CE 421: THEORY OF STRUCTURES 2

INTRODUCTION

Structural Analysis is the prediction of the performance of a given structure under prescribed
loads and/or other external effects, such as support movements and temperature changes. The
performance characteristics commonly of interest in the design of structures are (1) stresses or stress
resultants, such as axial forces, shear forces, and bending moments; (2) deflections; and (3) support
reactions. Thus, the analysis of s structure usually involves determination of these quantities as caused
by a given loading condition.

Historical Background
Pioneers of structural engineering are the following:
1. Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) is generally considered to be the originator of the theory of
structures. In his book entitled Two New Sciences, which was published in 1638, Galileo
analyzed the failure of some simple structures, including cantilever beams.
2. Robert Hooke (1635–1703), who developed the law of linear relationships between the
force and deformation of materials (Hooke’s law).
3. Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727), who formulated the laws of motion and developed calculus.
4. John Bernoulli (1667– 1748), who formulated the principle of virtual work.
5. Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), who developed the theory of buckling of columns.
6. C. A. de Coulomb (1736–1806), who presented the analysis of bending of elastic beams.
7. B. P. Clapeyron (1799–1864), who formulated the three-moment equation for the analysis
of continuous beams.
8. J. C. Maxwell (1831–1879), who presented the method of consistent deformations and the
law of reciprocal deflections.
9. Otto Mohr (1835–1918), who developed the conjugate-beam method for calculation of
deflections and Mohr’s circles of stress and strain.
10. Alberto Castigliano (1847–1884), who formulated the theorem of least work.
11. C. E. Greene (1842–1903), who developed the moment-area method.
12. H. Muller-Breslau (1851–1925), who presented a principle for constructing influence lines.
13. G. A. Maney (1888– 1947), who developed the slope-deflection method, which is considered
to be the precursor of the matrix stiffness method.
14. Hardy Cross (1885–1959), who developed the moment-distribution method in 1924. The
moment-distribution method provided engineers with a simple iterative procedure for
analyzing highly statically indeterminate structures.

Structural Analysis in Structural Engineering Projects

Structural Engineering is the science and art of planning,

designing, and constructing safe and economical structures
that will serve their intended purposes.

Most Structures fall into the following classifications:

1. Beam – is a structural member subjected to
transverse loads only, and it is completely analyzed when the
shear shear and moment diagrams are found.
2. Frame- or rigid frame, is a structure composed of
members which are connected by rigid joints (welded joints
for instance). It is completely analyzed when the variations in
direct stress, shear and moment along the lengths of
members are found.
3. Truss – is a structure in which all members are
usually considered to be connected by hinges, thus
eliminating moment in the members. A truss is completely
 analyzed when the direct stresses in all members are determined.
4. Arches - is a curved structure, with a shape similar to that of an inverted cable. Such structures
are frequently used to support bridges and long-span roofs. Arches develop mainly compressive
stresses when subjected to loads and are usually designed so that they will develop only
compression under a major design loading.
5. Shear Structures - are used in multistory buildings to reduce lateral movements due to wind
loads and earthquake excitations. Shear structures develop mainly in plane shear, with relatively
small bending stresses under the action of external loads.

LOADS ON STRUCTURES
1. Dead loads are gravity loads of constant magnitudes and fixed positions that act permanently on
the structure. Such loads consist of the weights of the structural system itself and of all other
material and equipment permanently attached to the structural system. For example, the dead
loads for a building structure include the weights of frames, framing and bracing systems, floors,
roofs, ceilings, walls, stairways, heating and air-conditioning systems, plumbing, electrical
systems, and so forth.
2. Live loads are loads of varying magnitudes and/or positions caused by the use of the structure.
3. Wind loads are produced by the flow of wind around the structure. The magnitudes of wind
loads that may act on a structure depend on the geographical location of the structure,
obstructions in its surrounding terrain, such as nearby buildings, and the geometry and the
vibrational characteristics of the structure itself.
4. An earthquake is a sudden undulation of a portion of the earth’s surface. Although the ground
surface moves in both horizontal and vertical directions during an earthquake, the magnitude of
the vertical component of ground motion is usually small and does not have a significant effect
on most structures. It is the horizontal component of ground motion that causes structural
damage and that must be considered in designs of structures located in earthquake-prone
areas.

EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURES
A structure is considered to be in equilibrium if, initially at rest, it remains at rest when subjected to a
system of forces and couples. If a structure is in equilibrium, then all its members and parts are also in
equilibrium.

Types of Supports of Plane Structures

Internal Stability

A structure is considered to
be internally stable, or rigid, if
it maintains its shape and
remains a rigid body when
detached from the supports.
Conversely, a structure is
termed internally unstable (or
nonrigid) if it cannot maintain
its shape and may undergo
large displacements under
small disturbances when not
supported externally.

Static Determinacy of Internally Stable Structure

An internally stable structure is considered to be statically determinate externally if all its support
reactions can be determined by solving the equations of equilibrium. If a structure is supported by more
than three reactions, then all the reactions cannot be determined from the three equations of
equilibrium. Such structures are termed statically indeterminate externally. The reactions in excess of
those necessary for equilibrium are called external redundants, and the number of external redundants
is referred to as the degree of external indeterminacy. Thus, if a structure has r reactions (r > 3), then
the degree of external indeterminacy can be written as

ie = r – 3

If a structure is supported by fewer than three support reactions, the reactions are not sufficient to
prevent all possible movements of the structure in its plane. Such a structure cannot remain in
equilibrium under a general system of loads and is, therefore, referred to as statically unstable
externally.

The conditions of static instability, determinacy, and indeterminacy of plane internally stable structures
can be summarized as follows:

r < 3 the structure is statically unstable externally

r = 3 the structure is statically determinate externally

r > 3 the structure is statically indeterminate externally

where r = number of reactions

EXTERNALLY STATICALLY DETERMINATE STRUCTURES EXTERNALLY STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES

STATICALY DETERMINARY OF INTERNALLY UNSTABLE STRUCTURES

r < 3 + ec the structure is statically unstable

externally

r =3 + ec the structure is statically determinate

externally

r > 3 + ec the structure is statically indeterminate

externally

For an externally indeterminate structure, the

degree of external indeterminacy is expressed as

ie = r – (3 + ec)

Note:

Internal hinges = one equation of condition

Internal roller = two equation of condition

Exercises:

Classify each structure as statically unstable, statically determinate or statically indeterminate. If it is

statically indeterminate externally, then determine its degree of determinacy.