131. Example on instability under combined loading: (Ref p.240 Steivebacher & Gerald A/c Stru.

Mechanics)

Given a simply supported aluminium alloy plate, E = 10.5x106 psi, length a = 30”, width b = 10”,
thickness t = 0.04” acted on by a compression load of 200 lb and a shear load of 120 lb. Will the
plate buckle?

Critical compressive stress:

σcr = [(kπ2E)/(12(1-ν2))] [t/b]2
(Compression)
= [(4xπ2x10.5x106) / (12 (1-0.32))] x [0.04/10]2
= 612 psi

Critical shear stress:

τcr = [(5.3xπ2x10.5x106) / (12(1-0.32))] x [0.04/10]2
= 812 psi
Hence Rc = [200/(0.04*10)] / [612] {we have σ = 200/(0.04*10)}
= 0.816

a
k

a/b

ks
5.3

a/b ∞

Fig 99.

The shear load which will cause the plate to buckle when 200 lb compression load is acting can be
computed by equation

Rc + Rs2 = 1

∴ Rs2 = 1- Rc = 1 – 0.816

∴ Rs2 = 0.184
ie., (τ/τcr)2 = 0.184 or ∴τ = √0.184 x τcr
∴τ = 0.429 τcr⇒ 0.429 x 812 ⇒ 348 psi
The applied stress is τ = 120/(0.04x10) = 300 psi

Since applied shear stress of 300 psi < 348 psi shear stress required for buckling under the combined
load, we find the plate will not buckle.

132. A yardstick has cross-sectional dimensions of 3/16” x 1”. What axial force will cause it to
buckle? (Ewood = 1.5x106 psi)

Least radius of gyration, k = √(I/A) and

Least M.I. of cross-section ⇒ I = 1x(3/16)3/12
Note: If l/k > 200 failure
= 5.49 x 10-4 in4
by buckling occur, where
A = 3/16 x 1 ⇒ 3/16
k = least cross sectional
∴k = √[(5.49 x 10 ) / (3/16)]
-4
radius of gyration.
l = length of member
∴k = 0.0541 Ak2 = I or k= d/2√3.
l = 1 yard = 36” k = (3/16) / 2√3 ⇒ 0.054.
Slenderness ratio = l/k ⇒ 36/0.0541 ⇒ 666 > 200

∴the yard stick is a column which does not fail in compression but fail by buckling.
∴critical force, Pcr = π2EI/l2 ⇒ 6.27 lb.
Note: For rectangular cross section, b = breadth; d = depth; k = √(I/A) = √(bxd3/12)/(bxd) = d/2√3.
In the above problem: b = 1”, d = 3/16”.

133. How do you incorporate fail-safe concept in a design?

By incorporating alternate load paths in case of failure of the component. But weight penalty is
unavoidable and more space is required. Also added complexity of design can affect maintenance
operations.

134. What is (i) An isotropic body.

(ii) An anisotropic body.
(iii) A homogeneous body.
(iv) Inhomogeneous body.

Ans: (i) An isotropic material has properties that are the same in all directions (eg. Esteel is same in all
directions for steel).
(ii) At a point in an anisotropic material, material properties are different in all directions.
(iii) A homogeneous body has properties that are the same at all points in the body.(Eg steel. rod)
(iv) Inhomogeneous body has material properties, which are a function of the position on the
body.

Note: If one heats a steel rod at one end, the temperature at various points on the rod would be
different. Since Esteel varies with temperature, we no longer have a homogeneous body.
 The body is still isotropic because the properties at a particular point are still identical
in all directions.
135. Distinguish between orthotropic, specially orthotropic, and quasi-isotropic materials.

(i) Orthotropic material: This material has 3 mutually perpendicular planes of material symmetry.(ie
3 mutually perpendicular plane of elastic symmetry)
Eg A single lamina of continuous fibre composite arranged in rectangular array; a wooden bar; rolled
steel. There are nine independent elastic constants C11, C12, C13, C22, C23, C33, C44, C55, C66.

Fig 100.

(ii) Specially orthotropic: A unidirectional lamina is a “Specially orthotropic” lamina, since normal
stresses applied in the 1-2 direction do not result in any shearing strains in the 1-2 plane ( Q16 = Q26
= 0 = S16 = S26);also shearing stress applied in the 1-2 plane does not result in any normal strains in
the 1-2 directions( Q16 = Q26 = 0 = S16 = S26); a woven composite with its weaves perpendicular to
each other is also specially orthotropic.

(iii) Quasi-Isotropic: Quasi-isotropic laminate behaves similar to an isotropic material. Quasi-

isotropic laminates have the minimum stiffnesses of any laminate. Quasi-isotropic material has its
extensional stiffness matrix [A] behave like that of an isotropic material.ie, A11 = A22 ; A16 = A26 =0;
A66 = (A11-A22)/2 and also these stiffnesses are independent of the angle of rotation of the laminate. It
is called Quasi-Isotropic and not isotropic. [B] & [D] matrices may not behave like an isotropic
material.

Examples of Quasi-Isotropic material: [0/±60], [0/±45/90]s, [0/36/72/-18/54]

136. Broadly what are the different types of load an aircraft is subjected to?

Thrust load, aerodynamic load, inertia load, gyroscopic load, landing gear load, etc. The other loads
are ground handling loads, control surface loads, pressure loads (cabin, fuel tank etc) antenna loads,
seat & floor loads etc.

137. What do you mean by toughness of a material?

Residual strength after damage is described as toughness. (Ref: p101 Airframe Stru. Design by
Micheal C.Y. NIU). Damage caused by fatigue can greatly weaken the strength of critical
components.
138.Give some examples of areas prone to fatigue in an aircraft structure.

Pressurized cabins and lower wing skins are prone to fatigue through the long continued application
and relaxation of tensile stresses (standard material 2024 -T3 - aluminium alloy is used)

Note :- For upper wing skins:7075-T6 - mainly compressive stresses.

139. Why stiffness matrix is symmetric?

Because of the principle of energy conservation and from its corollary – Maxwell-Betti reciprocal
theorm.

140. What are the different types of stresses developed and how these stresses are evaluated under
the following loads: Tensile, Compressive, Shear, Bending and torsion. Which are the predominant
members in an aircraft, which resist them.

Sl Type of Predominant members

Form of equation Remarks
No stress resisting the stress
1. Shape of
Tension ft = load/Area of cross-section component is Skin,spars,stringers etc.
immaterial
(i) fc= load/Area of cross-section (i)For block
compression.
(ii) fc = π2EI/L2 (ii)For long
columns s.s.at ends.
Skin, spars, stringers,
2. Compression (iii) fc ≅ fco[1-0.3 - (l/ρ)] (iii)Short column
struts etc.
(π√E/fco) equation for
aluminium alloys.
(iv) fc(cr) = kE(t/b)2 (iv)Plate buckling
stress.
c (i)Shear stress at a
(i) fs= (V/Ib)∫y dA distance y1 from
Skin, spars and rib
3. Shear y N.A.
1
webs,etc.
(ii) fs(critical) = kE(t/b)2 (ii)Critical buckling
stress in shear.
For bending about
4. Bending fb = My/I Spar,rib etc.
principal axis.
(i)fs= Tr/J (i)For small thick
walled tubes.
(ii) fs= T/2At (ii)For thin walled
Skin, Torque tubes etc.
5. Torsion cylinders.
(iii)For narrow
(iii) fs=T/αbt2
rectangular cross-
(α depends on b/t) section.

141. What are the factors on which stress distribution in a body depends?
Stress distribution in a body is a function of force distribution, body geometry, temperature,
boundary conditions, materials etc.
142. What is the work of stress analyst in general?

Stress analyst’s main task is to compute internal stresses in structural members and compare these
stresses against design allowables.

The members are resized (if necessary) in an iterative process to move towards the
lightest weight structure which will satisfy the design allowables.

Iterations of the structural analysis and member resizing steps are required because
the internal loads in a redundant structure are redistributed each time a member size changes.

143. State the advantages & disadvantages of titanium.

Advantages: Titanium is a suitable alternative to light alloys like aluminium alloys, when prolonged
operating temperature exceed 1500c or so (ie no excessive deformation due to creep). It is also used
where greater strength is required without significant weight increases. They have same strength (in
shear) but weight only rd that of steel. They have adequate fatigue properties.

Disadvantages: They are more expensive. Very high cost of machining is involved (so normally they
are formed to as nearly as possible to required size, usually by forging, so that as little as possible is
machined.)
Titanium alloys used upto 5% in commercial applications and about 25% on military
Aircrafts.
On a strength/density basis, Titanium has an edge over both aluminium and steel. It
has also corrosion resistance superior to both.

Aluminium is used upto 3500F.

Titanium is used upto 11500F.

Titanium is used in airframes as high strength and high toughness forgings. It is used
in firewalls to isolate engines from structures.

Titanium has better ratios of fatigue properties to strength than either the aluminium
or steels.

144. Why safety factors are used in the design of structures?

Safety factors are used to increase the reliability of a structure when the response of a structure to the
environment/loading is not accurately known.

A slight increase in factor of safety greatly reduces design and analysis effort, since
not all load influences have to be analysed in detail.

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