Chapter 24

Machinery Considerations

Alan L. Rowen

24.1 NOMENCLATURE requirements. This chapter will be confined to the machin-

ery in the power plants of modern merchant ships. For fur-
ADGT aircraft-derivative gas turbine ther discussion of ship machinery see references 1 through
bkW brake power, in kilowatts 3. The power plants in common use today in merchant ships
bSFC brake-specific fuel consumption are those based on diesel engines and steam turbines. Gas tur-
DFM distillate fuel, marine bines are only infrequently used in merchant ships, but are
HDGT heavy-duty gas turbine likely to become more common in the near future, and are
HFO heavy fuel oil included here. Nuclear power plants are used in many sub-
HVAC heating, ventilation, and air conditioning marines, in a limited number of large warships, and in a class
LNG liquefied natural gas of Russian Arctic icebreakers, but are not generally consid-
MCR maximum continuous rating ered viable for merchant ships, and will not be discussed in
MEP mean effective pressure this chapter. Gasoline engines are widely used in small boats
MGO marine gas oil, a light distillate fuel and in pleasure craft, but are rare in other marine applications,
No. 2-D diesel fuel, a light distillate fuel and also will be excluded from this chapter.
NOx oxides of nitrogen
RCGT regenerative-cycle gas turbine
rpm revolutions per minute 24.2.2 Descriptions of Power Plants
SCGT simple-cycle gas turbine Typical machinery arrangements are listed in Table 24.I and
SFC specific fuel consumption shown in Figures. 24.1 to 24.3.
skW shaft power, in kilowatts
SSDG ship’s service diesel generator 24.2.2.1 Diesel plants
TG turbogenerator Diesel propulsion predominates for merchant ships of all
types and sizes today. Diesel engines divide into groups as
low-speed, medium-speed, and high-speed engines.
24.2 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS Low-speed engines are very large. They are specifically
designed for ship propulsion, with crankshaft rpm low enough
24.2.1 Introduction to enable direct drive of the propeller. There is therefore one
The power plant of a ship generally provides for both its engine per propeller, mounted on the tank top, in line with
propulsion and for ship’s services, which include steering the propeller shaft, and centrally located for a single-screw
gear, deck machinery, navigation and communication equip- ship. Unless a controllable-pitch propeller is fitted, the en-
ment, the hotel load, and support of cargo, trade, or mission gine must be direct reversing. Low-speed engines have from

24-1
24-2 Ship Design & Construction, Volume 1

TABLE 24.I Merchant Ship Power Plants

Coal-Fired Aircraft- Heavy-Duty,
Oil-Fired Steam Steam Medium-Speed High-Speed Derivative Simple-Cycle
Turbine Turbine Low-Speed Diesel Diesel Diesel Gas Turbine Gas Turbine
Power Range, Kw up to 60 000 per unit up to 60 000 3000 to 100 000 1000 to 25 000 per up to 4000 per up to 50 000 per up to 40 000 per
per unit per engine engine engine turbine turbine
Typical Ships LNG ships; older some ore and most merchant ships merchant ships; smaller ships of warships; fast some fast ferries
ships of all types coal-carriers naval auxiliaries all types ferries
Current Status unlikely for new ships feasible most common for increasing use in dominates in dominates in increasing use in
merchant ships merchant ships smaller ships warships fast ferries
Acquisition Cost high higher than highest fairly high lowest in power lowest at high high
oil-fired steam range power
Minimum Fuel Quality residual coal heavy blend intermediate blends light distillate light distillate selected light blends
Fuel Consumption high high lowest lowest low high high
Maintenance on least high low high low low at sea, moderate
Minimum Quality Fuel but high overall
Mass and Volume moderate moderate high moderate low lowest low

four to twelve cylinders arranged in-line, with power output
ranging from less than 3000 kW to over 60 000 kW.
Medium-speed and high-speed engines are more com-
pact than the low-speed engines, but must drive the pro-
peller through gearing or by electric drive. These engines
have four to ten cylinders in-line, or as many as 24 cylin-
ders in a V-configuration. The rated power output of
medium-speed engines ranges from under 1000 kW to more
than 20 000 kW. High-speed engines cover the power range
from less than 100 kW to over 3000 kW. In fact, there is no
clear difference between smaller, higher rpm, medium-speed
engines, and the larger, lower rpm, high-speed engines, with
the distinction mostly in the perceptions of the designers
and users. Medium- and high-speed engines are often com-
bined in pairs, side-by-side, geared to a single propeller
shaft. Some medium-speed engines can be directly reversed.
For other engines reversing is provided by the gear set, by
a controllable-pitch propeller, or by electric drive. With
diesel-electric drive, the output of several diesel-generator
sets can be combined.
In all but the smallest diesel plants two, or more com-
monly three or more, independent diesel-generator sets are
fitted. An attached generator, driven directly by the main en-
gine, may be fitted as well. A waste-heat boiler, recovering
heat from the engine exhaust, is common. With low-speed
engines and the larger medium-speed engines the auxiliaries
are independently driven by electric motors, but the smaller
the engine, the more common are attached auxiliaries.
24.2.2.2 Steam plants
Steam plants are completely dominant among liquid natu-
ral gas carriers in current service, and coal-fueled ships are
necessarily steamships. In addition, many older, oil-fired
steamships remain in service, some of which have been ex-
tensively modernized.
The typical steam plant, of which Figure 24.3 is an ex-
ample, has two boilers side-by-side, supplying steam to a
cross-compound propulsion turbine comprised of separate
high-pressure and low-pressure turbines, the power outputs
of which are combined at the reduction gear to drive the pro-
peller. Astern running is achieved by admitting steam to sep-
arate astern stages within the casing of the low-pressure
turbine. Steam is also supplied to one or more independent
turbo generators, as well as to the turbo-feed pumps, but
most other auxiliaries are driven by electric motors. Exhaust
steam is condensed using large quantities of seawater, and
returned to the boiler via a series of feed-water heaters. Some
plants use scoop-circulation of the condenser when the ship
is moving ahead at speed, which requires carefully designed
ducts to be integrated into the hull structure, usually with a
lip at the overboard discharge to induce the flow. On tankers,
cargo pumps are generally driven by steam turbines, and
large quantities of steam may be used at sea for cargo heat-
ing. Standby diesel generators are common. Plants with sin-
gle boilers, single-casing turbines, attached auxiliaries, or
turbo-electric drive are all practical but not typical.
24.2.2.3 Gas turbine plants
Gas turbines can be divided between aircraft-derivative units
(ADGTs) and heavy-duty gas turbines (HDGTs), originally
designed for stationary power production, and can be fur-
ther divided between simple-cycle units (SCGTs) and re-
generative-, or recuperative-cycle units (RCGTs). Few of
the merchant ships built a generation ago with gas turbine
 Chapter 24: Machinery Considerations 24-3

Figure 24.1 Low-speed Diesel Machinery Arrangement

propulsion remain in service with their original machinery,
but simple-cycle, aircraft-derivative gas turbines have be-
come the prime movers of choice for a wide range of naval
vessels (4). In most of these naval vessels, it is the high
power density of simple-cycle gas turbines, which is their
principal advantage, which has driven the selection. Newer
merchant-ship applications have tended to be those where
high power density is useful, as in high-speed ferries. This
fact favors the simple-cycle gas turbine over the regenera-
tive-cycle gas turbine, although an advanced-cycle machine
now under development, which uses an intercooled com-
pressor and a compact regenerator, may redress this issue.
 24-4 Ship Design & Construction, Volume 1

Marine gas turbines of 40 000 kW and more are avail- Advantages of gas turbines over other prime movers are:
able, but only at the discrete power levels at which they are
manufactured. The larger gas turbines are usually supplied • high power density and low specific weight, especially
and installed in an acoustic enclosure of approximately con- for ADGTs;
tainer dimensions. In most applications they are geared to • manufacture as standardized units, with a broad base of
the propeller, but electric drive is also feasible. Two units experience in other applications;
may be fitted side-by-side, geared together to drive a single • little requirement for on-board maintenance;
propeller shaft. Astern power must be provided by the gear • rapid start and assumption of load; and
set, by a controllable-pitch propeller, or by electric drive. • low exhaust emissions, especially of NOx.

BOX GIRDER
INCINERATOR
ELEV
SLUDGE BURNER FD TK
CO2 ROOM
AND PUMP

HATCH AND LANDING AREA

SSDG SILENCERS (3)
CONTROL OIL-FIRED BOILER
VENT TRUNKS
ROOM

WASTE-HEAT BOILER
ME UPTAKE WATER TEST STN

SSDG UPTAKES
OIL-FIRED BOILER ME AND AUX FW
WHB CIRC PUMPS EXPANSION TANKS

ME UPTAKE HW HEATER AND

MAIN DECK CIRC PUMP

CONTAINER HOLD CONTROL VENT TRUNKS

ROOM GANTRY CRANE HEAD
TRANSFORMERS
HATCH AND LANDING AREA
UPPER FLAT
ME SPARES HVAC AND PROVISION
SSDGS (3) CONTROL AIR COMP COMPRESSION UNITS
HFO RECVR AND DRIER
SETT TK HYDRAULIC
ESCAPE TRUNK
SHIP'S SVC AIR POWER PACK
MIDDLE FLAT COMP AND RCVR BOX GIRDER
GEAR-DRIVEN GEN AUX CLR FW PUMPS
OIL/WATER SEP CENTRAL AUX CLRS
SHAFT COUPLING
BALLAST PUMPS
FLOOR PLATES
PLAN AT UPPER FLAT
SW SUCTION MAIN
PIPE TUNNEL
BILGE WELL ACCESS TRUNK
DO PURIFIER LO PURIFIERS AND HEATERS
BLR FO PUMP HFO PURIFIERS, FD PUMPS, HEATERS
ME LO COOLER AUX CLR FW PUMPS
SSDG FO PUMPS
ME JKT CLG PUMP
AND HTRS
ME JKT COOLER REDN GEAR LO
BILGE PUMP
SLUDGE PUMP STORAGE TANK CONDENSER, DRN CLR,
MELO MELO DO DO
INSPN AND FEED TANKS
ME LO FILTER CENTRAL AUX CLRS SSDG LO STORAGE SETT STG SETT STG
HFO DAY
TANK TANK TANK TANK
ME LO PUMPS TANK TANK
FIRE AND GENL
LO PURIFIER FD PUMP SERVICE PUMP ME FO PUMPS
AND HTRS
GEAR-DRIVEN GEN BILGE/BALLAST PUMPS SSDGS (3) BOILER FEED PUMPS
OIL/WATER SEPARATOR STERN TUBE
HYDRAULIC HEAD TANK
OIL/WTR SEP FEED PUMP POWER PACK LANDING AREA

BALLAST VALVES ME SPARES

ESCAPE TRUNK OIL SERVICE TKS HATCH
LANDING AREA
ESCAPE TRUNK
PIPE TUNNEL ACCESS

AUX CLR SW PUMPS HFO SETT

BILGE PUMP TANK
FO TRANSFER VALVES
ME SPARES
ME SW PUMPS EMGY AIR COMP
STERN TUBE LO PUMP AND RCVR LANDING AREA
FIRE PUMP FO TRANSFER PUMPS WORK SHOP

RED GEAR LO PUMPS EVAP SW PUMP FW COMPN TK

FILTER AND COOLER
EVAPORATOR HFO SETT AND PUMPS
LO PURIFIER FD PUMP STORE ROOM TANK
ME LO PUMPS BILGE PUMP STARTING AIR COMPS
ME LO FILTER HIGH SEA SUCTION AND RECEIVERS
ME JKT COOLER
ME JKT CLG PUMP SEWAGE PLANT
ME LO COOLER

PLAN AT FLOOR PLATES PLAN AT MIDDLE FLAT

Figure 24.2 Medium-speed Geared Diesel Machinery Arrangement

Figure 24.3 Steam Plant Machinery Arrangement
24-6 Ship Design & Construction, Volume 1
Disadvantages are:
• sensitivity to fuel quality;
• high fuel consumption, especially at less than full power;
• high air and exhaust flows;
• sensitivity to losses in air and exhaust ducts;
• reduced performance at high ambient-air temperatures;
• high maintenance cost, especially for ADGTs;
• no inherent or simple reversing capability; and
• output at high rpm, which requires speed-reducing trans-
missions for propeller drive.
The combustion air must be drawn from the weather, so
the plants are characterized by very large intake and ex-
haust ducts. Attached generators, driven from the reduction
gear, may be fitted. Independent generators may be driven
by gas turbines or diesel engines. Waste-heat boilers are
feasible, but because they add to the volume, weight, and
complexity, they are not common. Most auxiliaries are in-
dependently driven by electric motors.
24.2.3 Machinery Arrangements
Several examples of machinery arrangements are shown in
Figures 24.1 to 24.3. Regardless of machinery type, the
equipment in a properly designed plant is arranged to allow
for such factors as the following:
• safety considerations, including fire hazards;
• requirements for suction, gravity flow, static head, air in-
take, and mechanical connection;
• access for operation, inspection, maintenance, repair,
overhaul, and renewal;
• ship’s structure;
• simplicity of construction;
• noise and vibration.
These factors are discussed below, and their effects are
evident in the illustrated arrangements.
When the machinery space is located aft, the after-most
position of the propulsion machinery is determined by the
hull form, by the width of the machinery, and, usually, by
the need to withdraw the tail shaft inboard. Inboard with-
drawal of the tail shaft is normal with fixed-pitch propellers;
outboard withdrawal is normal with controllable-pitch pro-
pellers and can be arranged in any case, although it may re-
quire the removal of both the rudder and propeller.
Pump suction criteria affect most machinery systems,
usually forcing fuel-transfer pumps, lubricating-oil circu-
lating pumps, seawater cooling pumps, bilge pumps, bal-
last pumps, and fire pumps to be located on the lowest level.
Other pumps, including boiler-feed pumps and fuel-serv-
ice pumps, may be located on intermediate flats, but only
when their sources of suction are also elevated. Many tank
locations are therefore related to pump locations, and are
also subject to considerations that may include gravity fill-
ing or drainage, venting, or static-head requirements.
Most machinery is grouped by system to limit piping runs
and to simplify construction and operation. The location of
pumps and tanks therefore determines the locations of con-
nected equipment. With similar logic, generators, switch-
boards, distribution panels, and transformers are arranged
to limit cable runs. On the other hand, some machinery is
grouped by type rather than by system, for example, fuel-
oil purifiers are often grouped with lubricating-oil purifiers
to enable common facilities to be shared.
Access for operation, inspection, maintenance, repair,
overhaul, and renewal is generally of paramount impor-
tance, with lifting gear, removal routes, and spare-parts stor-
age all considered in the design process. Provision for
removal ashore of such items as turbine and generator ro-
tors, gear elements, large electric motors, and main-engine
components, is typically required. Direct access routes for
normal stores handling, usually using a ship’s stores crane,
are normally provided. Work areas are usually located close
to equipment requiring frequent disassembly, including pu-
rifiers, strainers and filters, diesel-engine injectors, and boiler
burners. A central machine shop is normally provided, and
in keeping with the intended maintenance philosophy, may
be extensively equipped, with designated areas for specific
activities.
A central control station is typical whether or not ma-
chinery is normally attended or is fully automated. Gener-
ally this station is in a control room located in or immediately
adjacent to the engine room, together with switchboards
and distribution panels. In some ships with fully automated
machinery, however, the machinery- control station is placed
in an integrated ship-control center remote from the engine
room.
Because of their high noise level, diesel generators are
often isolated from the general machinery space by acoustic
bulkheads. Gas turbines are usually fitted with acoustic en-
closures.
Other machinery, for example, purifiers and fuel serv-
ice systems, may be isolated to facilitate ventilation and fire
suppression. To further minimize fire risks, oil tanks are not
located over boilers or incinerators, or close to uptakes.
Fire-hazardous equipment is kept clear of equipment criti-
cal to ship control and damage control. Fire pumps are kept
distant from each other.
Large tanks in or adjacent to the engine room normally
include those for fuel settling and service, lubricating-oil
storage and treatment, and reserve-feed storage. Engine-
room double-bottom tanks may be used for main-engine
 Chapter 24: Machinery Considerations
and reduction-gear oil sumps, distillate-fuel storage, reserve
feed, waste oils, untreated bilge water, or ballast.
24.2.4 Criteria for Power Plant Selection
Characteristics of modern merchant-ship power plants that
should be considered in selection of machinery are dis-
cussed below. A summary is presented as Table 24.I.
24.2.4.1 Acquisition cost
A marine power plant is a system comprised of components
which include the main and auxiliary machinery, founda-
tions, shafting, piping, ducting, cabling, automation and
controls, access and overhauling gear, etc. The acquisition
cost referred to here is the cost to the ship owner of the com-
plete system, and includes the costs for components and
materials, engineering, fabrication, installation, commis-
sioning, and testing, including labor and overhead costs.
Comparison of the total cost is clouded by such factors as
different shipyard practices, labor costs in different regions,
or the eagerness of component manufacturers to market
their products. Deviation from a pre-existing local practice
can have an overwhelming effect. If influences such as these
could be removed, there would be little difference in ac-
quisition cost for complete power plants that are of differ-
ent type, as long as they are equal in their quality of outfit.
With these caveats, acquisition costs for complete plants of
equal outfit are likely to be within about ten percent of the
mean. At all power levels, low-speed diesel plants and coal-
fired steam plants are likely to have the highest acquisition
costs. At lower power levels where high-speed diesel plants
are practical, they generally have the lowest acquisition
costs. As power levels rise progressively, the lowest acqui-
sition cost is likely to be for medium-speed diesel plants,
then for oil-fired steam plants, and then for simple-cycle gas-
turbine plants.
Examples of changes in the quality of outfit that can dis-
rupt the expected order of acquisition cost include changes
in the level of automation, the addition of waste-heat re-
covery, the addition of an attached generator with speed or
frequency regulation, or the use of a controllable-pitch pro-
peller.
24.2.4.2 Margins and ratings
Diesel engines are normally selected to operate at an aver-
age power output of 70% to 90% of their maximum con-
tinuous rating (MCR). This practice helps to ensure that
predicted ship performance will be achieved in service as
the hull and propeller foul, and in rough seas, and is in keep-
ing with expected lives of engine components. On the other
hand, steam plants and gas turbines are often intended to
24-7
deliver their maximum rated power continuously. As a re-
sult, if all else were equal, a ship with a diesel plant would
appear to have more installed propulsion power than an oth-
erwise identical ship with steam or gas turbines.
24.2.4.3 Type of fuel
Most ships’ power plants use petroleum fuel oils. Distillate
fuels (which include gas oil, No. 2-D, and DFM) are the
easiest to use but are the most expensive, while residual
fuels are the cheapest but most difficult to use. Intermedi-
ate fuels are produced by blending distillate fuels with resid-
uals, and generally have all of the difficulties of residuals
although to a reduced extent. Because of their lower den-
sity, distillate fuels are considered light fuels, with blended
and residual fuels all being heavy fuels. The heaviest fuels
must be heated to reduce their viscosity before they can be
pumped, and all heavy fuels must be heated further before
they can be burned. Heavy fuels generally contain impuri-
ties, including solid particles, water, sulfur, vanadium, and
sodium, and tend to leave deposits of carbon during com-
bustion, all of which contribute to the deterioration of the
machinery. Distillate fuels contain little, if any, of these im-
purities, do not generally require heating, and do not nor-
mally leave carbon deposits. In addition, the heating value
(the energy content) of the heaviest fuels is typically five or
six percent below that of the distillates.
Low-speed diesel engines are more likely than the higher-
speed engines to operate on heavy fuels without excessive
maintenance costs. Most medium-speed engines are capa-
ble of operation on heavy fuels, although maintenance costs
are almost always higher when compared to those of low-
speed engines operated on heavy fuels, or in comparison to
those of medium-speed engines operated on distillate fuels.
Some medium-speed engines and all high-speed engines
require distillate fuels. Oil-fired steamships are generally
designed for residual fuel, but would have somewhat re-
duced maintenance requirements if lighter fuels are used.
Some heavy-duty gas turbines have been operated suc-
cessfully on carefully selected heavy fuels, and others are
considered suitable for light-intermediate fuels. Aircraft-
derivative gas turbines must be run on distillate fuel.
Even in power plants in which heavy fuels can be used,
the choice of fuel is mostly an economic decision, requir-
ing that a balance be struck between the lower cost of the
heavier fuels and the inconvenience and increased costs of
fuel treatment and machinery maintenance. The power plants
of most sea going merchant ships are run on heavy fuels,
but most coastal, river, and harbor craft, most fishing boats,
and most naval vessels use distillate fuels.
Coal is used in some trades, where its much lower cost,
well below that of even residual fuel oil, justifies the diffi-
24-8 Ship Design & Construction, Volume 1
culties inherent in its use. Coal has lower heating value and
density than fuel oil, resulting in much larger volumes and
weight penalties for coal-fired ships than for oil-fired ships
of similar range. Coal-fired ships are necessarily steam ships,
with coal-storage arrangements, coal-transfer systems, and
boilers all specifically designed for the particular grade of
coal that will be used.
Where natural gas is available, it is an attractive fuel that
burns cleanly in boilers, diesel engines, and gas turbines; re-
ducing maintenance costs and exhaust emissions of atmos-
pheric pollutants. Difficulties associated with natural gas for
marine use are in the gas-storage and handling arrangements.
Natural gas is the principal fuel for liquefied natural-gas car-
riers, where it is available as boil-off from the cargo. Because
of the reduced exhaust emissions, natural gas use in coastal,
river, and harbor craft is likely to increase.
24.2.4.4 Fuel consumption
Power plants are often compared on the basis of their spe-
cific fuel consumption, or SFC, which is the quantity of fuel
consumed per unit of power delivered. It should be noted,
however, that raw SFC data can be terribly deceptive, as the
values usually cited for steam plants are all-purpose SFCs,
on the intended fuel, and including transmission losses and
margins, while those most often cited for diesel engines and
gas turbines are for the engine alone, often on higher-qual-
ity fuel than will be used, and usually without transmission
losses or margins. Allowances for these differences can eas-
ily add 15% to 20% to the quoted SFCs. For purposes of
comparison, therefore, SFCs of diesel engines and gas tur-
bines must be adjusted as explained below.
Typical values are cited in the following paragraphs for oil-
fired plants, in units of grams of fuel per hour per kW. The
coal consumption of coal-fired plants is not addressed here
because it is dependent on the heating value of the particular
coal to be used, which varies widely among grades. With coal-
burning methods currently used in marine boilers, they are
about five percent less efficient than oil-fired boilers, but ad-
vanced coal-firing methods becoming well established ashore
can redress this disparity. In addition, the parasitic loads of a
coal-fired plant, principally for coal and ash handling, are
greater than for oil, and are reflected in the all-purpose fuel
consumption. Natural gas consumption rates are not discussed
here because they are also case-specific, again depending on
gas quality and on combustion technique. In general, when
compared on the basis of energy consumption to their oil-
fired counterparts, natural gas boilers, reciprocating engines,
and gas turbines are similar in efficiency. However, efficien-
cies with natural gas are slightly higher for gas turbines if the
firing temperature can be increased, and are slightly lower for
some air-limited reciprocating engines.
The SFC for a steam plant is usually obtained from a
heat balance performed in accord with a standard which en-
sures reasonable margins and allowances, which includes
energy required for auxiliaries and ship’s services, which
includes transmission losses to the shaft power level, and
which is based on the intended fuel, usually a residual fuel.
The SFC is thus an all-purpose value, achievable in service
on heavy fuel, as long as the plant is operated in general ac-
cord with the heat balance, and as long as it is well main-
tained. Multiplying the SFC of a steam plant by the shaft
power gives a reasonably reliable value of the ship’s fuel
consumption.
Typical values of all-purpose SFC for geared steam-tur-
bine plants run on heavy fuel, for the plant ratings stated,
with the plant running within about 10% of its rating, are:
15 000 skW or higher 260 to 300 g/skW-h
10 000 skW 280 to 320 g/skW-h
5000 skW 320 to 360 g/skW-h
For operation at part power the SFC is higher, as in Fig-
ure 24.5.
In contrast to steam plant practice, SFCs for diesel en-
gines are usually given for distillate fuel, and may include
a deduction referred to as the tolerance. These SFCs are usu-
ally based on brake power (without transmission losses) of
the bare engine without attached auxiliaries. The values are
only minimally affected by ambient conditions. To calcu-
late the fuel consumption the SFCs of diesel engines may
first have to be corrected by a factor of 1.02 to 1.03 to re-
store the tolerance, then further corrected by the ratio of fuel-
heating value, up to 1.06 if the engine is to be run on heavy
fuel. Then the brake power must be determined from the
shaft power to the propeller: first by adding any gear- or
shaft-driven loads, and then, for direct-connected, low-speed
diesel engines, the total shaft power must be multiplied by
about 1.005 for thrust bearing loss, to yield brake power sup-
plied to the shaft; alternatively, for geared diesels the total
shaft power is multiplied by about 1.02 to allow for gear
losses (which include thrust bearing loss). Then the power
to any attached loads driven directly by the engine must be
added to yield the total brake power required from the en-
gine. Finally, multiplying the total brake power by the cor-
rected SFC yields the fuel consumption of the engine.
However, the result is not the all-purpose fuel consumption
of the plant unless electrical and heating needs are met by
the attached generator or by waste-heat recovery. The ad-
ditional fuel consumed by oil-fired boilers or independent
diesel generators must be added.
Typical values of SFC for diesel engines, which must be
adjusted as described previously, are:
 Chapter 24: Machinery Considerations 24-9

low-speed diesels 160 to 180 g/bkW-h fected by high ambient temperatures and by high intake-
medium-speed diesels 165 to 210 g/bkW-h and exhaust-duct losses.
high-speed diesels 200 to 250 g/bkW-h When simple-cycle gas turbines are operated at part load,
SFCs increase sharply, as shown in Figure 24.4.
In general, for each class of engine, the larger-bore,
An advanced gas turbine now under development with
lower-rpm engines have SFCs near the bottom of the range,
an intercooled compressor and a compact regenerator, with
and smaller-bore engines, near the top. Diesel engines have
a rating of about 25 000 bkW, will offer an SFC of about
fairly constant SFC above about 50% of their rating, as
200 g/bkW, approximately constant from about 40% rating
shown in Figure 24.4.
to full power. This fuel-consumption pattern is similar to
For gas turbines, SFCs are usually based on distillate
those of diesel engines, although without the ability to burn
fuel and on brake power, but are likely to include all directly
heavy fuels.
driven accessory loads. (When the gas turbine is capable of
When electric drive is used instead of reduction gear-
operation on heavy fuel, the SFC will likely increase by
ing, fuel consumption is five to ten percent higher. See Fig-
more than the ratio of heating value, since the firing tem-
ure 24.6.
perature may have to be reduced, a matter outside the scope
Even after all the corrections are made, it is usually found
of this chapter which will not be further addressed here.)
that diesel plants have significantly lower fuel consumption
The brake power must be determined from the shaft power
than other power plants, with an economic effect likely to
to the propeller: first by adding any gear- or shaft-driven
be heavily compounded when heavy fuels can be used.
loads, and then, for geared turbines, the total shaft power is
multiplied by about 1.02 to allow for gear and thrust-bear-
24.2.4.5 Volume and Mass
ing losses. Multiplying the total brake power by the corrected
The volume occupied by a ship’s power plant is not im-
SFC will yield the fuel consumption of the gas turbine.
portant if the space is available in any event, as on large rel-
However, the result will not be the all-purpose fuel con-
atively slow ships with heavy cargoes, such as tankers and
sumption of the plant unless electrical and heating needs
ore carriers. These ships often have larger engine rooms
are met by the attached generator or by waste-heat recov-
than required, even when fitted with low-speed diesel en-
ery. Additional fuel consumed by oil-fired boilers or inde-
gines. A similar situation obtains with deck-loaded ferries,
pendent diesel-generators must be added.
where the hull is largely empty, leaving far more space than
Typical values of SFC for simple-cycle gas turbines,
needed for the high-speed diesel engines that are likely to
which must be adjusted as described above, are shown in
Figure 24.5. The values are adversely and significantly af-

450

200
SFC, AS PERCENT OF SFC AT RATED OUTPUT

400
190
bSFC ON DISTILLATE FUEL, g/bkW-h

180
170 350
160
150 300
SCGT
140
STEAM
130
250
120
110
100 200
DIESEL
90
80 150
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 10 20 30 40 50
PERCENT OF RATED OUTPUT RATED OUTPUT, bkW
Figure 24.4 Variation in Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC) with Load for Steam Figure 24.5 Typical Values of Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (bSFC) of
Plants, Values Shown are for All-purpose Fuel Consumption; for All Others, Simple-cycle, Marine Gas Turbines Operated on Distillate Fuel, at Rated
Values are for the Engine Alone Conditions
24-10
95
AC/AC
SYSTEM EFFICIENCY, %
DRIVE
90
AC/DC
DRIVE
85
80
0 10 20
RATED SHAFT POWER, MW
Figure 24.6 Electric Drive Efficiency at Rated Shaft Output (1)
be used. The guideline values cited in Table 24.II are in-
tended to indicate the gross engine-room volume required,
and the total machinery mass. Gross engine-room volume
is defined here as the volume from the tank top (or bottom
shell, if there is no double-bottom) to the top of the engine
room, including any trunk above the main deck, but ex-
cluding shaft alleys and casings (for intake and exhaust),
while including space, as appropriate, for auxiliary ma-
chinery, workshops, control rooms, spares storage, and en-
gine-room tankage, for efficient arrangements with typical
auxiliary outfit. Total machinery mass, as used here, is the
mass of the entire content of the machinery spaces, plus
shafting, bearings, and propellers, including all auxiliaries,
foundations, ducting, uptakes, piping, cables, engine-room
ventilation, workshop equipment, control equipment, spares,
and liquids contained in machinery and piping, but not in-
cluding fuel in day tanks, settling tanks, or bunker tanks.
For the diesel plants, the lower values in each range are
appropriate for the higher-rpm engines with the most aus-
tere level of auxiliary outfit. For steam and gas turbine
plants, the lower values are associated with the higher-pow-
ered plants. For a discussion of coal-fired plants, see Sec-
tion 24.5.
An important point to consider when comparing mass
and volume of these plants is the effect of fuel consump-
tion, since stored fuel is not included in the values given
above. For example, if machinery is heavy or bulky but of
high efficiency, the difference in the mass and volume of
fuel necessary for a long voyage may yield a lower overall
mass or volume.
24.2.4.6 Flexibility in arrangement
This term refers to the extent to which major machinery
items can be shifted to accommodate constraints on engine-
Ship Design & Construction, Volume 1
TABLE 24.II Volume and Mass Guidelines
Power Plant m3/skW kg/skW
low-speed diesel 0.35 to 0.7 60 to 130
medium-speed diesel 0.12 to 0.35 25 to 90
high-speed diesel 0.07 to 0.2 10 to 35
oil-fired steam 0.25 to 0.6 30 to 90
simple-cycle gas turbine 0.04 to 0.15 7 to 35
30 40 50
room proportions. Low-speed diesel plants represent one ex-
treme in their lack of such flexibility: there must be one en-
gine per shaft, mounted on the tank top, and aligned with
the vertical and transverse center line of the propeller shaft-
ing. The length of the engine may determine the minimum
length of the engine room. In addition, low-speed engines
are very high, and minimum engine-room height is deter-
mined by adding the overhaul height to the height of the
engine. Such height may be difficult to accommodate in a
shallow hull, or it may interfere with arrangements of ve-
hicle ramps of roll-on, roll-off ships.
On the other hand, considerable flexibility exists in
steam-plant arrangements. For example, in contrast to the
short engine room shown in Figure 24.3, a low engine room
can be achieved by mounting the boilers forward of the tur-
bines, on the tank top.
The power plants that offer the greatest flexibility in
arrangement are usually electric drive, especially with high-
speed diesel or gas turbine driven generators, which, because
of their low weight, can be located almost anywhere aboard
the vessel, including the superstructure.
24.2.4.7 Lubricating oil consumption
While small amounts of lubricating oil are lost in steam tur-
bine and gas-turbine plants, all diesel engines actively con-
sume lubricating oil in significant amounts. The following
are guideline rates for specific oil consumption for all pur-
poses for diesel engines of each type. Total oil consump-
tion for a plant would include oil consumed by the main
engines and the auxiliaries, including auxiliary engines:
low-speed diesels 0.5 to 1.1 g/bkW-h
medium- and high-speed 0.7 to 1.7 g/bkW-h
diesels
Although lubricating oils are consumed at a much lower
rate than fuel oil, lubricating-oil consumption is a signifi-
cant operating-cost component because the unit costs of lu-
bricating oils are usually five or ten times those of fuel oils.
 Chapter 24: Machinery Considerations
24.2.4.8 Maintenance requirements
Maintenance requirements include inspections and trend
monitoring, routine servicing, and overhauls, and involve
costs for labor and parts, some accruing continuously, oth-
ers concentrated at intervals. On a life-cycle basis, per unit
of power output per unit time, the list below represents an
attempt to rank marine power plants in order, from lowest
maintenance cost to highest:
• oil-fired steam plant on residual fuel,
• any diesel plant on distillate fuel at modest output,
• low-speed diesel plant on heavy fuel at modest output,
• low-speed diesel plant on heavy fuel at high output,
• heavy-duty gas turbine plant on distillate fuel,
• coal-fired steam plant,
• medium-speed diesel plant on heavy fuel at modest output,
• medium-speed diesel plant on heavy fuel at high output,
• high-speed diesel plant on distillate fuel at high output, and
• aircraft-derivative gas turbine plant on distillate fuel.
Too many factors can affect the maintenance require-
ments for this list to be taken as more than guidance.
24.2.4.9 Manning and automation
Modern merchant-ship power plants of all types are normally
built with sufficient automation for unattended routine op-
eration at sea, under bridge control.
Traditional engine watches are normally not necessary,
a major factor in enabling the low levels of manning that
have come to be expected. Some older ships are not up to
this standard. Exceptions among modern ships include those
built to suit specific labor practices which inhibit reduced
manning, some passenger vessels, and vessels that are op-
erated in congested waters, or are so frequently maneu-
vered, that continuous watch standing is preferable.
With normally unattended machinery, engine-department
crew levels are determined by the number necessary for oc-
casional attendance during maneuvering or emergencies,
who are thus normally available for routine tasks such as reg-
ular maintenance and inspection, fuel transfer, and record
keeping. Even in a large and complex power plant, a chief
engineer and one or two assistants may be sufficient, with
additional help available when needed from dual-qualified
officers and seamen who are normally assigned to deck
watches. Under such circumstances increased use is made
of contract work gangs for more major maintenance tasks
in port, or even traveling with the ship for parts of a voyage.
24.2.5 Electric Drive versus Gearing
Overall efficiencies of electric-drive systems are shown in
Figure 24.6; for comparison, gearing efficiencies are on the
24-11
order of 98% to 99%. Gearing is also lighter and less ex-
pensive. However, electric drive offers certain advantages:
• precise speed control;
• rapid reversing, with full power available astern;
• high torque at low rpm;
• flexible machinery arrangements;
• ability to combine the output of multiple prime movers;
and
• flexible load management.
The last items listed are particularly useful where the
power requirement for the ship’s mission or trade rivals or
exceeds the propulsion load, so that the effect of high propul-
sion losses is diminished. With multiple generating sets, the
number in use can be matched to the load, enabling each to
be run close to its best efficiency, further compensating for
transmission losses.
With reference to Figure 24.6, when the incentives for
electric drive include speed control and high torque at low
speed, as might be the case with research ships, ice break-
ers, cable layers, and commuter ferries, AC/DC drive is the
likely choice. Shuttle tankers, long-distance ferries, and pas-
senger ships are candidates for AC/AC drive.
24.2.6 Controllable-pitch Propellers
Compared to fixed-pitch propellers, controllable-pitch pro-
pellers are much more expensive, more complex, and less
efficient at their design rpm. However, because the thrust
can be varied independently of rpm, from full ahead to full
astern, controllable-pitch propellers offer advantages that
can justify their use in ships of all types. These advantages
include the following:
• Maximum thrust is available at low ship speed, which
is especially helpful for tugboats and trawlers with diesel
engines, and for icebreakers with diesel engines or gas
turbines.
• The propeller pitch can be adjusted to match different
prime movers clutched to its drive shaft. This feature fa-
cilitates combined diesel or gas turbine plants, and en-
ables single-engine operation of diesel plants with paired
engines geared to a single screw.
• The propeller can provide reversing capability for non-
reversing engines, which is particularly useful for gas
turbines.
• Rapid maneuvering is possible without stopping the en-
gines or using clutches.
• Since shaft rpm can be held constant, independent of
ship speed, attached generators can supply electricity at
constant frequency without constant-speed transmissions
or frequency-rectification equipment.
24-12 Ship Design & Construction, Volume 1
Controllable-pitch propellers are normally flanged to
their propeller shafts, which are therefore drawn outboard,
an operation which might require removal of the rudder.
The shafting is hollow to accommodate the hydraulic lines
or rods that operate the hub.
24.2.7 Waterjets
Waterjets offer advantages over propellers in some cases.
For shallow-draft vessels, the impeller of a water jet can be
more easily protected from foreign-object damage than a
propeller. For high-speed vessels, water jets can be more
efficient than propellers, in part because of better hydrody-
namic performance of the hull forms that are possible with
water jets, but not with propellers.
Waterjets are usually fitted with rotating nozzles or thrust
deflectors for steering, making rudders unnecessary. Gen-
erally, they are also fitted with thrust-reversing deflectors,
eliminating the need for reversing gearing or engines. Nev-
ertheless, reversing gears are sometimes fitted when water
jets are used for shallow-draft vessels, to enable back flush-
ing of the intake.
The range of waterjet rpm at rated performance is from
over 3000 rpm at the lowest power levels, to about 500 rpm
for high-power applications. Direct-drive from medium and
high-speed diesel engines is possible, although optimum
performance of both the water jet and the diesel engine usu-
ally requires reduction gears. For gas-turbine drive, reduc-
tion gears are normally necessary.
24.2.8 Electrical Generating Plant
Regulatory-body requirements generally demand a mini-
mum of two ship’s service generators, each of sufficient ca-
pacity to carry the essential sea load. For ocean-going ships,
conservative practice calls for an increase in the number of
ship’s service generators to at least three, one or two of
which should be driven independently of the main propul-
sion plant, usually by diesel engines. These ship’s service
generators are in addition to the emergency source (usually
another generator), which must be self contained and located
outside of the engine room.
An attached generator can serve as a ship’s normal source
of electricity at sea, as an alternative to one ship’s service
generator. A main engine may drive an attached generator
directly or via the reduction gear or the propeller shaft. The
concept is applicable to plants of any size or type, although,
for circumstantial rather than technical reasons, it has seen
widespread use only for diesel plants. Two considerations
are, first, the provision of an immediately available standby
source to allow for unanticipated maneuvering or stopping
of the main engine, and second, a means of maintaining
constant frequency. Both issues can be resolved with addi-
tional equipment. Increases in acquisition cost and plant
mass will be significant if the main-engine rating must be
higher to accommodate the attached generator, and espe-
cially if frequency or speed correction is necessary, but fuel
costs will be reduced. If the alternative normal source is a
continuously run diesel generator, maintenance costs are
likely to be reduced as well.
24.3 DIESEL PLANTS
While Section 24.1 provided information that might lead to
a selection of diesel machinery over steam or gas turbines,
and perhaps towards a preference for low-speed or higher-
speed engines, this section addresses significant character-
istics of diesel plants that must then be considered.
24.3.1 Review of Engine Types
To summarize and amplify the information in Section 24.1,
diesel engines fall into either a low-speed category or the
medium- and high-speed categories. Low-speed engines are
generally intended for the direct drive of ships’ propellers
without any speed-changing device and are therefore re-
stricted to an rpm range for which efficient propellers can
be designed, generally well below 300 rpm and possibly as
low as 55 rpm at rated power. Low-speed engines are clas-
sified as two-stroke, crosshead engines. They normally have
four to twelve cylinders in-line, and are always turbocharged.
These engines are heavy and very large, but they are well
suited to operation on low-quality fuels and generally re-
quire only modest levels of maintenance.
Medium- and high-speed engines, because of their higher
rpm, must drive propellers through reduction gearing or by
electric drive. With few exceptions, these are four-stroke,
trunk-piston engines, which have up to ten cylinders in-line
or up to 24 in a V-configuration. Most are turbocharged.
The upper limit of the medium-speed category, and the start
of the high-speed category, is generally placed in the vicin-
ity 1200 rpm, but there are no clear physical features that
enable the distinction to be made. These engines tend to be
lighter, more compact, and lower in acquisition cost than
low-speed engines of comparable power output. Many of
these engines have a proven heavy- fuel capability, but most
evidence indicates that maintenance costs are higher than
those of low-speed engines that are run on fuels of similar
poor quality. Some engines, especially those in the higher-
speed category, are restricted to distillate fuels.
A notable exception to the typical characteristics of low-
 Chapter 24: Machinery Considerations
speed engines is a group of four-stroke, trunk-piston engines
that are designed to be directly connected to propellers. This
class of engine is indigenous, in both manufacture and ap-
plication, to the Far East. These engines are built with six or
eight in-line cylinders; they are rated for 70 to 700 kW per
cylinder at speeds of 200 to 500 rpm.
A notable and common exception in the medium- and
high-speed category is the series of two-stroke, trunk-pis-
ton, medium-speed engines produced in turbocharged and
mechanically blown versions that dominate their field of
application in American waters, despite their requirement
for distillate fuels; these are built only in a V-configuration.
The highest rated of these engines, with twenty cylinders,
has an output of more than 3500 kW at 900 rpm.
24.3.2 Margins and Rating
24.3.2.1 Engine ratings
The rating of an engine is generally given as a continuous
power output at a specified engine speed, and is usually
called the maximum continuous rating (MCR). The rating
reflects the confidence of the manufacturer and the regula-
tory bodies that the engine is capable of reliable perform-
ance at that level. However, if reasonably long component
lives and service intervals are to be achieved, the engine
will have to be matched to its load so that, on average, sub-
stantially less than the MCR is normally delivered. Such con-
siderations sometimes lead to the definition of a continuous
service rating that is perhaps 80% to 90 % of the MCR.
An engine may be given different ratings for different
applications, for example, a high-performance rating may
be given to an engine that is intended for an application in
which the engine may be operated under conditions of sus-
tained high power for limited periods of time, but with re-
duced intervals between overhauls. This might be in contrast
to a lower rating assigned to the same engine for a differ-
ent application, where the engine will be operated for long
periods at a more modest power output, and with longer
component lives and service intervals. The MCR of any
particular model of engine may be increased over time to
reflect component improvements or service experience.
An engine may be derated, that is, assigned a rating
lower than normal, to optimize it for a particular applica-
tion, usually to reduce maintenance costs, to reduce fuel
consumption, or most important for low-speed engines, to
a lower rpm to permit the use of a propeller of higher effi-
ciency. However, a derated engine will be larger, heavier,
and have higher acquisition cost than an alternative engine
that provides the required power at its normal rating. Der-
ating may or may not result in engine components that are
different from the standard design, but as long as auxil-
24-13
iaries, shafting, and reduction gearing are based on the
reduced engine rating, there is limited likelihood that a de-
rated engine could be rerated to its normal rating.
24.3.2.2 Limits of engine performance
Limits defining the operating envelope for an engine are
identified in Figure 24.7. Limited operation outside the
operating envelope will generally result in decreased com-
ponent durability, which is reflected in increased require-
ments for inspection and maintenance. A catastrophic
failure of a properly maintained engine under these con-
ditions is unlikely because of the design margins, and be-
cause periodic scheduled inspections reveal such effects
as burning, cracking, or distortion in time for component
renewal. The mean effective pressure (MEP) is a param-
eter that expresses limiting air availability and thermal
stress on an engine. The MEP is directly proportional to
the torque that is applied to the driven load, so that the prod-
uct of MEP and rpm is directly proportional to brake power
output. Therefore, as Figure 24.7 shows, within the limit
of rated MEP, an engine can achieve its rated power out-
put only at, or above, its rated rpm; at a lower rpm the
power that an engine can develop is limited by the MEP,
or torque. Sustained operation above rated MEP is likely
to result in poor combustion, carbon deposits, smoke, high
exhaust gas temperatures, high metal temperatures, and re-
duced component lives.
An important characteristic to note is that the engine can
be forced into a condition of excessive torque and MEP
without exceeding rated power if the engine is forced to run
at reduced rpm.
Minimum engine rpm is typically 25% to 40% of rated
rpm, below which operation would be erratic, with poor
combustion resulting in carbon accumulations. Except when
MCR: RATED POWER
MEP LIMIT
REGION OF
BRAKE POWER
AIR LIMIT LOWEST SFC
IDLE RPM
OVERSPEED
RATED RPM
ENGINE RPM
Figure 24.7 Diesel-engine Performance Limits
24-14 Ship Design & Construction, Volume 1
an engine that drives a fixed-pitch propeller is run at a mod-
est overspeed on trials in order to maximize the load, op-
eration beyond rated rpm is unusual.
Generally, diesel engines are so matched to their loads
that the power delivered in service is in the range of 80% to
90% of the MCR. This region of operation usually coincides
with the lowest specific fuel-consumption, and with antici-
pated component lives and service intervals. The difference
between the power at MCR and the power level established
for normal operation in service is the engine margin.
24.3.2.3 Matching engine to propulsion requirement
In Figure 24.8, a ship’s speed-power curves are superim-
posed on the engine-performance curves of Figure 24.7.
The curve labeled average ship performance in service re-
flects the fact that more power is required for a given ship
speed to be achieved in service than on trials by an amount
called the service margin. An engine is normally limited in
its power output by the constraints on air availability and
thermal overload that are expressed as the MEP limit.
The MEP, like the torque, is proportional to the power
developed divided by the rpm. If the ship is operated ini-
tially in service at a certain speed corresponding to an rpm
below the rated rpm of the engine then, as the hull resist-
ance increases in service, more power is required to main-
tain the same propeller rpm, and the MEP progressively
increases. Eventually the MEP limit is reached, and rpm
must thereafter be progressively reduced as the hull resist-
ance continues to rise.
If an engine were matched to deliver its full MCR at trial
speed when the hull is clean, then in service, as the hull
fouls, the engine would reach its limiting MEP sooner.
MEP LIMIT
MCR
CLEAN SHIP
ENGINE MARGIN PERFORMANCE
BRAKE POWER
SERVICE POWER
"MATCH POINT"
SERVICE MARGIN
AVERAGE SHIP
AVG SVC RPM
PERFORMANCE
RATED RPM
IN SERVICE
ENGINE RPM
Figure 24.8 Diesel-engine Performance Map with Ship Speed-power Curves
Superimposed
The rpm of a fixed-pitch propeller is almost directly pro-
portional to the ship speed at a particular draft and trim at
any given time, but in service, as the hull and propeller
roughen and foul and drag increases, the rpm required at
any given ship speed rises slightly (the slip increases). This
trend is beneficial in terms of power available, as it dimin-
ishes the rate at which MEP rises as the hull fouls.
The difference between the MCR and the power required
to achieve service speed on trials is therefore a total power
reserve, and, from Figure 24.8, is equal to the sum of the
engine margin and the service margin. In practice, the power
reserve that is incorporated in the engine margin up to the
limiting MEP is available to meet required service speeds
as the hull performance deteriorates and as sea conditions
worsen.
In fact, the division between engine margin and service
margin is not consistently defined, since the continuous
service power is arbitrarily determined. The important con-
sideration is that the total margin must be adequate if the
ship is to achieve its expected performance.
To select an engine for a particular ship, the power re-
quired to drive the propeller, allowing for transmission and
shafting losses, at loaded draft and trim, with the hull and
propeller clean, plus the power required by attached auxil-
iaries, is divided by an appropriate match point percentage,
typically 80% to 90%. An engine is selected which can de-
liver the resulting power at its MCR, at its rated rpm. A
match point of 80% to 90% will usually result in adequate
margins, but a lower value is appropriate if:
• the ship must maintain rigorous schedules;
• the long-term effects of increased hull and propeller
roughness and fouling are expected to be large;
• the ship is expected to be drydocked infrequently;
• a large allowance for adverse weather conditions is nec-
essary; or
• the intended trade will take the ship into warm seawater
ports or anchorages, where increased hull fouling is
likely, for extended stays.
The higher the MCR of the selected engine relative to
the power required at rated rpm under trial conditions (that
is, the lower the match point), the higher will be the aver-
age power output that can be utilized in service. The higher
average power output will enable higher ship speeds to be
achieved. However, more power must be installed, and so
acquisition cost and plant weight will be higher. As a fur-
ther consequence, in single-screw, single-engine installa-
tions, even if the ship can be ballasted down to loaded draft
on trials, it may not be feasible to achieve MCR without over-
speeding the engine.
 Chapter 24: Machinery Considerations
24.3.3 Moments, Forces, and Vibrations
The loads imposed by a diesel engine on its foundation and
on connected equipment are disturbances that are predictable
in nature, amplitude, and frequency, and are among the data
available from the manufacturer. Whether trouble will arise
depends on the response of connected structure and equip-
ment to these disturbances. If the frequency of a distur-
bance, or of any of its harmonics, is close to the natural
frequency of connected structure or equipment, then even
a disturbance of small magnitude can excite a resonant re-
sponse.
Engine-imposed disturbances may be divided between,
1) external forces and moments, which can excite a response
from hull structure, and 2) torsional vibration in the propul-
sion drive train, which usually affects only shaft-connected
equipment. Generally, forces and moments internal to an
engine are absorbed by the engine itself.
The frequencies of engine-imposed disturbances are re-
lated to the rpm of the engine, and are defined relative to
that rpm by their order; i.e., their frequency as a multiple
of engine rpm. Fractional orders are encountered in the case
of four-stroke engines.
24.3.3.1 External forces and moments
External forces and moments arise from the reciprocating
motion of the pistons and running gear, and would cause an
unrestrained engine to pitch, yaw, roll, or rack. With the en-
gine installed in the ship, these disturbances can excite a re-
sponse from the hull structure. If necessary, the first- and
second-order components of the pitching and yawing dis-
turbances can be countered, completely or in part, with ad-
ditional counterweights on the crankshaft or on balance
shafts carrying pairs of opposed counterweights rotating in
opposite directions, often driven by the engine itself. The
larger, low-order components of roll couples and racking
moments can be countered by horizontal bracing to adja-
cent structure. Higher-order components of the disturbances
are usually, though not always, of sufficiently low magni-
tude to be left uncorrected.
External forces and moments are summarized below for
typical marine diesel in-line engines without additional
counterweights.
For two-stroke in-line engines:
• four-cylinder engines usually have severe first and sec-
ond-order pitching couples and a severe fourth-order roll
couple;
• five-cylinder engines usually have a moderate first-order
pitching couple, but severe second-order pitching and
fifth-order roll couples;
• six-cylinder engines usually have no first-order pitching
24-15
couple, but a severe second-order pitching couple and a
severe sixth-order roll couple;
• engines with seven or more cylinders usually have mod-
erate or negligible first- and second-order pitching cou-
ples and moderate roll couples at an order equal to the
number of cylinders; and
• eight- and twelve-cylinder engines may have racking
moments in the horizontal planes sufficient to require
countermeasures, typically at third, fourth, and fifth or-
ders.
For four-stroke in-line engines:
• four-cylinder engines usually have a severe second-order
vertical force, and a severe second-order roll couple;
• five-cylinder engines usually have a moderate first-order
pitching couple, but a severe second-order pitching cou-
ple and a severe 2.5-order roll couple; and
• engines with six or more cylinders usually have moder-
ate or negligible first- and second-order couples and
moderate roll couples at an order equal to half the num-
ber of cylinders.
For four-stroke V-engines:
• eight-cylinder engines are balanced in regard to first and
second-order pitching and yawing couples only if the
bank angle is equal to the firing interval of 90 degrees;
the smaller bank angles that are more common in ma-
rine engines can result in first-order disturbances suffi-
cient to require correction;
• ten-cylinder engines usually have moderate first and sec-
ond-order pitching and yawing couples and a moderate
2.5-order roll couple;
• 12, 16, and 24-cylinder engines are generally balanced
in regard to low-order pitching and yawing couples, but
have moderate roll couples at an order equal to a quar-
ter of the number of cylinders; and
• 24, 18, and 20-cylinder engines usually have moderate
or negligible first- and second-order pitching and yaw-
ing couples as well as moderate roll couples.
Two-stroke V-engines in marine propulsion service are
predominantly of a single design, built only as V8, V12,
V16, and V20 engines. These engines have no first- or sec-
ond-order disturbances by design, which includes the use
of camshaft counterweights.
24.3.3.2 Torsional vibration
Torsional vibration arises from a periodically varying torque
superimposed on the steady torque being transmitted by an
engine to its load. The sources of this varying torque include
the discrete power strokes of the engine, which generate
24-16 Ship Design & Construction, Volume 1
torque pulsations once per crank throw per cycle, and at
higher orders of this frequency. In ships with direct-con-
nected low-speed diesels, this is usually the dominant source
of torque variation. Torsional-vibration calculations are re-
quired at an early stage in the design process, as soon as the
engine has been selected and the configuration of the ro-
tating system, including shafting, couplings, clutches, gear-
ing, bearings, and propeller, is known. The rotating system
may be susceptible to low-frequency excitation, such as that
produced when a cylinder is taken out of service. Conse-
quently, torsional vibration calculations are usually required
for operation with a cylinder out of service, and additional
barred speed ranges then may be imposed.
24.3.4 Electrical Generating Plant
While the usual prime mover for a ship’s service generator
in a diesel plant is a diesel engine, refinements and alterna-
tives are described under separate headings in the following.
In the simplest case, all ship’s service generators will be
identical to simplify maintenance and provide flexibility in
operation. Generally, one generator is normally in service,
with at least one diesel generator on automatic standby.
During maneuvering periods two diesel generators may be
run in parallel. Peak loads are met by operating two or more
generators. Because diesel generators should not be loaded
to less than about 35% of their rated output in sustained op-
eration, where there is a disparity between loads at sea and
in port, or between loads on one leg of a voyage and an-
other, differently rated units may be installed to meet the
differing demands, or units might be operated in parallel rou-
tinely during periods of high demand.
Because of the high noise level of diesel generators, and
because one or more will be running in port even when the
main plant is available for maintenance, diesel generators
are often located behind an acoustic partition or in a sepa-
rated machinery space.
24.3.4.1 Heavy fuel
Where ship’s service diesel generators are to be the normal
electrical source, there is often an economic incentive to fit
generator engines suitable for heavy fuel, with the neces-
sary support systems. There will be increases in acquisition
cost, plant mass and volume, and maintenance requirements.
24.3.4.2 Steam turbogenerator
Where the main-engine output is large enough and/or the
electrical needs are sufficiently limited, enough steam can
be generated by the main engine exhaust gases in a waste-
heat boiler to enable a turbogenerator to serve as one of the
ship’s service generators. Even where the turbogenerator can
meet only part of the demand with steam from the waste-
heat boiler, it may still be economically justified, with the
balance of the electrical demand met by supplemental steam
from oil-fired boilers, or with an attached generator or diesel
generators. In addition to the reduction in fuel consumption,
a properly designed and maintained waste-heat steam plant
can have lower maintenance costs than a continuously run
diesel generator. Increases in acquisition cost, plant com-
plexity, mass (especially the topside mass of the boiler) and
volume are likely to be significant.
24.3.4.3 Attached generator
An attached generator driven from the main engine, the re-
duction gear, or the line shaft can serve as a ship’s normal
supply, as discussed above in Section 24.1.
It is feasible to combine prime movers for a single ship’s
service generator. An example is an attached generator
driven through a constant output-speed transmission by the
main engine, which also accommodates input from a waste-
heat steam turbine.
24.3.5 Steam Generating Plant
Most diesel plants of significant size are fitted with waste-
heat recovery systems to generate steam for heating re-
quirements, which are likely to include heating of heavy fuel,
as well as hotel needs and heating of lubricating oil. (An
alternative to steam is a thermal-fluid system, often used on
uninspected vessels.) Where sufficient waste-heat is avail-
able, a waste-heat turbogenerator may be fitted (see item 2
above). The waste-heat boiler and oil-fired boilers are inte-
grated into the steam system, which is usually designed to
function automatically to maintain steam pressure even as
the main engine is maneuvered or stopped. On tankers,
where steam may be required for cargo heating, cargo and
ballast pumping, and for tank cleaning, and in any plant
where maximum heat recovery is intended, the steam plant
can be very sophisticated. Despite the automation, routine
procedures are necessary to avoid corrosion, to maintain
water quality, and to avoid soot accumulation that can lead
to uptake fires. Neglect of these simple procedures has some-
times resulted in failures, giving the steam systems of diesel
plants an undeserved reputation for unreliability.
24.3.6 Fuel and Lubricating Oil Tankage
Diesel plants on ocean-going ships, especially those using
heavy fuel, usually require tankage for a diverse range of
fuel and lubricating oils, within or adjacent to the engine
room.
 Chapter 24: Machinery Considerations
24.3.6.1 Fuel oils
Before fuel is used in a diesel engine on a large or ocean-
going ship, it is normally passed through centrifugal separa-
tors, necessitating a two-stage handling procedure. Fuel is first
transferred from bunker tanks distributed through the vessel
to a settling tank, where it is held, undisturbed, long enough
for most solids and water to precipitate. It is then passed
through the separators to the day tank, from which the en-
gine is supplied. The settling and day tanks are usually of 24-
hour capacity. To enable gravity flow to the pumps and
separators, the tanks must be at or above floor-plate level.
When heavy fuel is used, two settling tanks are preferred,
so that one can remain undisturbed after filling, while the
other is in use. The fuel in the settling tanks is heated, and
to avoid convection currents caused by cold surfaces, the
tanks should be separated from the side shell.
When multiple grades of fuel are used, for example, if
the ship’s service generators are run on distillate fuel while
the main engine is run on heavy fuel, settling and day tanks
must be provided for each grade. Even when all engines are
normally run on heavy fuels, storage must be provided for
distillate fuel, typically equivalent to a three-day supply for
the main engine, to be used when maintenance practices,
exhaust emission controls, or other operational considera-
tions dictate.
24.3.6.2 Lubricating oils
Lubricating-oil storage tanks must be located above the tank
top, and below a weather deck to facilitate filling, but are
most often located on an upper flat within the engine room.
Low-speed diesel engines require two types of lubricat-
ing oil: cylinder oil, which accounts for most of the oil con-
sumed (see 24.2.4.7), and system oil. A three- to six-month
supply of cylinder oil is typical, stored in two tanks to allow
two grades of cylinder oil to be carried.
Different diesel engines require different grades of sys-
tem oil. In particular, main-engine system oil will most
likely be different from that of ship’s service generator en-
gines. Ocean-going ships carry sufficient system oil to re-
fill the system or drain tank of each engine at least once,
plus sufficient margin to meet miscellaneous consumption.
System oil in all diesel engines drains to a sump at the
base of the engine. In high-speed engines and in the smaller
medium-speed engines, the oil is recirculated directly from
this sump, but in larger engines the oil then drains to a sep-
arate tank, built into the double bottom directly below the
engine, but separated from the bottom shell by a cofferdam.
The capacity of this drain tank may be on the order of 0.5
to 1.0 kg/bkW of engine rating. Drain tanks are shown in
Figures 24.10 and 24.11 as integral parts of the foundations.
For medium- and high-speed engines, the system oil is pe-
24-17
riodically replaced, and stored quantities might have to be
increased to reflect this requirement.
To accommodate the oil drained from medium- and high-
speed engines until it can be discharged ashore, there must
be a used-oil tank located low in the engine room. For low-
speed engines, and sometimes for medium-speed engines,
there will be a settling tank, equal to the capacity of the
drain tank, but normally empty, to store oil replaced but
suitable for re-use after treatment on board. The settling
tank is usually located adjacent to the system-oil storage tank
to simplify piping.
In addition to main and auxiliary engines, other equip-
ment that may require oil to be stored in sufficient quantity
to justify fixed tanks might include reduction gearing and
stern tubes.
24.3.7 Intake and Exhaust Considerations
Diesel engines are best supplied with intake air at weather-
ambient pressure and near weather-ambient temperature,
free of excess moisture. The quantity required will be in the
range of 6 to 8 m3/kW-h. In the usual arrangement, main
and auxiliary engines draw air directly from the engine
room. The engine room ventilation system is designed to
deliver fresh air to the vicinity of the engine intakes, and
vent fans and ducts must be sized to deliver the engine-in-
take air in addition to the ventilation air. When the engine
room is small relative to the intake-air requirement, a di-
rect intake from the weather may be justified. In this case,
engine performance will benefit from the lower air tem-
perature, but will be adversely affected by excessive intake-
duct pressure losses.
The source of the air supplied to the engines must be lo-
cated to preclude intake of exhaust gas, ventilation-system
exhaust air, seawater spray, or flammable vapor from tank
vents or other sources.
Each engine must have its own independent exhaust up-
take led to the weather, as must each boiler and each in-
cinerator. Except on smaller vessels where engine exhaust
is piped overboard through the side shell or transom, all of
the uptakes are led through the casing and through the top
of the smokestack.
24.3.8 Maintenance Considerations
Diesel engines, especially those operated on heavy fuels,
require considerable maintenance. In general, major ma-
chinery maintenance tasks aboard ship are staggered to pro-
vide a manageable amount of work during each port visit.
Classification societies offer continuous machinery survey
provisions to suit this practice. On the other hand, opera-
24-18 Ship Design & Construction, Volume 1
tors of ships in seasonal trades usually attempt to restrict
all planned maintenance to the lay-up period, when com-
plete overhauls are more conveniently undertaken.
Major engine maintenance involves disassembly. For all
but small high-speed engines, mechanical lifting gear is nec-
essary, and designated landing and storage areas, designated
access routes from weather decks, and sufficient room for
access must be allotted in the early design stages. Sufficient
height must be provided over the main and auxiliary engines
to remove the pistons. Main engines that are tall relative to
the depth of the hull may require a trunk above the main
deck level. For large main engines, a gantry crane is installed
overhead. Lifting beams with trolleys are fitted for smaller
engines, including diesel generators. At least one of the ship’s
stores cranes should be arranged to allow the direct transfer
of parts and stores to the storeroom levels of the engine room,
often through a hatch on deck and a vertical trunk.
For ocean-going ships, a considerable inventory of spare
parts and special tools and equipment will be carried on
board, most often stored or installed in the vicinity of the
engines. Selected spares are kept in an overhauled, partly
assembled condition, ready for use, to expedite both emer-
gency repairs and staggered maintenance schedules. A used
component that is withdrawn from the engine is either re-
conditioned to become the next spare or is scrapped.
24.3.9 Maneuvering Considerations
Diesel engines can provide equal torque and power to the
propeller whether it is running ahead or astern, and the pro-
peller must be designed to accept this load.
Diesel engines cannot be run reliably at speeds below
about 25% to 40% of their rated rpm. Therefore, in fixed-
pitch propeller installations, dead-slow speeds must be
achieved by alternately running the engine at this speed and
then coasting. For ships operated for extended periods at
dead-slow speeds, a controllable-pitch propeller may be
justified.
24.4 GAS TURBINES
24.4.1 Aircraft-derivative Gas Turbines versus Heavy-
duty Gas Turbines
Although aircraft-derivative gas turbines (ADGTs) and
heavy-duty gas turbines (HDGTs) run on the same basic
thermodynamic cycle and have the same general configu-
ration, they differ in performance parameters and design
philosophy. The emphasis in aircraft engines is on high
power-to-weight ratios and therefore on high performance.
Expensive materials and manufacturing processes may be
required, and limited component lives with frequent re-
building may be necessary, relative to the simpler but more
robust heavy-duty designs. In the aircraft application, there
is no consideration of any fuel but the cleanest distillate, or
of add-on equipment to utilize waste heat. These charac-
teristics carry through to the ADGTs used for ship propul-
sion. However, the high power density, low specific weight,
and stand-alone features of ADGTs, which have established
them as the preferred prime mover for many naval vessels,
are attractive characteristics for some commercial vessels
as well, despite the relatively short component life and high
fuel-quality requirement.
HDGTs are designed without the emphasis on low weight,
which results in easier operating conditions and more robust,
simpler components, with longer lives and a higher toler-
ance for fuel quality. The lower performance parameters for
which HDGTs are designed encourage the use of added-on
heat-recovery equipment, but result in high fuel consump-
tion for simple-cycle HDGTs, relative to ADGTs.
24.4.2 Regenerative-cycle and Combined-cycle Gas
Turbines versus Simple-cycle Gas Turbines
The high temperature, and therefore high energy, of gas tur-
bine exhaust gas makes waste-heat recovery attractive in the
right circumstances. In simple-cycle gas turbines, the ex-
haust heat is not recovered, or it may be recovered for aux-
iliary use. If the waste heat is returned to the cycle, or
otherwise added to the shaft power of the gas turbine, it will
improve the efficiency and fuel consumption significantly,
especially at part-power levels. Examples of heat-recovery
gas turbines include recuperative cycles (also called regen-
erative cycles) for HDGTs, intercooled-regenerative cycle
ADGTs, and combined cycles in which the exhaust gas is
used to generate steam for a steam turbine, the output of
which is then combined with that of the gas turbine. How-
ever, any of these improvements must be traded-off against
the added weight, the reduced power density, and the higher
complexity, all of which are in contradiction to the usual
reasons for using gas turbines in the first place. In addition,
initial cost and maintenance requirements will be increased.
In general, the heat-recovery gas-turbine plant does not
have the advantages of the simple-cycle gas-turbine plant
in power density, specific weight, or simplicity; nor does it
have the advantages of the diesel plants in fuel consump-
tion or fuel-quality tolerance.
24.4.3 Intake and Exhaust Considerations
Gas turbine power output and specific fuel-consumption
both suffer significantly from high intake-air temperature
 Chapter 24: Machinery Considerations
and depressed intake pressure. The large quantities of air
required, typically 10 to 20 m3/kW-h, must be drawn di-
rectly from the weather. The inlet must be carefully situ-
ated to minimize ingestion of seawater spray. A location
high on the ship is usually sought for this reason, and fil-
ters and baffles are fitted for removal of water droplets as
well as solids. To minimize pressure drop in the duct, it
must have a fairly straight run and must be large enough to
limit velocities to 12 to 23 m/s. The straight run and large
size make the duct suitable as a removal path for the gas
turbine when a unit exchange is necessary (see 24.4.4).
Often, intake ducts are fitted with a porous or mesh acoustic
lining, and silencing baffles may be fitted (which must be
removed for unit exchange).
Power output and specific fuel consumption both suffer
from back pressure at the exhaust. Exhaust temperatures
for most gas turbines are 450 to 600°C, so that the volu-
metric flow will be some 2.5 to 3 times that of the intake
flow. Exhaust ducts are usually sized for a maximum ve-
locity of about 45 to 60 m/s. Exhaust ducts are usually fairly
straight, usually of circular cross-section, and generally of
stainless steel. Exhaust ducts are commonly lined internally
ENGINE AUX
ROOM MACHY
SPACE
SOFT PATCH
AIR INTAKE HOUSE
GAS TURBINE EN ROUTE
UP INTAKE DUCT
REDN GEAR AND
THRUST BEARING
MAIN DECK
NORMAL POSITION OF
GAS TURBINE INSIDE
ENCLOSURE
Figure 24.9 Frigate, showing Gas Generator Removal via Intake Duct
24-19
for sound reduction and thermal insulation, and silencing
baffles may be fitted. The temperature-suppression equip-
ment often fitted to exhaust outlets of naval-vessel gas tur-
bines, to reduce their thermal signature, would not be fitted
in commercial applications.
Because of the inevitable proximity of the air intake and
exhaust outlet, care must be taken that the exhaust gas can-
not be drawn into the intake.
24.4.4 Maintenance by Replacement
In the concept of maintenance by replacement, a complete
unit is removed from the ship and is exchanged with an al-
ready-rebuilt unit. This concept has proven to be particu-
larly adaptable to the ADGTs in naval vessels, and is likely
to prove equally desirable in many high-performance com-
mercial vessels, for these reasons:
• the ship’s crew is relieved of many routine maintenance
tasks better handled by trained technicians in specialized
facilities ashore;
• time out-of-service is minimized;
• the large air-intake duct provides a natural removal route,
as shown in Figure 24.9;
• an ADGT is compact, light, and easily handled.
The ship and gas turbine installation are designed for
maintenance by replacement from the beginning, with eas-
ily disconnected piping, wiring, and mechanical attach-
ments, and with rails or pad eyes in the ducts, and access
hatches at the intake.
24.4.5 Combined Prime Movers
A gas turbine is often combined with another gas turbine
or a diesel engine to drive the same propeller shaft. Some
of the more common configurations are listed below:
• two gas turbines, usually identical, operated together to
achieve high ship speeds, in an arrangement called
COGAG, for COmbined Gas turbine And Gas turbine,
• two gas turbines, one a small engine of low rating for
cruising speeds, the other a high-powered gas turbine
for high speeds, in a COGOG arrangement, for COm-
bined Gas turbine Or Gas turbine, and
• a diesel cruise engine, and a high-powered gas turbine
for high speeds, in a CODOG arrangement for COm-
bined Diesel Or Gas turbine.
Usually, a controllable-pitch propeller is fitted with these
arrangements in order to match the different operating con-
ditions for each prime mover.
In addition to providing a measure of redundancy, and,
24-20 Ship Design & Construction, Volume 1
for COGAG systems, providing high total power, the ad-
vantages of combined prime-mover plants are principally
in fuel consumption at part power. A small gas turbine op-
erated at high power is likely to be more efficient than a large
gas turbine operated at part power (see Figures 24.4 and
24.5), while a diesel engine is even more efficient.
24.4.6 Reversing Arrangements
Reverse thrust for ships with gas-turbine propulsion may
be provided by controllable-pitch propellers, by water jets,
by electric drive, or by reversing gearing.
24.5 STEAM PLANTS
24.5.1 Reasons for Continued Use of Steam Plants
Despite the high fuel consumption of steam plants relative
to diesel plants, many steam ships remain in service, and
new steam ships continue to be ordered, for reasons that de-
pend on the specific application. Some examples are listed
below:
• at moderate fuel prices, the fuel-cost savings of a diesel
ship will take many years to balance the cost of a re-
placement vessel or of a conversion. Thus there may be
little economic incentive to a ship owner to shift away
from continued operation of an existing steamship. This
situation is particularly true in trades restricted to U.S.-
built or U.S.-flag ships, since most U.S.-flag ships were
built as steamships well into the 1970s. In some cases
the economic circumstances have justified extensive hull
reconstruction and machinery modernization, but not
new construction or conversion to diesel propulsion,
• coal is a low-cost fuel wherever it is available in abun-
dant supply, cheaper than even residual fuel oil. Coal-
fired ships using established technology are necessarily
steam ships,
• all currently operating and all recently built LNG ships
are steamships. Economic considerations generally dic-
tate that the boiled-off cargo be consumed as fuel, rather
than be re-liquefied. While natural gas is an excellent fuel
for both diesel engines and gas turbines, and while the
technology exists for the disposal of the boiled-off gas
while maneuvering or in port, these plants would still be
innovative for the trade. On the other hand, the gas-fired
steam plants are highly evolved and represent the safe,
well-established, low-risk choice. However, the poten-
tial savings in fuel cost may eventually provide suffi-
cient incentive for a change, and
• nuclear propulsion is considered to be beyond the scope
of this chapter, but it should be noted that all marine nu-
clear plants have been steam plants, a situation that is
unlikely to change in the near future.
24.5.2 Particular Requirements of LNG Ships
Apart from cargo machinery, which is discussed separately, the
machinery of LNG ships differs from that of other steam ships
principally in the boil-off gas supply system for the boilers. The
boilers are dual-fuel boilers, capable of operation on residual fuel
oil alone, or on a combination of gas and oil. Early practice re-
quired that the gas never be burned without oil, which served as
pilot fuel to ensure continuity of combustion, but currently, full
gas firing is allowed at sea and, under some circumstances, while
maneuvering. Fuel oil is also used to supplement the amount of
gas boiled off from the cargo when schedules call for high voy-
age speeds. When discharging cargo, a quantity of liquefied gas
is retained to keep the cargo tanks cold on the ballast voyage, so
that boil-off is available at all times. Boiled-off gas can be re-
tained in the cargo tanks for a limited time, as the tank pressure
rises toward the relief-valve setting, but normally the boil off is
consumed in the boilers. Therefore, a steam-dump line to the
main condenser is fitted, to enable boil-off gas to be consumed
for steam generation even when the main turbines are stopped.
The boilers do not differ in general configuration or dimensions
from oil-burning boilers.
Boiled-off gas is drawn from the cargo tanks by com-
pressors driven by steam turbines or electric motors, and
compressed to two or three atmospheres, then heated to am-
bient temperature in steam-to-gas heat exchangers. Com-
pressors and heat exchangers are usually located in a
midships deckhouse. The gas then flows to the boilers
through a double-walled pipe, usually configured as a gas
pipe inside a larger-diameter, thin-walled circular duct. The
gas pipe cannot pass through the accommodation, and is usu-
ally led to the engine room along the main deck, passing
outboard of the accommodation block.
Inside the engine-room, the double-walled pipe carries
the gas to closet-like hoods at each boiler front, which com-
pletely enclose the burners and all of the gas piping and
valves. The hoods are open at the bottom, and vented to the
weather through ducts to motor-driven exhaust fans. The
fans draw a continuous flow of air through the hoods, and
also through the connecting annulus of the double-walled
pipe. Any gas leaked from the gas pipe or from fittings at
the burners will therefore be vented. Gas detectors at the fan
intakes will sound alarms and shut off the gas compressors.
An inert-gas generator will be fitted, burning distillate fuel
to ensure clean product, for inerting cargo tanks when nec-
essary (normally only during inspection or maintenance cy-
cles), and for inerting void spaces where required. In addition,
 Chapter 24: Machinery Considerations
liquid-nitrogen storage or a nitrogen generator will be fitted
for purging gas piping and for sealing compressor glands.
24.5.3 Particular Requirements of Coal-fired Ships
Coal-fired steamships differ from oil-fired steamships be-
cause of the volume and deadweight penalties of the coal-
storage and coal-transfer systems, the larger boilers, and
the increased size and number of auxiliary systems (5).
24.5.3.1 Coal storage and transfer systems
Current-technology coal-transfer systems are pneumatic. The
coal is loaded from shore into hopper-bottomed bunkers; at
the bottom of each hopper is a rotating valve, which allows
clusters of coal to fall into a pipe carrying a stream of com-
pressed air. The air stream carries the coal horizontally or
vertically as required. Coal is usually transferred daily to day
bunkers above the furnaces, to which it flows by gravity.
The size of coalbunkers is large relative to oil tanks,
mostly because of the lower heating value of the coal, and
also because the plant efficiency is lower. To facilitate fill-
ing, the storage bunkers are best concentrated in a single
location. The bunkers are elevated above the double bottom
to accommodate the hopper bottoms and the transfer sys-
tem. If placed amidships, the bunkers will have less effect
on the trim of the ship as coal is consumed, but will divide
the cargo capacity of the ship; if the bunkers are placed aft,
transfer is simplified.
24.5.3.2 Boilers
Current-technology boilers are spreader-stoker fired, trav-
eling-chain grate types. These boilers occupy five to eight
times the volume of oil-fired boilers of similar steam-gen-
erating capacity. Each boiler requires multiple fans for air
supply. Exhaust is through large-volume, stationary-cyclone
particle separators and induced-draft fans. Electrostatic pre-
cipitators could be added at the separator outlets if neces-
sary, adding to the volume. The boiler efficiencies are four
to six percent less than oil-fired boiler efficiencies.
Fluidized-bed boilers are likely alternatives, offering
lower overall volumes and higher boiler efficiencies. If fit-
ted with a limestone beds and limestone storage, washing,
and circulation systems, emission control is inherent. The
technology is well established ashore.
24.5.3.3 Auxiliary machinery
The high-capacity air compressors used for coal and ash han-
dling, and the multiple forced- and induced-draft fans all
impose an electrical load 2 or 2.5 times that of oil-fired
steam plants of similar output, requiring a correspondingly
larger electrical generating plant.
24-21
24.6 CONSTRUCTION CONSIDERATIONS
24.6.1 Planning for Production
Modern ships are generally built in accord with the princi-
ples of production planning, which require that the ship, in-
cluding machinery spaces, be assembled of pre-outfitted
blocks that integrate structure with machinery and other
outfit. The overriding goal in production planning is an in-
crease in productivity. The advantages of production plan-
ning are well established and are described in detail in
references 6 and 7. Properly executed, production planning
results in ships that are better built than they would other-
wise be, with machinery that is likely to be more carefully
arranged, installed, and commissioned. However, the fu-
ture operability of a vessel must not be adversely affected
by productivity improvements. Some considerations are:
• adequate space for access in service for operation, main-
tenance, and repair must be provided, even though the in-
tent may be to fit equipment into standard-sized modules,
• where machinery and connecting subsystems are pre-
assembled into modules by a manufacturer, care must
be taken to ensure that the module maintains the princi-
ples of system integration. For example, services for the
module (such as cooling water) should be provided from
central sources. The introduction of auxiliaries or fit-
tings of performance similar to, but of different manu-
facture from other equipment to be provided, should be
controlled to avoid a proliferation of equipment that will
complicate logistics in service, and
• machinery is most obviously grouped by system and type
to simplify construction and normal operation. However,
contingency operation, for example, to enable equipment
of one system to stand by for similar equipment of an-
other system, or to facilitate recovery from flooding or
fire, may require like machinery items serving a single
system to be separately located.
24.6.2 Foundations
The discussion in these paragraphs is limited to foundations
for propulsion machinery. Foundations for auxiliary equip-
ment and other machinery do not usually affect ship design
or construction.
24.6.2.1 Rigid mounting
Most machinery is rigidly mounted. Figure 24.10 is a trans-
verse section through the foundation of a rigidly mounted
medium-speed diesel engine. The foundation consists of
longitudinal and transverse members, fully integrated into
the bottom structure, which support a horizontal seating
flange. The mounting flange of the engine is bolted to the
24-22 Ship Design & Construction, Volume 1

seating flange through chocking, which provides solid con- is formed as an integral part of the double-bottom struc-
tact between the flanges. Traditional chocking consists of ture, such as shown in Figure 24.10. Figure 24.11 shows
a series of individual cast iron or steel chocks, each span- typical medium-speed diesel examples of engine founda-
ning two hold-down bolts, which are individually machined tions, viewed in transverse section. The seating flanges for
to precisely fit each location after the unit is aligned on tem- low-speed engines are usually insert plates in the tank top;
porary supports. Alternatively, continuous chocking may flanges for medium- and high-speed engines are usually el-
be formed of an epoxy resin, which is poured in place after evated above the tank top, and for geared installations, are
the unit is aligned on temporary supports, and which then usually integral with the foundations of the gearing and pro-
hardens, after which the hold-down bolts are tightened.
For most machinery, fitted bolts, dowels, or keys are
used to positively secure one end only, while other bolts
have clearances to accommodate thermal expansion. To
maintain transverse alignment of diesel engines and other
machinery as required, side stops, visible in Figure 24.10,
are welded to the seating flange of the foundation, along each
side of the engine, but clear of the engine to permit the in-
sertion of tapered keys. When the engine has been aligned,
the keys are tack-welded to the stops.

24.6.2.2 Resilient mounting

Resilient mounting is used when necessary, to reduce the
structure-borne vibration or noise which the mounted ma-
chinery would transmit to the hull. Common candidates in-
clude medium- and high-speed diesel engines and gas
turbines, and complete generator sets. In principle, resilient
mounting substitutes a flexible material or device for solid
chocking. Resilient mounting is feasible only where the unit
to be mounted is, by itself, sufficiently rigid in bending and Figure 24.10 Typical Low-speed Diesel Engine Foundation
torsion. This rigidity is usually present with medium- and
high-speed diesel engines (but not low-speed engines) when
they are mounted alone, but for complete generator sets,
and for gas turbines; the units are first mounted on a stiff
base plate, which proves the necessary rigidity. The base
plate is then mounted to the hull through the resilient mounts.
A resilient mount may consist of upper and lower steel or
cast iron plates that are separated by a resilient element,
comprised of springs or elastomeric material. The upper
plate is bolted to the engine or base plate, and the lower one
to the foundation. Alternatively, the resilient mounting may
comprise an elastomeric material in sheet form that is cut
to fit the contact area between the engine or base plate and
the foundation. Resilient mounts are loaded principally in
compression. Extreme motions, such as those caused by
ship motions, are limited in all directions by solid stops.

24.6.2.3 Diesel engines

A foundation for a diesel engine must be sufficiently stiff
to absorb forces and moments generated by the engine,
while precluding the transfer of bending moments from the
hull to the engine. Low-speed propulsion engines are nor-
mally seated on the upper flanges of a rigid box girder that Figure 24.11 Typical Medium-speed Engine Foundation
 Chapter 24: Machinery Considerations
peller thrust bearing, as in Figure 24.2. Low-speed direct-
connected engines, with the main thrust bearing built into
the engine bedplate, transmit this thrust to the foundation
through fitted bolts, brackets, or end stops.
All low-speed engines are rigidly mounted. Medium-
and high-speed engines can be mounted resiliently when cir-
cumstances warrant.
24.6.2.4 Gearing
Reduction gearing must be supported in isolation from bend-
ing and twisting of the hull. To obtain the necessary rigid-
ity, deep longitudinal and transverse members are used,
fully integrated with the hull structure. The main-thrust
bearing may be independent or incorporated in the gear
case. When the thrust bearing is independent but adjacent
to the gear case, the thrust foundation is usually integrated
with the gear foundation. Although naval vessels often have
resiliently mounted gearing to reduce noise transmission
and to provide shock protection, in merchant-ship practice
gearing is generally rigidly mounted.
Casings of smaller gear sets may completely enclose the
gearing, and are best supported from mountings close to
the horizontal centerline through the bull-gear bearings.
Casings of larger gear sets generally terminate in mount-
ing flanges below the bearing housings of the bull gear. In
either case the foundation must rise above the tank top to
provide a seating surface for the mounting flange on the
gear case. As long as it is properly supported, the structure
of the gear case can usually be assumed to be sufficiently
rigid to maintain alignment of the pinions in mesh with the
bull gear and, of gears and pinions upstream of these.
Shims rather than chocks are fitted at the mounting bolts
to achieve alignment. Resilient mounts are not used in mer-
chant ships. Turbine shafts are attached to their pinions by
flexible couplings that, however, can absorb only limited
alignment discrepancies.
24.6.2.5 Steam turbines
Foundations for geared steam turbines that are arranged in
the typical multi-plane layout, with the condenser below the
turbines, are shown in Figure 24.12. A partial transverse bulk-
head is located forward of the condenser to support the for-
ward ends of both turbines. The aft end of the high-pressure
turbine is most often supported from the gear case, often
using longitudinal girders to bridge the span to the partial
bulkhead. The aft end of the low-pressure turbine is usually
supported by pedestals or a by a second partial bulkhead,
aft of the condenser. The after footing of each turbine cas-
ing is fixed in position with dowels, keys, or fitted bolts,
while the forward footing mounts through slotted holes or
includes other provision for thermal expansion.
24-23
Shims rather than chocks are fitted at the mounting bolts
to achieve alignment. Resilient mounts are not used in mer-
chant ships. Turbine shafts are attached to their pinions by
flexible couplings that, however, can absorb only limited
alignment discrepancies.
24.6.2.6 Gas turbines
Gas turbines are normally mounted at the factory to a stiff
steel base plate in a manner that will allow thermal expan-
sion. The base plate is in turn mounted to the foundation
rigidly or resiliently, as called for by circumstances or by
turbine manufacturer’s recommendations. The turbine foun-
dation may be integrated with that of the gearing, elevated
above the tank top as for medium-speed diesel engines (Fig-
ure 24.11). Where multi-plane gearing requires an elevated
turbine position, the lightweight of the turbines permits the
necessary elevation to be achieved using pedestals or par-
tial bulkheads. In this case, a folded configuration may be
used, with the turbines aft of the gearing, and the propeller
shafting passing below the turbines.
24.6.3 Alignment
The objective in an alignment procedure is to ensure that
when the system is in service, the bearings are properly po-
sitioned in all three planes, with each bearing carrying its in-
tended share of the load, so that rotating elements are
adequately supported and properly engaged with meshing or
connecting elements. For diesel engines this means that when
the engine is in service and under load, its crankshaft axis
will be straight, with almost uniform bearing loads; for gear-
ing it means that in service and under load, the bull-gear bear-
ings will be carrying almost equal loads; for propeller shafting,
which is normally aligned to a calculated curve intended to
reflect the shaft attitude in service, it means that all bearings
will be carrying loads close to the design values.
The principle complications in alignment of propulsion
machinery are the flexibility of the hull relative to the pro-
peller shafting, the fact that the foundations of gearing and
engines contain lubricating-oil drain tanks, which raise the
foundations as the oil temperature rises in service, and the
fact that the journals run eccentrically in their bearings
under load. The shafting alignment itself is complicated by
the weight of the propeller that overhangs the after-most
bearing, and of the off-center axial load imposed by the pro-
peller thrust. Final alignment of propulsion shafting and
machinery would ideally, therefore, be made with the ship
afloat in its normal load condition, with all heavy equip-
ment in place, and with the surrounding hull and founda-
tion at service temperatures, so that only the dynamic effects
require calculated corrections. This set of conditions is,
Figure 24.12 Geared Steam-turbine Foundation
 Chapter 24: Machinery Considerations
however, not often feasible. Practical considerations usu-
ally require that the alignment be undertaken in stages,
using calculated allowances to account for deviations from
service conditions and for deviations resulting from fur-
ther welding and assembly.
The methods by which alignment is achieved vary, not only
between shipyards, but also even from ship to ship, depend-
ing on configuration and production schedules. In one likely
sequence, the stern tube, struts, line-shaft pedestals, and foun-
dations for the thrust bearing, reduction gear, and engines are
installed early in the hull construction period. Because of the
weight of the propeller, the after-most bearing slopes down-
ward from fore to aft to align to the shaft, an attitude which
is achieved by slope-boring the bushing in place, or by align-
ing a pre-bored bushing to the required slope, and setting it
in place with epoxy chocking. Shaft alignment therefore com-
mences before the ship is afloat, with the installation of the
stern tube bearings, outboard bearings, stern-tube shaft, out-
board shafting, propeller, and shaft seals.
The gear set and engine are installed complete, or erected
in place, supported on jackscrews or temporary chocks, as
are the line shafting and bearings. The jackscrews or tem-
porary chocks are used to adjust the position of the engine
or bull-gear bearings longitudinally, transversely, and ver-
tically until the calculated positions are reached. Preferably,
only after the ship is essentially complete and afloat, is final
alignment and permanent installation of the shafting, gear-
ing, and engine undertaken. However, if the line shafting is
sufficiently long, there is little risk in permanently installing
the reduction gear at an early stage, since the length of shaft-
ing can be relied upon to provide sufficient flexibility to
meet constraints that will then be present at both ends. This
flexibility is not present with short shaft lines. The direct-
connected diesel engine represents the more difficult align-
ment problem because of the multiple main bearings that
must be positioned to lie in a straight line and therefore be
equally loaded in the service condition.
After the ship is afloat and essentially complete with re-
gard to welding and major weight additions, the line-shaft
couplings are made up, usually working forward towards
the engine or gear set, usually using gap and sag measure-
ments to check against calculated values, adjusting bearing
positions as necessary. When the shafting is complete up to
the gear or direct-connected engine, gap and sag are checked,
and if necessary, engine or bull-gear bearing positions are
adjusted, before this last coupling is made up. With all cou-
plings made up, jacks or strain gages are then used to de-
termine bearing loads, and the calculated cold alignment is
achieved, normally by adjusting only the vertical positions
of the line-shaft bearings, but, if necessary, the engine or
gear bearing heights are adjusted again. When the cold align-
24-25
ment is satisfactory, the line-shaft bearings, and the main-
thrust bearing (if independent), the reduction gear, or the
direct-connected engine can then be permanently installed:
hold-down bolt holes are bored, chocks or shim sets are fit-
ted or resin chocks are poured, hold-down bolts are tight-
ened, and side and end-stops are welded in place.
For geared installations, the turbines or engines are then
aligned in a similar fashion: jackscrews or temporary chocks
are adjusted to place the turbines or engines in calculated
positions, alignment is checked by appropriate methods, and
then permanent chocks or shims, with dowels, keys, and
hold-down bolts, are installed. See reference 8 for details.
Because of the uncertainties inherent in these proce-
dures, confirmations of the final alignment, after comple-
tion and again after trials, are recommended. In practice
these confirmations are often limited to checks of gear-tooth
contact and to measurement of diesel-engine crankshaft de-
flections.
24.6.4 Storage During Construction
To facilitate scheduling or because of construction delays,
machinery may be delivered to a shipyard well in advance
of installation, or may be installed long before commis-
sioning. Machinery must be protected from deterioration
during these storage periods. The deterioration may be
caused by corrosion, by extreme heat or cold, by infiltra-
tion by dust, blasting grit, organisms, or animals, by vibra-
tion from nearby machinery, or by pilferage. Much of the
deterioration can be avoided if the machinery can be stored
in climate-controlled warehouses, but in many cases, it will
be stored in open sheds or yards. Reference 9 contains pro-
cedures for boilers in particular, which can be applied as
well to other components.
Depending on the type of machinery involved, and on
the storage conditions anticipated, machinery internals might
be protected with desiccants or by charging with nitrogen,
or with oil, grease, or other corrosion-inhibiting coatings.
In any event, openings and connections are plugged or
capped. External surfaces should be primed or painted, and
even large items might be wrapped with plastic. Manufac-
turers can prepare machinery for storage if the storage pe-
riod is anticipated. However, such preparation, which may
involve additional cost and can interfere with installation
and commissioning, is not always advantageous to all of the
parties involved, and may be avoided even when in the long-
term interest of the ship owner.
Once machinery has arrived at the shipyard, and espe-
cially after it has been installed, protection may be more dif-
ficult. Some machinery can be protected by arranging fans
and ducts to circulate air through dehumidifiers in closed
24-26 Ship Design & Construction, Volume 1
circuit, or by dehumidifying whole spaces after sealing
them. Limited protection can be provided by strategically
placed heaters, by closing openings, and by covering equip-
ment with tarpaulins or plastic sheets.
24.6.5 Testing and Commissioning
Testing and commissioning of all equipment follows a care-
fully developed plan of procedures and scheduling. Detailed
guidance can be found in references 10 and 11.
Most machinery, but not all, is tested by the manufac-
turer prior to shipping, with instrumentation calibrated, and
control equipment and safety devices set and tested. Diesel
engines and generating sets are likely to be tested up to full
load, as may be some pumps and other auxiliaries, but
propulsion turbines and reduction gears are likely to be shop
tested without load. These shop tests are generally intended
to check assembly and manufacturing, rather than per-
formance. Nevertheless, useful baseline data, such as vi-
bration signatures, can be collected.
As equipment is installed and systems are completed,
preparation begins for initial testing. Procedures are differ-
ent for each system but in general, systems are rigorously in-
spected inside and out, piping and wiring connections are
checked, and tanks, piping, and other components are thor-
oughly cleaned internally. Boilers are boiled out with an al-
kaline solution. (Like any other components subjected to
chemical cleaning, they must then be neutralized and flushed
repeatedly.) Systems are pressure tested and flushed or blown
through. Flushing procedures for the more critical systems,
in particular lubricating-oil systems and hydraulic systems,
are necessarily elaborate, with recirculation loops, tempo-
rary strainers fitted at key points, and bearings and other sen-
sitive components initially bypassed. Machinery is started
and safety devices and control equipment are tested by demon-
stration. Instrumentation is verified at one or more operating
values. Automation is set and tested to whatever extent is fea-
sible. All equipment within each system is operated up to the
limits imposed by the prevailing circumstances of continu-
ing construction, to prove that it functions as intended.
Once machinery has been commissioned it must be treated,
as it would be in service. Temperatures of idle machinery,
fluid levels, chemical treatment, and other parameters must
be maintained at levels that will prevent deterioration. If
equipment is to be idle for periods of days or longer, recom-
mended lay-up procedures should be followed.
When the ship is afloat and all systems are complete,
dock or basin trials are undertaken, usually as a final check
prior to running the sea trials that follow. Normal and alter-
native operating procedures are tested, and all equipment,
including standby equipment, bypasses, cross-connections,
remote and local controls, and safety devices, is checked
within practical limits. Although dock trials are conducted
mostly in the builder’s interests, some machinery can be ac-
cepted at that point by the ship owner, thereby alleviating
the pressure on owner’s representatives during sea trials.
24.6.6 Sea Trials
Sea trials are undertaken to demonstrate the operability and
performance of the ship, including all of its machinery, and
to gather baseline data for future reference. Detailed guid-
ance can be found in references 11 and 12.
A ship builder may elect to run a preliminary set of
builder’s trials in advance of the sea trials, as a dress re-
hearsal. As with the dock trials, if machinery can be tested
satisfactorily during builder’s trials, it may be to the owner’s
advantage to accept it as proven.
Sea trials represent the final opportunity before the ship
is handed over to the owner to demonstrate that the equip-
ment and systems, as installed and prepared, will operate
as intended. Therefore, except for machinery already ac-
cepted, and except for machinery which must be tested sub-
sequently, all equipment is operated under observation for
sufficient time to demonstrate that it can achieve and sus-
tain intended performance at all levels from no load to over-
load, under all modes of operation including emergency as
well as normal, and under automatic control as well as man-
ual control, and all safety devices are proven.
Machinery that cannot be adequately tested during sea
trials might include HVAC equipment, which must await
an appropriate climate, and cargo systems on some types
of ships, which may have to be tested at the first loading
port. For LNG ships and other ships with gas-fueled propul-
sion plants, trials of the gas-fuel systems might be similarly
postponed. Under these circumstances the usual practice is
for the owner to accept the ship conditionally, with excepted
systems to be proven at the first convenient opportunity.
Diesel propulsion engines of single-engine, single-screw,
dry-cargo ships with fixed-pitch propellers cannot normally
be tested to rated power when the hull is clean and at bal-
last draft, even if the engine is run up to its over-speed limit.
The usual practice in such cases is to estimate the data for
maximum performance of the engine and supporting aux-
iliaries by extrapolation from the highest levels achieved dur-
ing the trials, to provide a basis for the owner’s acceptance
of the vessel.
After sea trials, some machinery is normally required to
be opened for internal inspection. A typical inspection list
might include propulsion boilers, diesel-engine crankcases,
reduction gearing, and main oil sumps, as well as oil filters
and strainers. Reduction gears are opened to check tooth con-
 Chapter 24: Machinery Considerations
tact, and main-engine crankshaft deflections are measured
as checks on shaft alignment. Usually, one or more cylin-
ders of diesel propulsion engines will be disassembled for
inspection of wear patterns.
Problems revealed during sea trials or post-trial inspec-
tions may require immediate rectification before the ship is
handed over, or the owner may accept the ship condition-
ally, with repairs to be completed subsequently.
24.7 REFERENCES
1. Harrington, R. L., (Ed.) Marine Engineering, SNAME, 1992.
2. Hunt, E. C., (Ed.), Modern Marine Engineer’s Manual, 2,
2nd edition, Cornell Maritime Press, 1990
3. “Marine Diesel Power Plant Practices,” SNAME T&R Bul-
letin No. 3–49, 1990
24-27
4. Horner, J. E., “Considerations in Applying Gas Turbines for
Ship Propulsion,” IMAS 91, IME, 1991
5. Fukugaki, A., S. Fukuda, S. Nakamura, and Y. Sakamoto,
“Design of a New-Generation Coal-Fired Marine Steam
Propulsion Plant,” Trans. SNAME, Vol. 90, 1982
6. Storch, R. L., Hammon, C. P., Bunch, H. M., and Moore, R.
C., Ship Production, 2nd edition, SNAME, 1995
7. Jaquith, P. et al, “A Parametric Approach to Machinery Uni-
tization in Shipbuilding,” Ship Production Symposium, 1997
8. “Guide to Propulsion Reduction Gear Alignment and Instal-
lation,” SNAME T&R Bulletin No. 3–43, 1987
9. “Guidelines for the Preservation of Marine Boilers and Boiler
Components,” SNAME T&R Bulletin No. 3–30, 1980
10. “Guide for Shop and Installation Tests,” SNAME T&R Bul-
letin No. 3–39, 1985
11. Norris, A., “Commissioning and Sea Trials of Machinery in
Ships,” Transactions, Institute of Marine Engineers, 1976
12. “Guide for Sea Trials 1989,” SNAME T&R Bulletin No.
3–47, 1990