Chapter No 04

Communication Techniques (9116)
Chapter No:-04
DATA ENCODING AND TRANSMISSION
Introduction:-
Information must be transformed into signal before it can be
transported across a communication channel. However information which
is transformed depends on its original format and on the format used by
the communication hardware.
Information must be translated into agreed upon patterns pf 0’s and

1’s (e.g. ASCII) before transmission.
Types Of Conversion/Classification:-
1) Data stored in a computer are in the form of 0’s and 1’s to be carried
from one place to another data are usually converted in the digital form
(or signal).This is called as encoding digital data into digital signal .
2) Sometimes we need to convert an analog signal into digital signal for
several reasons, such as to minimize effect of noise .This is called as a
Analog –To-Digital Conversion.
3) Sometimes we want to send a digital signal coming out of a computer
through a medium designed for an analog signal. In this case signal
from computer should be converted to an analog signal. This is called
as Digital –To –Analog Conversion.
4) Analog signal is sent over long distance using analog media. However,
frequency of these media is not capable of this kind of transmission
through air medium.So,it should be carried off by a HF signal and the
process is called Analog to Analog Conversion.
Compiled By:- Mr. Joshi R.R. Page 1

Digital-To-Digital Conversion:-
Encoding:-
Encoding is a process of converting a signal into a coded form. The
different types of encoding techniques are as given below.
Encoding Techniques
Source Coding Line coding
Source Coding:-
These techniques are used to convert the analog data signal into
equivalent digital data. Sampling and source coding is done in every digital
transmission system.
Line Coding:-
This is the process of converting binary data into a digital data .The
data text images stored in computer memory are in format sequence of
bits. Line coding converts the sequence into digital signal.
Line coding
Definitions:-
1) Pulse Rate:-
Pulse Rate is defined as the number of pulses per second and a pulse
is defined as the minimum amount of time required to transmit a symbol.

2) Bit Rate :-
Bit Rate is defined as the number of bits per second. If one pulse
corresponds to one bit, then the pulse rate is equal to the bit rate. But if
a pulse carries more than one bit then the pulse rate is lower than bit
rate. The relation between bit rate and pulse rate is
Bit Rate = Pulse Rate * log2L

Where, L= No. of levels (2-levels,4-levels,etc.)
Encoding Techniques:-
Classification of Line Codes (Encoding Techniques)
Unipolar Polar Bipolar
RZ NRZ RZ NRZ Manchester Diff. Manchester AMI
B8ZS
HDB3
Line codes are basically divided into three categories:

1) Unipolar
2) Polar
3) Bipolar

1) Unipolar Codes :-
Unipolar codes use only one voltage level other than zero.So,
the encoded signal will have either +A volts value or 0 v. These codes
are very simple and primitive and are almost obsolete now days.
2) Polar codes:-
Polar codes uses two voltage levels other than zero, such as
+A/2 and –A/2 volts. This will bring the DC level for some codes to
zero which is a desired character.
3) Bipolar Codes :-
Bipolar coding uses three voltage levels i)Positive ,ii)Negative
and iii)Zero ,which is similar to polar codes .But here the zero level is
always used for representing “0” of data stream at input.
Important Properties of Line Codes:-

1) All cable systems and other communication system do not allow
transmission of a DC signal .Therefore the line signal must have a zero
average (DC value). NRZ bipolar format usually satisfy this requirement
.For this reason long string of element sequences having same polarity
should not be transmitted.
2) As the code adds redundancy, the code efficiency should be as high as
possible.
3) To ensure synchronization at the receiver the line signal should undergo
a sufficient number of zero crossings, that means transmitted signal
should always undergo transitions.
4) The crosstalk between channels should be minimized.

Unipolar Line Codes:-

A] Unipolar RZ format:-
Data 0 1 1 0
A
Unipolar
RZ Signal
t
Tb
In this format each “0” is represented by an ”off” pulse(0v) and each

one pulse for “1” with amplitude +A and duration of Tb/2 followed by
return to zero value .That’s why this format is called as return to “zero
format”. As voltage level is either +A or zero ,this is a unipolar format. Due
to the unipolar nature, the unipolar RZ format has a non-zero DC value i.e.
does not contain any information.
B] Unipolar NRZ Format:-
Data 1 0 1 1 0
Unipolar A +A
NRZ Signal t
In this format a logic “1” is represented by a pulse of full bit duration

Tb and an amplitude +A while a logic “0”is represented by on off pulse or
zero amplitude .During the on time ,the pulse does not return to zero after
half bit period. Therefore, the name NRZ format. As pulse have either +A or
0v amplitude .It is called as unipolar format. E.g. internal computer W/Fs

are usually of this type. Due to longer pulse duration, the NRZ pulse carries
more energy than the RZ pulses. But they need synchronization at receiver
as there is no separation between pulses.
Polar Line Codes :-
A] Polar RZ format :-
1 0 1 1
+A/2
t
Tb/2
-A/2
Tb
The advantage of the two unipolar formats is that they results in a

DC component that does not carry any information and waste power.
The polar RZ format as shown in fig. has opposite polarity pulses of
amplitude +-A/2 are used to represent logic ‘1’ and logic ‘0’.Therefore it is
called as a polar format. As the pulses return to zero after half the bit
duration Tb/ . This format is a RZ format.

B] Polar NRZ format:-
Data 1 0 1 1 0
Polar +A/2
NRZ Signal t
-A/2
In polar NRZ format, a pulse of amplitude ‘+A/2’ of duration Tb is used

to represent a logic 1 and pulse of amplitude ‘-A/2’ of duration Tb
represents a logic 0.
Unlike the unipolar w/f, a polar w/f has no DC component if the 0’s
and 1’s in the data occurs in equal propagation.
C] Split –Phase Manchester Format :-
Data 1 0 1 1
+A/2
Manchester
Signal t
-A/2

In split Manchester format symbol 1 is represented by transmitting

positive pulse of +A/2 amplitude for one half of the symbol is followed by
negative pulse of amplitude –A/2 for remaining half of the symbol dur . For
symbol ‘0’ these two pulses are transmitted in reverse order .The w/f does
not have any DC component.
D] Differential Manchester code:-

Data 0 0 1 0 1
Tb
Differential Manchester
Tb/2
In this code there is always a transition in the middle of a bit interval.

The binary no. 0(zero) has an additional transition at the beginning of the
bit interval.
Bipolar Line Codes:-

A) Bipolar NRZ Format (AMI) :-
Data 1 0 1 1 0
Bipolar NRZ Format
+A

-A
In bipolar NRZ format successive ‘1’ is represented by pulse with

alternating polarity and no pulse is transmitted for a logic ‘0’.Note that in
this representation there are three levels +A,0,-A.Therfore this is also
known as ‘Pseudo Ternary’ or ‘alternate mark division format’.
The most important feature of this formation is the absence of a DC

component eventhough the input binary data may contain long strings of
‘0’s sand ‘1’s. Moreover the bipolar format eliminates ambiguity that may
arise because of the polarity inversion during the course of transmission,
this is the reason why the bipolar NRZ format is used in the PCM-TDM T1
system for digital telephony.
The absence of the DC component allows the use of transformation

for coupliry.
B) Bipolar 8-Zero Substitution(B8ZS) :-

It is necessary in order to have sync. Between the transmitter and
receiver the line code needs to cross the zero line frequency. As per U.S.
T1 standards, not more than 15 0s can be sent in succession to ensure
proper synchronization.
In order to solve the problem related to synchronization a new line

code called B8ZS was developed, whenever eight successive 0s are
detected, the implementation of this line code will automatically insert a
special 8-bit sequence containing a bipolar violation. This can be easily
detected and corrected by CSU/DSU(Channel/Digital Service Unit).

e.g. Data Sent 11000000001
+ve 1 BVP 1
… …
… …
. .
t
-ve 1 BPV
8 zeros
+ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Will change to
+ 0 0 0 + - 0 - +v
Possible bits
Polarity
The voltage levels in the ‘violating byte’ have zero DC value.
C) High Density Bipolar Signaling(HDBS):-

In case of bipolar NRZ or AMI signal the transmitted signal is equal
to zero when a binary ‘0’ is to be transmitted ,this is true even for the
unipolar RZ and unipolar NRZ signal .The absence of transmitted signal

can cause problem in synchronization at the receiver if long sequence of

binary ‘0’ are being transmitted.
This problem can be solved by adding pulses when long strings of

0s exceeding a non are being transmitted. This type of coding is called as
high density bipolar coding .It is denoted by HDBN where N=1, 2,3….The
most widely used HDB format is N=3 i.e. HDB3.
In the string of message bits when (N+1) number of zeros occur

,they are replaced by special binary sequence of (N+1) length ,this
sequence contain some binary 1’s which are necessary for Sync. at the
receiver. The HDB3 format is the converted into the bipolar NRZ (AM1)
format.
Message bits 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
HDB3 coded 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 v
signal
Bipolar NRZ t
equivalent
Some Other Line Code :-
1) 2B1Q(2 Binary 1 Quarternary) :-

2B1Q code uses four voltage levels. The input bits are grouped into
groups of two bits each groups of two bits each and each group is
represented by one level as shown in following fig.
Level (v)
Message Assigned
0 0 -3A
0 1 -A
1 0 +3A
1 1 +A
0 0 1 0 1 1
3A -
A–
-A -
-3A-

2) Polar Quarternary :-
The polar quarternary NRZ format delivered by grouping the

message bits in the blocks of two and using four amplitude levels
to represent the four possible combinations 00,01,10,11.
These four combination and four amplitude levels assigned

are shown in following table.
Message Combination X(t)= ak
0 0 -3A/2
0 1 -A/2
1 0 +A/2
1 1 +3A/2
Thus here for a message of two bits only one pulse of

duration D=2Tb is transmitted
D = 2Tb
Signaling rate = r=1/2Tb message/sec.
1 1
3A/2
1 0
A/2

0 1
- A/2
-3A/2 0 0
3) NRZ –level ,NRZ-mark ,NRZ-Space formats :-
Clock Clock Signal
Data 0 0 1 0 Data Stream
NRZ -L
High till next 1

data bit
NRZ -M
NRZ-S
In NRZ-L coding a bit 0 or 1 is represented by a voltage level which

remains constant during the bit duration. A binary one is represented by a
voltage high level and zero by voltage low level.
In NRZ- M the w/f changes .its level when the binary digit is ‘1’. The w/f
does not change its level when the binary digit is ‘0’.
In NRZ –S level w/f changes its level when binary digit is ‘0’.The w/f
does not change its level when digit is ‘1’.
Important Definitions:-
1) Bit Interval(Tb):-
Bit interval is time required to send one single bit.
+v
Tb
2) Bit Rate:-
Bit rate is the number of bits transmitted in one second .It is
expressed in one second. It is expressed in bits per second (bps).
Relation between bit rate and bit interval:-
Bit Interval=1/Bit Interval

Bit rate is also called as signaling rate and it should be as high as
possible. With increase in bit rate the bandwidth of transmission medium
must be increased in order to transmit the signal without distortion.
3) Data Rate:-
Data rate is the number of bits transmitted per second
.Increasing the number of bits per sample increases the bit rate which is
given as
D= nFs
Where, D = Data Rate in bits /sec

Fs= Sample rate in samples per sec.
n = No. of bits per sample.
But extra bits are often included to detect and correct the errors .A
few bits called framing bits are also needed to ensure that transmitter
and receiver are in sync. The actual bit rate is therefore always greater
than theoretical rate.
e.g. The minimum data rate needed to transmit audio with a sampling
rate of 40 KHz and 14 bits per sample is,
D = nFs
= 14 * 40 * 10^3
Data rate = 560 kps
4) Baud Rate or Bauds:-

Baud is the unit of signaling speed or modulation rate or the rate of
symbol transmission. It indicates the rate at which a signal level changes
over a given period of time. When binary bits are transmitted as an
electrical signal with two values ‘0’ and ‘1’,the bit rate and the modulation
rate i.e. baud rate are same.
Two level signals, bit rate and bauds are equal.
i/p bits 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
Tb
Bit Rate = 8 bits/sec

Baud Rate = 8 bauds
If here four different levels are used to represent data.
10 1 0
4 11
levels 01
00 0 1 0 0 0 1 T= 1 sec
Bit Rate=8bits/sec, Baud Rate=4 level/sec. Bit rate is therefore not

equal to the baud rate.
5) Modulation Rate:-
The ratio of bit rate to transmission bandwidth is called ‘modulation
rate’ or ‘spectral efficiency.’
6) Channel Capacity:-
The Shannon Hartley theorem gives a formula for the capacity of
channel when its bandwidth and noise level are known.

C= B log2 (1+S/N) (*log2= log to the base 2)
Where, C = channel capacity in bps
B = Bandwidth in Hz
S/N= Ratio of total signal power to total
Random noise power at the
Inputs to the receiver within the
Frequency limits.
The channel capacity is denoted by ‘C’ and is defined as the

maximum possible bit rate supported by the channel without introducing
errors. The unit of channel capacity is bits/sec. This theorem shows a limit
that cannot be exceeded by the signaling speed in a channel in which noise
is purely random.
7) Channel Bandwidth:-
The channel bandwidth is defined as the range of signal
frequencies (say f1 to f2) over which the channel allows a distortion free
transmission. If the signal frequencies distortion while travelling over the
channel bandwidth is measured in Hz, Khz, Mhz, etc.
8) S/N Ratio:-
Signal to noise ratio is defined as the ratio of the signal power to
the noise power at the same point. Thus in S/N ratio denotes signal power
and ‘N’ denotes the noise power.

Signal to noise ratio is normally expressed in ‘dB’(decibel) .The

value of S/N ratio should be as high as possible in order to ensure an error
free data transmission.

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Communication Techniques (9116)

Information must be translated into agreed upon patterns pf 0’s and

Compiled By:- Mr. Joshi R.R. Page 1

Source Coding Line coding

Compiled By:- Mr. Joshi R.R. Page 2

Bit Rate = Pulse Rate * log2L

Unipolar Polar Bipolar

RZ NRZ RZ NRZ Manchester Diff. Manchester AMI

Line codes are basically divided into three categories:

Compiled By:- Mr. Joshi R.R. Page 3

Important Properties of Line Codes:-

Compiled By:- Mr. Joshi R.R. Page 4

Unipolar Line Codes:-

In this format each “0” is represented by an ”off” pulse(0v) and each

B] Unipolar NRZ Format:-

In this format a logic “1” is represented by a pulse of full bit duration

Compiled By:- Mr. Joshi R.R. Page 5

Polar Line Codes :-

The advantage of the two unipolar formats is that they results in a

Compiled By:- Mr. Joshi R.R. Page 6

B] Polar NRZ format:-

In polar NRZ format, a pulse of amplitude ‘+A/2’ of duration Tb is used

C] Split –Phase Manchester Format :-

Compiled By:- Mr. Joshi R.R. Page 7

In split Manchester format symbol 1 is represented by transmitting

D] Differential Manchester code:-

In this code there is always a transition in the middle of a bit interval.

Bipolar Line Codes:-

Bipolar NRZ Format

Compiled By:- Mr. Joshi R.R. Page 8

In bipolar NRZ format successive ‘1’ is represented by pulse with

The most important feature of this formation is the absence of a DC

The absence of the DC component allows the use of transformation

B) Bipolar 8-Zero Substitution(B8ZS) :-

In order to solve the problem related to synchronization a new line

Compiled By:- Mr. Joshi R.R. Page 9

e.g. Data Sent 11000000001

The voltage levels in the ‘violating byte’ have zero DC value.

C) High Density Bipolar Signaling(HDBS):-

Compiled By:- Mr. Joshi R.R. Page 10

can cause problem in synchronization at the receiver if long sequence of

This problem can be solved by adding pulses when long strings of

In the string of message bits when (N+1) number of zeros occur

Some Other Line Code :-

1) 2B1Q(2 Binary 1 Quarternary) :-

Compiled By:- Mr. Joshi R.R. Page 11

Compiled By:- Mr. Joshi R.R. Page 12

The polar quarternary NRZ format delivered by grouping the

These four combination and four amplitude levels assigned

Message Combination X(t)= ak

Thus here for a message of two bits only one pulse of

Compiled By:- Mr. Joshi R.R. Page 13

3) NRZ –level ,NRZ-mark ,NRZ-Space formats :-

Clock Clock Signal

Data 0 0 1 0 Data Stream

High till next 1

In NRZ-L coding a bit 0 or 1 is represented by a voltage level which

Bit Interval=1/Bit Interval

Where, D = Data Rate in bits /sec

4) Baud Rate or Bauds:-

Two level signals, bit rate and bauds are equal.

Bit Rate = 8 bits/sec

If here four different levels are used to represent data.