teacher-training ;
iv) modify school curricula ;

v) arrange food distribution or other programmes to encourage school-
attendance.
If school-mapping is not accompanied by such measures to ensure an im-
provement in the quality of education, it will be merely one more techno-
cratic tool for rationalizing the use of resources.
In any case, the school map produced should not be regarded as final
until it has been considered by the various groups concerned - the central
administration, local authorities, teachers and parents of pupils.
Illustration
First-cycle secondary schools, Paiko District, Niger State, Nigeria
Paiko District in Niger State, Nigeria, contains 32 primary schools but

no secondary school. The State's policy aim is to open access to secondary
education and to reach a 407o transition rate by 1984/85. The proposal is
to establish a network of lower secondary schools to enable 40% of those fini-
shing primary school to be admitted to secondary education, in both urban
and rural areas. According to regulations, children may walk up to 5 kms
to get to a secondary school and there should be from 35 to 40 pupils per
class.
For school location proposals, the choice lies between :
i) going for large schools, which are more efficient in the use of
teachers and premises but need boarding facilities (Proposal no.l);
ii) planning for a large number of smaller schools thus reducing board-
ing (Proposal no. 2 ) .
Proposal no. 1 - Boarding arrangements possible

The emphasis is put on large schools.
Day pupils in form Total Number of

Boarders streams in Type
1 secondary Enrolment
form 1
Paiko 194 40 235 6 6
Kwakuti 59 19 78 2 2
Mallam 79 37 116 3 3
Transport and boarding will have to be arranged.

Proposal no. 2 - Boarding only exceptionally

Construction of 5 schools is proposed :
Day pupils in Total Number of

1st year Boarders Enrolment streams in Type
secondary form 1
Chimbi 63 _ 63 2 2
Gwam 60 - 60 2 2
Paiko 197 11 208 5 5
Gabona 60 - 60 2 2
Ma11am 39 - 39 1 1
Given the estimates in Table 2, page 13, of schools of different sizes

requirements for teachers and facilities, needs involved in the two proposals
may be estimated for the district as a whole. Thus the costs and advantages
can be compared.
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Enrolment in 1st year secondary 430 430

Total enrolment 1290 1290
Total of schools 3 5
Number of schools of :
Type 1 (one stream* school) - 1
Type 2 (2 streams*school) 1 3
Type 3 (3 streams*school) 1 -
Type 5 (5 streams*school) - 1
Type 6 (6 streams*school) 1 -
Needs for :
Teachers 58 73
General classrooms 21 24
Workshops and laboratories 17 19
Comments : Arrangements will Some boarding

need to be made places and school
for boarding transport needed
about 280 pupils;
school transport
* number of streams in 1st year secondary
If boarding costs are very high, the second proposal might prove cheaper
than the first, but in view of the large number of small schools it runs the
risk of :
i) not being attractive to teachers ;
ii) limiting the optional subjects available to pupils.
Module IV Annex 1 : Answers to exercises 43
ANNEX 1
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
Exercise 1
I. Since the catchment area is circular and the longest distance to be

travelled on foot is 7 kms, the total of the catchment area is :
A = 3.1416 x 49 = 153.93 sq.kms.
New intake to grade 1 of the two streams should total 80 (2 classes x
40 pupils per class).
Since the admission rate to secondary education is 107o, the 80 pupils
in grade 1 are the 107o of children aged 14 who enter secondary school. Hence
it may be deduced that the population aged 14 is 10 times as big - i.e. 800.
Children aged 14 form 2.17o of the total population so it is easy to cal-
culate the total population thus :
800 x 100
= 38,095 inhabitants.
2.1
Population density is accordingly :

38,095
= 247 inhabitants per sq.km.
153.93
II. Numbers of teachers needed

As the following table shows, the number of teachers needed in 21.
The total number of teachers (full-time equivalent) is :
Periods to be taught _ 388 periods ,, ,
Teachers' weekly periods 24
The pupil:teacher ratio is 320:21 = 15.2:1. This is low, in view of

the regulation of 40 pupils per class. The difference between the number
of teachers needed (21) and the full-time equivalent number indicates that
in a school of this size there is under-utilization of teachers.
Teachers needed
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Subject
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are spent in the fields.
If the rooms were more specialized and if, for example, one had to have:
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utilization of the rooms would be only 64.37o.
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purpose ones, to be used for a many subjects as possible.
In Tanzania, the secondary schools are at present still boarding schools
and get their pupils from all over the country. The exercise, which we have
just done, shows that it will not be easy, given the transition rate to
secondary education foreseen - which is a low rate - to establish non-boarding
schools. A population density of 247 inhabitants per sq. km. is a very high
one which one finds only in the towns and semi-urbanized areas. Does that
mean that boarding has to be kept in rural areas ? There are various ways
of lessening the population density required for opening a non-boarding school:
i) extend the school catchment radius to 10 - 12 kms. If no school trans-
port is provided this will mean some informal boarding will have to
be accepted.
ii) reduce the size of the school from eight to four classes (from
two streams to one stream per grade). We have already seen that
full use is not made of teachers in an 8-class (2-stream) school.
A 4-class (one-stream) school is practicable only if the teachers
can work in other schools as well ;
iii) raise the transition rate from primary to secondary education. For
the moment this is barred for the country as a whole for financial
reasons. Increase the transition rate in the catchment areas. This
is what is done in several countries, but it is contrary to the aim
of equality of opportunity ;
iv) adopt some combination of the three foregoing solutions.

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Module IV Annex 1 Answers to exercises 53
The exercise shows that it is possible to organize a network of primary

schools which accommodate 50% of the school-age population and reduce in-
equalities of access. This assumes that the opening of schools with two or
three teachers is acceptable. Implementation of these proposals runs the
risk of provoking some resistance on the part of the communities along the
Nile, which are at present privileged. Negotiations will be needed on these.
MODULE V
INTRODUCTION AND COUNTRY-WIDE EXTENSION

OF SCHOOL-MAPPING
Section 1 Preparing a pilot study

Section 2 Administrative organization required
Section 3 Staff training and preparation of
the regional school maps
Section 4 The implementation of the school map
This module was prepared by Françoise Caillods (HEP)
Policy and Planning

UNESCO
This series is composed of the following documents:

Module II : Diagnosis of the educational system at
the local level
Module III : Estimating demand : demography and
enrolment projections
Module IV : Preparation of the prospective school
map
Module V : Introduction and country-wide
extension of school mapping
Module V : Contents i
CONTENTS
Introduction l
Section 1 : Preparing a pilot study 3

Section 2 : Administrative organization required 9
Section 3 : Staff training and preparation of the
regional school maps 17
Section 4 : The implementation of the school map 24
Module V : Introduction 1
INTRODUCTION
If you have read Module 1, you are in a position to judge the value
and chances of introducing school mapping in your region or country.
If you have read Modules II to IV you are well equipped to start pre-
paring a school map for a region or a district in your country.
An educational planner working at the central level, however, will
not be concerned with school mapping in only one region : he will want to
introduce it for the whole country. Unless you are working in a very small
country it is unlikely that the preparation of the school map could be done
by one single team for the whole country, even if the team is very active
and has the help of a computer.
It is not desirable either that one team should do this ; one guaran-
tee that the proposals made will be appropriate for the regions, acceptable
by the local populations and implemented by local administrators will be
precisely the fact that they have been prepared by the local or regional
educational administrators, preferably with the participation of the local
people concerned. Extending school mapping to the whole country pre-
supposes that a certain number of problems have been solved in connection
with :
i) perfecting a methodology adapted to the specific context and
needs of the country. This is one of the tasks of a pilot study;
ii) the administrative organization : an administrative structure
will have to be set up and persons nominated as responsible for
the preparation and implementation of the school map ;
iii) training of staff responsible for the school map ;
iv) annual implementation of the school map.
This module aims to :

i) Introduce you to the main problems which are going
to arise if it is decided to introduce school mapping
in your country ;
ii) suggest to you the stages by which such introduction
should be accomplished ;
iii) give some pointers which should enable you to solve
a large number of the problems encountered.
Module V : Introduction 2
Obviously, however, introducing school mapping is a long business and

may entail a large-scale review of the decision-making process at local,
regional and even central level insofar as it implies decentralization of
administration. Hence the success of the operation will not depend only
on technical factors : it will depend also on the political context, on
a real desire to rationalize and change the decision-making process and
on the continuity of the persons involved. It is important, however, that
a person responsible for school mapping should, in undertaking such a task,
get all the probabilities on his side.
Module V Section 1 : Preparing a pilot study 3
SECTION 1
PREPARING A PILOT STUDY
Despite the numerous examples given and the practical exercises sug-
gested the methodology given in this document may still be imprecise or
may not be entirely adapted to the specific characteristics of your country.
Indeed, it is not possible to present here all the possible structure and
levels of development of an educational system, nor to simulate the types
of data available, the educational policy objectives, the human and finan-
cial resources available, etc. Each country therefore should develop a
methodology appropriate to it and adapted to its national characteristics.
This methodology should then be passed on to the various central and re-
gional officials who will be responsible for applying it in all the regions.
The first aim of a pilot exercise will therefore be to determine and
test a methodology which would be applicable to the whole country. It should
be simple enough for a regional educational administrator to apply after
a short training course.
In particular a pilot exercise should make it possible to :
i) draw up a list of the different parameters and indicators which
simply must be taken into account ;
ii) identify the educational and demographic data available and where
they can be found ;
iii) identify the information required which is not available and pre-
pare the instruments for a survey - or surveys - which will en-
able it to be collected in each of the regions ; specifically
it will be necessary to design, test and finalize the question-
naires which will be used in the survey(s);
iv) review the maps available and select the most useful ;
v) fix the norms and standards concerning, among other things, the
maximum distance for walking to school, and the minimum, standard

and maximum sizes of schools.
Upon finishing the pilot study, all these guidelines will be put to-
gether in a methodological handbook giving in detail the various stages
and techniques for preparing the school map.
The pilot study will in addition enable the decision-makers to see
the results to be expected from introduction of the school map and to assess
the resources and measures necessary for this.
Module V Section 1 : Preparing a pilot study
To sum up, a pilot study has three main objectives, to :

i) determine a methodology suited to the country's
conditions and applicable, with any modifications
needed, to all its regions ;
ii) let the decision-makers know the results to be
expected from school mapping and the resources
to be committed to introduce it ;
iii) prepare a handbook for use by all those responsible
for school mapping in the regions.
Three questions can be raised concerning the pilot study :

i) Who should prepare it ?
ii) How is one to choose the pilot region(s) ?
iii) How long will it take and how much will it cost ?
1.1. Who should prepare the pilot study ?

To reply that the pilot study should be prepared by someone who has
studied and understood what is contained in the preceding modules would
be too simple and optimistic. The question "Who ?" should in fact be asked
in respect both of persons and of institutions. To define the kind of per-
sons who should prepare it, one should think of the pilot study as being
a real research project. To carry it out a team should be formed consist-
ing of various specialists (including a statistician, an economist and a
geographer and/or a sociologist), together with representatives of the
central planning office and of the pilot region.
The leader of this team should already have gained some experience
in educational planning and be competent to cope with difficulties and find
appropriate solutions. He or she should also be able to conduct negotia-
tions with different persons, institutions and organizations - e.g. regional
administrative authorities (state governors, regional development directors,
etc.), regional education authorities (regional education directors, etc.),
the Ministry of Education's budget and other divisions, the census office,
donor agencies, etc.
As for institutions, the team responsible for preparing the pilot study
will obviously later be responsible for supervising the introduction of
school mapping and its extension to the whole country. It is therefore
preferable that it should be attached to the department or division which
will later be in charge of the school map (a matter which will be dealt
with at greater length in Section 2 ) .
It might also be desirable to associate with the team, representatives
of other departments or institutions which might be concerned with school
mapping - e.g. representative of the directorates of primary and secondary
education, a demographer from the national statistics body or census office,
a member of a university faculty of education or of teacher training in-
stitutions, if these latter are later to be involved in the organization
of training courses.
We should point out that all members of the team will not be engaged
full-time to carry out the study but that, after being informed of the
study's aims and the approach proposed, they will be kept regularly in-
formed of the progress of the work and called upon for advice or support
in solving certain problems. The core of the team should not exceed some
5 to 6 persons.
1.2. Choosing the pilot region

Since the object of the pilot study is to develop a method which can
be used for all regions in the country it is desirable that the region
chosen should be as representative as possible of the situations to be met
in the country. For this, the region or district selected should afford
as complete a sample as possible of the various components, be these :
i) geographic : urban or rural, plains or mountains ;
ii) demographic : areas sparsely, fairly densely or densely
populated ;
iii) educational : with primary and secondary education not marked-
ly more nor less developed than the average for the country.
Clearly no one region in a country can be completely representative
of the other regions and in some cases it may be necessary to undertake
more than one pilot study. This will be the case, for example, for a
country which has two areas very contrasting geographically, climatically
or demographically - e.g. one area desert and the other one of tropical
Module V Section 1 ; Preparing a pilot study 6
forests, or one flat and the other with high mountains intersected by
valleys. In such cases it would be desirable to carry out two pilot
studies, one for each area. In any case the capitals and large towns
(i.e. those with more than 500,000 inhabitants) should be treated separate-
ly. A special pilot study should be provided for at the town-quarter level.
As a general guide we will give four criteria for selecting a pilot
region :
i) It should not be too big ; a hundred or so primary schools and
five or six secondary ones at most, so that making the study
does not take too much time (the study should, however, cover
at least 20 to 30 primary schools) ;
ii) It should not be too far away (in time) from the capital. Since
the study is to be a feasibility one, it is preferable not to
choose too difficult a region, nor one requiring long and ex-
pensive travel ;
iii) It should be around the national average in terms of education-
al development level - neither the most advanced nor the most
backward ;
iv) It should afford diverse geographic and demographic situations
representative of those in the rest of the country.
What do you think of the following statement :

"I am going to choose a quarter in the capital as the
pilot region, so as to keep my travelling expenses
down and make data collection easy" ?
Answer This is not a very good idea. Certainly you will con-
siderably reduce your needs for transport (which in many
developing countries is difficult to arrange) but it will
not make it so easy for you to collect data. It is in
urban areas and especially in the capital cities that it
is most difficult to get reliable demographic data :
migration is usually so high that data more than five
years old are no longer usable.
Further, the methodology which you may develop, concerning
especially distances to be travelled and catchment areas,
minimum and standard sizes for schools and techniques for

deciding on school locations, would be of very little use
for the rest of the country, particularly in rural areas.
Hence it is decidedly preferable that you should try out
your methodology in a rural area and that you should wait
for the detailed results of the last census before tackling
the preparation of the school map for the capital.
1.3. Stages and normal time-schedule for preparing the pilot study
Once the decision has been taken to start a school-mapping project
and to undertake a pilot study, the various stages to provide for will be;
1st stage :
i) designation of team and leader ;
ii) briefing and training of team members ;
iii) selection of pilot region ;
iv) alerting of the responsible officials in the pilot region;
v) collection and study of available data : maps, school
statistics, demographic data, etc.
vi) listing of data lacking, and design, testing and finaliz-
ing of a questionnaire to collect them.
The length of this stage varies a lot among countries according to
the level of development of statistical and demographic services, the
quality of the information available and the amount of cooperation given
by other bodies or institutions - e.g. the statistical services or the
census office. On average this stage could last from one to two months.
2nd stage : Data Collection in the field ; detailed visiting in the
region ; up-dating of maps and survey of each school by questionnaire.
This stage must necessarily take place during term-time, preferably
two to three months after the start of the school year and in any case more
than a month before the end of this. The length of this stage depends on
the size of the region, the number of people available to make the survey
and the ease of transport in the region (the rainy season is to be avoided)
The average length of this stage is one to two months.
3rd stage : Analysis of the data collected, preparation of the diag-
nosis and projections of demand. Average duration : 3 to 4 months.
4th stage : Preparation of proposals for the school map.
Proposals should be formulated so far as possible in cooperation with
the local inspectors and others responsible. A field visit may be needed
to check the relevance and feasibility of certain proposals. Average dura-
tion : one month.
5th stage : Final shaping of the pilot study and compilation of a
methodological handbook.
The document which presents the results of the study will serve to show
the decision-makers what may be expected of the school map. The handbook
will be intended for those responsible for school mapping at the regional
level. It should give detailed instructions of the steps to be taken, the
data to be collected (and their sources), the indicators to be worked out
and how, calculations to be made, norms and standards to use, etc. It
could draw widely upon this present self-instructional manual but should
so far as possible :
i) illustrate the data given by examples drawn from the pilot study;
ii) give exact indications of the policy to be put into practice.
The manual will serve as support material in staff training (a matter which
we will treat more fully in Section 3 of this module). Average duration:
2 to 3 months.
The time needed to carry out the whole pilot study will thus range from
8 to 12 months.
Module V Section 2 ; Administrative arrangements 9
SECTION 2
ADMINISTRATIVE ARRANGEMENTS
On the basis of the experience gained in preparing the pilot study and
of its results, the policy-makers and administrators responsible will have
to decide whether on balance a general extension of school mapping would
be useful. If so, all the administrative, financial and material implica-
tions will need to be assessed.
The first step will be to appoint staff to be responsible for school
mapping and micro-planning at the central and regional levels. Questions
you will need to ask yourself will be :
What will be the place of the school-mapping office in the present ad-
ministrative set up ?
How many persons should be appointed at each level ?
Is it necessary to separate technical from more political bodies and
committees ?
What material and financial means should school mapping have at its
disposal ?
Central school-mapping service

1. Where should the central school-mapping office come in the administra-
tive structure ?
In most countries the central school-mapping service is naturally
placed in the Ministry of Education's Planning Office (or Division, etc.).
Sometimes, however, the situation is not so simple - as it might not be in
your country, for example, if :
i) Schools are built by a Ministry other than that of Education
- e.g. the Ministry of Public Works. Then where should the
school-mapping service be placed ? Experience in many countries
shows that it is very important for the service to have access
to educational statistics, and to establish close relations with
the budget department and with the primary and secondary education
departments. Hence it is preferable for the central team to be
placed in the Ministry of Education. It should, however, include
representatives of the Ministry of Public Works or of any other
Ministry concerned ;
Module V Section 2 : Administrative arrangements 10
ii) Primary (or secondary) education is not under only one Ministry
but under more than one - e.g. the Ministries of Education, the
Interior, Religious Affairs, etc. The school-mapping service
might then be placed in one of these Ministries - the main one
concerned - or in any outside body if such exists already respons-
ible for the central planning of education - as in Indonesia and
Thailand for primary education;
iii) Each Division in the Ministry of Education - e.g. primary, second-
ary, technical education - has its own planning office, besides
the central one. It is advisable to place the school-mapping team
where the planning of the educational level concerned is really
done and where the most active group is to be found. In all cases
there will be need to watch the coordination of the work of the
various services.
Where would you place the school-mapping and micro-planning

services in the administrative organization of your country?
2. What will be the tasks of the central team ?

The school-mapping process, as we have seen in Module I, is charac-
teristically one of give and take between the central and regional teams.
Hence the tasks of the central school-mapping and planning team will consist
basically of :
i) providing direction by determining, in the light of the overall
educational policy, regional objectives for the enrolment or
transition rates to be attained, or for the pupil : teacher ratios
to be observed ;
ii) devising the methodology and ensuring the training of the regional
teams ;
iii) giving technical assistance to the regional teams, especially
those in the most remote regions or those less well-staffed;
iv) checking the quality of the work produced by the regional teams
and requiring revision if necessary ;
v) ensuring that proposals from the different regions are compatible
with one another and with educational policy and the resources
available ; arbitration and some revision may be needed.
Module V Section 2 ; Administrative arrangements 1_1_
All this can represent a pretty heavy task for both the school-mapping
and the educational planning services. Far from lightening the central
team's work the introduction of school mapping and the decentralization of
educational planning will, to begin with, entail a marked increase in its
workload. This may seem paradoxical. However, once the regional teams are
"run-in" and know better how to take responsibility, school mapping and
micro-planning will result in a considerable simplification of the central
services' tasks.
3. How many staff does the service need ?

The size of the central school-mapping staff will depend a good deal
upon the human and financial resources which you have available. It depends
too on the number of regions to be guided and supervised, as well as on the
pace at which school mapping is introduced. If all regions in the country
start drawing up their school map or microplan at the same time, and if they
are numerous, the technical assistance and supervision work will obviously
be much heavier than if there are only a few regions or if the start of work
in the different regions is staggered.
Whatever the case, it is during the country-wide extension of school-
mapping that the team should be largest. Previously, during preparation
of the pilot study, we have seen that some half-dozen full-time staff would
generally be enough. Afterwards, when all the regional maps or microplans
have been prepared and it is now a matter of implementing or up-dating them,
a much smaller team will be needed.
4. Selecting a Head for school mapping and micro-planning

Three principles should be observed :
i) The person to be responsible for school mapping and micro-planning
should be fully informed of the nature of his future tasks and
of what will be his exact administrative situation :
ii) The Head should have a status high enough to deal with various
highly-placed persons in the ranks of the Ministry of Education
or outside it - e.g. Directors of primary and secondary education,
regional educational Directors, those responsible for the budget
and demographic services, etc. ;
iii) The Head should be willing to take up the job . Given the spe-
cialized nature of work on school mapping and micro-planning, this

should not be entrusted to anyone not really interested in it.
However, not just any applicant could be accepted : the Head must
meet certain particular requirements.
In view of what you may have noted when reading this docu-
ment, what profile should the person to be made Head of
school mapping and micro-planning have ?
Make sure that you have included :

i) Good knowledge of educational problems and previous practice
in educational planning ;
ii) Interest in economic and social problems ;
iii) An easy approach to people and good negotiating ability ;
iv) Leadership qualities and suitability for team-work ;
v) Care, method and precision in work ;
vi) Acceptance of both the constraints of office work and of
travel on field visits ;
vii) Computation ability.
School-mapping and micro-planning services at the regional level

Provision will need to be made for a school-mapping unit - or more
usually an educational planning one - at the regional level.
This unit, which will be responsible for preparing the school map -
or the regional plan - for its annual implementation and for its periodical
revision, will communicate directly with the central educational planning
office and school-mapping service.
1. Integration with existing administration

There are two main ways of integrating school mapping with the existing
administrative organization, by :
i) establishing regional units, serving as antennae of the central
educational planning service and completely dependent on it.
This course is more easily adopted in centralized countries, its
advantage being that technical and administrative control is exer-
cised by the same authority. The drawback is that a completely
Module V Section 2 ; Administrative arrangements 13
new set of human and material resources is needed. Further,

there is a risk of non-integration with existing educational struc-
tures ;
ii) adding planning units to existing regional educational services
with technical supervision by the central educational planning
office. The advantage is a decided one : better integration with
existing services is possible, as is the use of some already
existing human and material resources. In addition, this is a
course much more compatible with a policy of de-centralizing the
planning and administration of education. However, as technical
and administrative supervision are separated, there is a risk of
conflict of authority which may be harmful to smooth working.
Such could be the case when a regional Director of Education is
not interested in educational planning or school mapping.
2. At what administrative level should the school-mapping unit be placed?

Theoretically it would be desirable for each mapping unit not to be
concerned with more than a certain number of primary schools (e.g. 200 to
300). In practice, such units are often placed at administrative levels
at which there are already educational administration staff established.
This is particularly true where the Ministry of Education has already
chosen a policy of decentralizing administration and has established an ex-
tensive infra-structure. It will then be concerned with limiting the number
of regional offices.
Table 1 below illustrates the level at which school mapping and micro-
planning units have been placed in four very different countries : Mexico,
Tanzania, Tunisia and Thailand.
Study of the table shows that :
i) The administrative level at which the school-mapping unit is
placed varies considerably from country to country, and the size
of the area with which the unit deals also varies. There is no
comparison between the size of a state which operates 3,000
primary schools and which is the area a micro-planning unit is
in charge of in Mexico and the size of a district with 200 to 250
primary schools which is the area dealt with by the district
supply and logistics officer responsible for primary education
in Tanzania.
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When the size of the area is very big the school-mapping unit
(or the micro-planning team) is obliged to stagger preparation
of the school map by sub-region (this is how school-mapping is
done in the "delegations1!*, or in the Governorates«in Tunisia),
or to provide several working groups for each sub-region (e.g.
the district working-groups for primary education in Thailand),
ii) It may be useful to separate the purely technical work from that
of formulating proposals for decision-making, which is a more
political matter. The former will be done by a working-group:
the school-mapping unit. The second will be done by a commission
consisting of representatives of the various institutions or
groups concerned. In fact, since proposals in the school map
could involve difficult decisions and have important consequences
for local communities, pupils and teachers, it is desirable to
get groups particularly concerned involved in the decisions taken.
Among such groups might be representatives of various Ministries,
including the Ministry of the Interior, parents' associations,
teachers' representatives, etc. The composition of such school-
mapping commissions, and the powers given to them will obviously
depend upon the national political content and the country's ad-
ministrative organization,
iii) Different teams can be responsible for preparing the primary and
the secondary school maps - or, more commonly, the maps for com-
pulsory schooling and for post-compulsory education. As the
number of schools is higher in primary than in secondary educa-
tion the area dealt with by a unit for primary (or basic) edu-
cation could be smaller than that dealt with by a unit responsible
for secondary schools.
Thus, in Tunisia, secondary school-mapping is done at the re-

gional directorate level for two or three governorates together.
In Tanzania, if decentralization of the administration of second-
ary education takes place, the school map will be prepared at
regional level for several districts.
Module V Section 2 : Administrative arrangements 1Ь_
i At what administrative level would you place the regional

j school-mapping and micro-planning services in your country?
i
U
3. Human, material and financial resources to be committed
For each regional team the resources to be provided are :
i) Recruitment of the team leader and of one or two assistants,
together with secretarial assistance. The number of people in
the team should not exceed three or four, but again this depends
on the extent and size of the area. At special times, such as
for data collection, it is desirable that the team should be able
to call upon supplementary staff, such as inspectors, students
in a near-by teacher-training college, etc.
ii) Supply of administrative premises, with basic office equipment
and calculating machines, together with a form of transport
suitable for the area,
iii) A modest budget to cover transport, expenses and purchase of
petrol and office supplies.
Module V Section 3 : Staff training 17
SECTION 3
STAFF TRAINING AND REGIONAL SCHOOL MAPPING
Training the staff is one of the most important stages in the process
of introducing school mapping and extending it country-wide. Many attempts
at decentralizing educational planning and administration have failed be-
cause insufficient importance was attached to training regional and local
staff.
Training will be of an essentially practical nature, based on the pilot
study results. Its aim will be to familiarize the members of the regional
teams with the basic principles of school mapping and the problems to be
encountered when preparing it, and also to give staff members the technical
competence needed to carry out in their areas studies preparatory to the
formulation of school-map proposals.
Different training strategies are possible and many of them link the
phasing of courses with regional school-mapping or planning stages in the
regions. In all cases, however, provision must be made for this training
to be followed up so as to check and supervise work in the regions. Whether
independently or linked to such training, there arise questions as to train-
ing content and length, and to the selection of trainers.
Course organization : different forms of training

One can imagine three main ways in which training courses may be or-
ganized for training regional officials. Each has advantages and disad-
vantages. You should choose one or another in accordance with the specific
characteristics of your country and of your constraints.
1st way
Provide a fairly long training course which covers all the school-
mapping stages even before beginning operations.
The advantage of this way is that at the end of their training the
staff trained know exactly what stages they should complete, what is the
finished product which they are to deliver, and what are the results of
this great operation called "school-mapping" or "micro-planning". Another
advantage is that one can expect costs slightly lower than if a succession
of courses were to be provided.
The drawback however lies in the fact that the regional staff are not
in a position, in this first course, to imagine all the difficulties they
are going to encounter on return to their regions. If they are thereafter
left to themselves there is a great risk that delays and bad choices will
accumulate.
For this way a very close watch on the teams' work must be ensured
and constant communication must be arranged between the regions and the
central team. There may be need to arrange brief follow-up "workshops"
at key points in the preparation of regional projects.
2nd way
The second way is to spread training over the whole duration of the
regional teams' work and provide for an alternation of seminars and prac-
tical field application of the techniques learnt.
As an illustration we describe below the main points in the training
programme arranged in Algeria.
The first steps, of course, were to select pilot regions and form a
study team. The next step was to make administrative arrangements for
national and regional school-mapping services.
Before work was begun a two-week seminar was organized for the central
and regional technical staff concerned to acquaint them with the basic prin-
ciples of school mapping and to get them to understand the importance of
the task they were going to undertake.
The study was carried out in three stages :
i) the diagnosis at the local level ;
ii) the projections of demand for places ;
iii) the preparation of proposals for reorganizing educational supply.
At the end of the first stage a manual on diagnostic methods was pre-
pared and a training seminar was arranged to present the results of the
diagnosis made in the pilot region, to inform participants on the types
of data and other information they should gather, and to train them in
methods of preparing a diagnosis. The participants then had to choose a
pilot district and begin the same exercise in their own regions. Regional
representatives prepared a report which was then discussed during the next
training session.
A second seminar was organized after the second stage of the project.
This seminar had two purposes : the first was to review the work done by
the different regions in their pilot districts. This resulted in thorough

discussions on the methodology used and its revision taking into account
each region's particular conditions. Clear indications were also given
to each of the regional teams on how it should revise and finalize its report
The second purpose was to introduce the next stage of the project and to
define the tasks to be accomplished by the different teams during it.
Two further seminars were arranged on the same pattern so as to enable
the teams' work during the second and third stages of the study to be re-
vised and put in final form.
The advantage of this approach is that, by the end of the training
course, the school map has been prepared for at least one sub-region in
each area/region. All that remains to be done is to use the same methods
in the other sub-regions and this, given the experience gained, can be done
much more rapidly.
The drawback may be the relatively high cost of the operation. It
is not certain however that, given the need to arrange follow-up seminars
even with the first method of training, the costs are not similar.
3rd way
The third way of training the staff for school mapping is to train
supervisors who will in turn themselves be responsible for training the
regional teams and following up their work. Training should of course be
supported by distribution of a methodological handbook or of other self-
training materials. The process would be the following :
i) The training programme is divided into a number of modules, such
as those which would appear in the manual prepared at the end
of the pilot study - e.g.
a) The concept of school mapping and data collection ;
b) Educational diagnosis ;
c) Projections of demand for places ;
d) Preparation of proposals.
ii) As basic training, the official being trained studies the module
concerned for a week on his own.
iii) The trainees are formed into groups of 10 or 12 under the direc-
tion of a trainer for 2 or 3 days, during which time this same
subject is studied in the way it will have to be tackled in the
field.
Module V Section 3 Staff training 20
iv) Each official returns to his area and carries out in the field
the work related to the matter studied. The trainer acts as ad-
viser and supervisor, visiting those who attended the course and
helping them to solve the particular problems encountered in the
field.
This same method is used for each of the four modules.
The advantage of this approach to training is that it enables training
and practical application to be well integrated and the work done to be
followed up, while costs are kept at a reasonable level. This could be
a very valuable way when there are a lot of regional teams to be trained:
the central team will be responsible only for the training of the trainers.
The drawback however of this training in phases is that it is wholly
dependent upon the quality of the supervisors and trainers selected.
Whichever way is used, or approach decided upon, a certain number of
principles need to be observed.
Principle No. 1 : Train more than one person per regional team. This is
necessary for two reasons. The first is that one must be fore-armed against
the effects of staff turnover. This may sometimes be high and if there
is only one person trained and he or she goes, there will no longer be any
regional team. The second reason is that it is desirable to form a team
which can discuss together problems met with and solutions to them.
Principle No. 2 : Support training by distribution of a methodological

manual to which trainees/officers can refer on return to their areas.
Principle No. 3 : Ensure that training is followed up by the central team

to provide :
i) Active support : According to needs, supply demographic maps or other
data not available in the regions. When possible,
prepare, with the help of the relevant services, pro-
jections of the school-age population and send them
to the regional teams. In any case, provide a budget
and watch over the supply of equipment (see Section
2).
ii) Methodological help : to be given to any team encountering difficulties!
Module V Section 3 Staff training 21
iii) Political and/or psychological support : the teams are likely to be

called upon for scores of other tasks and will need
to keep in contact with the central team,
iv) Quality control : control of the quality of the regional work done
and feedback. Where there is disagreement about pro-
posals the central school-mapping service may arbitrate,
preferably by agreement with the regional services -
i.e. school-mapping working-groups and commissions.
Training content
Training content has already been touched on indirectly in the fore-
going paragraphs. Let us recall merely that, although the content of train-
ing courses depends of course on the country and its particular situation,
in general the following items should be included :
i) The main problems of the national educational system ;
ii) The reforms contemplated or proposed and their implications for the
organization of the educational network ;
iii) Data collection methods ;
iv) Methods of preparing a diagnosis ;
v) Techniques of projecting demand ;
vi) Criteria to be used in suggesting locations for schools and for
working out various alternative proposals ;
vii) Techniques which may be used to compare different proposals.
These items may be grouped into various modules according to the train-
ing tactics adopted. Training should be practical, with illustrations and
exercises drawn from the pilot study.
Length of training
Experience shows that the length of training courses varies greatly
from one country to another, lasting from two weeks - including initial
training and a follow-up seminar - to seven or eight weeks. All depends
on the number of people to be trained and the resources available. The
ideal, however, would be to provide for at least five weeks of training,
spread over two or more courses and stretching over a period running from
the start of operations until the end of the school-map preparation phase.
EXAMPLES
1st Way 2nd Way
2 weeks of initial training 1 week:.national educational policy
and school-mapping
.data collection
1 to 2 weeks of discussion after 1 week: discussion of data collec-
preparation by teams of a tion results and of
sub-regional diagnosis and diagnostic techniques
before the projections
1 week: discussion of diagnosis
stage
results and presentation
of projections techniques
1 week after preparation of 1 week: discussion of proposals
proposals for a first sub- for the first sub-region
region in each area in an area
1 week: discussion of proposals
for the whole area
Who should conduct the training ?

The team which prepared the pilot study - usually the central school-
mapping team - should be responsible for giving training. However, it could
be useful to associate with the work representatives of bodies outside the
Ministry of Education, such as :
i) University demographers or, better still, census office staff, for
matters concerning population projections - the best would of course
be that they themselves (census office staff) should undertake this
task for all the regions. In any case it is essential that a dialogue
should take place between census or institute of statistics staff and
the Ministry of Education and that those concerned should know what
is needed by the central and regional educational services,
ii) University representatives - Professors of the School of Education,
of the educational admistrators' training institute or of teacher-
training college(s). The ideal would be for these institutions to
include a course on school-mapping and micro-planning in their re-
gular training courses. If this is difficult, the training teams
could at least periodically give school-mapping courses for staff
recently attached or recruited.
Tentative calendar for preparing the school map for the regions
The length of time needed to prepare the school map in all regions
will obviously depend on the number of these regions (regions being taken
here to mean the area that comes under the responsibility of one school-
mapping unit) and of sub-regions (areas that are to be dealt with by one
and the same school-mapping unit), and on the means mobilized. In normal
circumstances, the calendar might be pictured as follows :
i) Training and preparing the school map for one sub-region or region
in each mapping area. In view of the time taken for training, of
the inexperience of the regional teams and of the need to process
all the data this may take one year,
ii) Completion of the work on the rest of the school mapping area - from
6 to 18 months, depending on the number of sub-regions or regions.
In other words, if there is no major unforeseen occurence the school
map for all the regions could be prepared in a period of between 2 and
ЗЦ years, i.e. i) pilot study : 8 to 12 months, ii) extension to other
regions : 18 to 30 months.
Perhaps there will be some mistakes and some uncertain data, but the
Ministry of Education could, within a reasonable time, have available com
plete and detailed basic data which would enable decision-making to be
rationalized.
Module V Section 4 : The implementation of the school map 24_
SECTION 4
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE SCHOOL MAP
When the school map is ready, things do not stop there ; we could
even say that it is then that the problems start. In fact, the proposals
worked out must be translated into action and then influence the annual
decision-making on where schools are to be placed, teachers allocated,
and, in more general terms, on where resources are to be allocated.
Of course the school map can only be implemented bit by bit and this
will spread over several years.
Implementation consists of taking a series of measures which will
end up transforming the educational system after a number of years. These
measures may, however, provoke resistance on the part of various groups.
Further, one must make sure that the budget and school-mapping services
are linked, especially when preparations are being made for the next school
year. Lastly, the map should be periodically revised to take account of
changes which may have intervened since it was drawn up.
Resistance encountered
Like all action aiming at rationalizing decision-making, implementing
the school map may provoke reaction and resistance on the part of various
groups, notably :
i) Local authorities (administrators and elected and prominent persons).
The decision to open a school is always an important political act
at the level to which it applies - the village in the case of a primary
school, a region or the whole country if it is a matter of a univer-
sity. It is possible that the empiricism that was prevailing and
the absence of criteria and regulations has given free play to dif-
ferent pressure groups to express their opinions directly or through
locally-elected officials. Changing the rules of the game risks pro-
voking severe reaction on their part,
ii) Teachers : the most obvious result of the school map may in the eyes
of teachers be an increase in their actual workloads (so as to bring
them up nearer to the norms laid down by the Ministry) ; an increase
in class size in some schools - even if that permits of corresponding
Module V Section 4 ; The implementation of the school map 25
reductions in others ; or again a stricter check on their assiduity

(especially if the school map is accompanied by some administrative
reform such as school nuclei). They may well seek ways of opposing
the implementation of the map.
iii) Families : closing a school and transferring its pupils to a neigh-
bouring one is always likely to be badly received by the families,
even if the first school is small and does not offer satisfactory
educational conditions. Decisions of this type should therefore al-
ways be taken only after informing and consulting with the people
concerned. Zoning and fixing school catchment areas - i.e. obliging
parents to send their children to a given school according to where
they live - are also decisions which risk not to always get a favour-
able welcome. A real effort needs to be made beforehand to remove
disparities in teaching conditions between schools.
From the foregoing list, one can see that any measure aiming to make
better use of resources will cause resistance. If school-mapping stopped
there and did not at the same time seek to improve the quality of educa-
tion in the re-structured school network and to reduce inequalities among
regions and geographic areas, and between pupil-groups, such resistance
would obviously be altogether legitimate.
When preparing and implementing the school map a certain number of
precautionary and accompanying measures should be taken, notably :
i) Associating the groups concerned - families, teachers, and community
representatives - with the preparation of the school map at the re-
gional and local level and getting them to participate in the decision-
making. Such participation could be arranged through the composition
of regional commissions,
ii) Informing these groups very early on the aims of school-mapping, the
means to be engaged and the expected results. If there are teachers'
unions, they should from the start be advised of the school-mapping
process. As for families, information campaigns should be started
in the press or in various meetings arranged at regional and local
level.
iii) Making contact very early also with bodies representing private edu-
cational bodies and, if possible, getting their cooperation.
Module V Section 4 ; The implementation of the school map 26
iv) Making the school map official through legal and reglementary docu-
ments. These would aim at providing legal grounds in negotiations
with the different pressure groups and would also ensure the unbroken
continuity of action taken, whatever changes might occur in the assign-
ment of staff responsible at the central and regional levels.
This legal side could deal with such varied matters as the
a) organization of information and of data collection at the
regional level ;
b) criteria for fixing catchment area boundaries ;
c) nonius and standards for drawing up the school map ;
d) ways in which proposals for establishing new schools are to be
prepared ;
e) ways and means of organizing school transport ; means of
tendering for construction work, etc. ;
f) responsibilities of central and regional services ;
g) composition and role of school-mapping commissions, etc.
Annual implementation : the start of the school year

It is when preparations are being made for the start of the school
year that the proposals in the school map are definitely applied. The
measures taken and the activities engaged in will depend however on means
already provided for in the budget. Hence, there is need to ensure that
there are very close links between the school map's medium-term proposals,
a multi-year investment programme and preparation of the annual budget.
Such links may be made by :
i) requiring reference to be made to the school map in the justification
accompanying regional requests for new buildings, the allocation of
new teachers, etc.;
ii) arranging for the same persons to be responsible both for budget pre-
paration and for school-mapping at the local and even the regional
level.
It will be noted that the implementation of the school map is marked
by a process of coming and going between central, regional and local levels,
e.g. the central level sends directives ; specific proposals are prepared
at the local and regional levels ; feasibility checking and arbitration
are carried out at central level. This is very similar to the process
which exists or could be instituted for preparing the annual budget.
Module V Section 4 : The implementation of the school map 27
Up-dating the school map

A number of factors may require adaptation or periodic up-dating of
the school map, in particular :
i) Demographic factors : demographic growth or migratory movements may
prove to be greater or smaller than forecast, and may require re-
adjustments of the proposals made and of the school capacities fore-
seen ;
ii) Factors resulting from changes in educational policy ; and
iii) Changes in economic conditions and in the resources available, en-
tailing either delays or a more rapid implementation of the desired
policy and of investment.
The need to up-date the map will depend on the particular situation
in each country. In the absence of unforeseen upsets such up-dating could
be done every three to five years.
Outside the normal periods for preparing and revising the school map
the regional services should see to the continuous up-dating of a data file
for each school and to the application of the regulations and criteria
for the allocation of the resources foreseen in the school map. They
should also periodically check on the development of educational conditions
in their areas.
The school map thus shows itself to be a valuable tool not only for
planning but also for administering education in accordance with educa-
tional policy.
, j
\ You have now reached the end of this training series, and
• it only remains for us to wish you good fortune and good heart
| in your work.

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I N T E R N A T I O N A L INSTITUTE F O R E D U C A T I O N A L P L A N N I N G

7-9, rue Eugène-Delacroix, 75116 Paris

School mapping and micro-planning

This series is composed of the following documents ;

Introduction and working instructions

Module I s School mapping and micro-planning -

Module II ; Diagnosis of the educational system at the

Module III ; Estimating demand s demography and enrol-

Module IV : Preparation of the prospective school map

Module V ; Introduction and country-wide extension

INTRODUCTION AND WORKING INSTRUCTIONS

This series forms part of the training materials in educational

planning, administration and facilities prepared by Unesco's Educational

Policy and Planning Division,

The series deals with the techniques of school mapping as a

micro-planning tool and comprises five modules :

Module I explains the concepts of school mapping and micro-

planning, and sets out the various objectives of the

school map, the factors to be taken into consideration

and the process of preparing it ;

Module II is given to the techniques of preparing an educational

diagnosis at the local level ; it deals with analysis

of the educational system's coverage, internal effi-

ciency and quality ; and proposes more precise indica-

tors than those calculated at the national level;

Module III describes ways of estimating educational demand and

deals with the difficult problem of estimating the

potential school population in the regions and sub-

regions before going on to methods of projecting en-

Module IV presents methods of preparing the prospective map,

If you have high-level central or regional responsibility for

of studying educational problems on the local scale to improve the

to check your answers. Detailed answers to the exercises will be

What term is used in your country ?

SCHOOL MAPPING AND MICRO-PLANNING IN EDUCATION

SCHOOL MAPPING AND MICRO-PLANNING

Section 1 : Definition of school mapping

This module, prepared by Françoise Caillods, is a synthesis

Educational Policy and

International Institute for

MODULE I : SCHOOL MAPPING AND MICRO-PLANNING - CONCEPTS AND PROCESSES

Section 1 : Definition of school mapping and

Section 2 : The process of school mapping „ 12

This module is intended for everyone who desires information on :

- the definition of school mapping and micro-planning in general ;

the role they play in educational planning, and in particular

the objectives and field of application of school mapping ;

- the process of school mapping.

The module is made up of three main parts :

Section 1 defines the concepts of school mapping and micro-planning,

Section 2 analyses the process of school mapping.

- An Annex gives a brief bibliography of school mapDina and micro-

their relation to educational planning at the central level ;

(3) be better informed of the factors which should be considered when

preparing the school map ;

DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS IN SCHOOL MAPPING AND

During the years 1960 to 1970, most developing countries initiated

by such planning, the purpose of which was (and still is) to :

(a) provide a framework for fixing priorities and determining

(b) orient the expansion of educational systems in accordance

with the needs of social, economic and cultural development ;

It was realised in fact that educational systems have an inner dynamic

Often, development in the different levels of education does not accord