INTRODUCTION TO PHYSIOLOGY

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• Anatomy and physiology are subdivisions of the
science of biology, which is the study of living
organisms, both plants and animals

• Anatomy has to do with the structure and
relationships between structures

• Physiology is concerned with the normal
functions of the parts of a living organism,
including all its chemical and physical process

• In general, function is determined by structure
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• Physiology is the basis for:
– Pathophysiology
– Pharmacology
– Immunology
– Biochemistry
– Microbiology

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Levels of Organization of Life

• Molecular
• Cellular
• Tissue
• Organ
• Organ System
• Individual

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 Structural Organization of Matter
1. Chemical Level
a. Atoms
(Proton, Neutron, electrons)
b. Molecules
(Two or more atoms joined
together by either covalent or
ionic bonds)
Four biologically important
organic molecules in the
human body
a. Proteins which are made
from 20 different Amino
Acids

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 Structural Organization of Matter
Four Biologically-Important
Organic molecules:
b. Complex Carbohydrates
made from simple sugars
c. Nucleic Acids made for
nucleotides
d. Lipids made from fatty
acids and glycerol

2. Cells
(Smallest structural and
functional units of the human
body)

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 Structural Organization of Matter
3. Tissues
(group of cells and the
materials surrounding them
that work together to perform
a particular function)
4. Organs
(composed of two or more
tissues work together to
provide specific functions and
they usually have specific
shapes)

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 Structural Organization of Matter
5. Organ systems
(consist of one or more organs
that provide a common
function) Examples covered
in Anatomy & Physiology:
a. Integumentary system
b. Skeletal system
c. Muscular system
d. Nervous system

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Structural Organization of Matter
Anatomy & Physiology:
e. Endocrine system
f. Cardiovascular system
g. Lymphatic system
h. Respiratory system
I. Digestive system
j. Urinary system
k. Reproductive system

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Basic Characteristics of Living Organisms

• Unique Chemical Organization

• Cellular Organization
• Constant Energy Requirement
• Definite Form and Size Range
• Capacity to Reproduce
• Definite Life Span
• Movement
• Variation and Adaptation
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Anatomical Terms

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The Different Body Systems

• Integumentary
• Skeletal
• Muscular
• Nervous
• Endocrine
• Digestive
• Respiratory
• Circulatory
• Urinary
• Reproductive

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Cell:
• Basic living unit of structure & function of the
body.
– > 100 trillion cells in body.
– very small (10-5 m in diameter).
– highly organized.
– variety of shapes & sizes.
– each type of cells has a special function

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General Cell structure:
• 3 principal parts:
– Plasma (cell) membrane.
– Cytoplasm & organelles.
– Nucleus.

□ The cell has two major compartments: the nucleus & the cytoplasm.
The cytoplasm contains the major cell organelles & a fluid called cytosol.
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 General Cell Structure & Function

Component Structure Function

Plasma Membrane composed of double
layer of phospholipids in which
(cell) proteins are embedded
membrane
Cytoplasm Fluid, jellylike substance b/w cell
membrane & nucleus in which
organelles are suspended
Surrounds, holds cell together & gives its
form; controls passage of materials into &
out of cell
Serves as matrix substance in which
chemical reactions occur.

Nucleus:
- Nuclear Double-layered membrane that Supports nucleus & controls passage of
surrounds nucleus, composed of materials b/w nucleus & cytoplasm
envelope protein & lipid molecules

- Nucleolus Dense nonmembranous mass Produces ribosomal RNA for ribosomes
composed of protein & RNA
molecules
Contains genetic code that determines
- Chromatin Fibrous strands composed of which proteins (including enzymes) will
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protein & DNA be manufactured by the cell
Plasma (Cell) Membrane
• Composed of:

– Double layer of phospholipids (hydrophobic/
hydrophilic parts)

– Proteins span, or partially span the membrane.

– Negatively charged carbohydrates attach to the
outer surface.

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General composition of cell membrane

• Proteins ……………………. 55%

• Lipids ……………………….. 41%
- Phospholipids … 25%
- Cholesterol ……. 12% Lipids
- Glycolipids …….. 4%
• Carbohydrates …………… 3%

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Cell membrane phospholipids
• Consists of:

a. Glycerol head that contains phosphate group
(polar & hydrophilic).

b. 2 fatty acid ‘tails’ (nonpolar & hydrophobic).

• The hydrophobic parts restricts the passage of
H20 & H20- soluble ions.

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Cell membrane proteins
1. Integral proteins: / Internal or intrinsic proteins
- span the membrane.
- transport proteins.
- provide structural channels or pores.

2. Peripheral proteins: / external or extrinsic proteins
- embedded in one side (face) of the membrane.
- carrier proteins.
- bind w substances to be transported.
- include hormone receptors & cell surface antigens.
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General functions of cell membrane 

proteins
1. Provide structural support.
2. Transport molecules across the membrane.
3. Enzymatic control of chemical reactions at cellular
surface.
4. Some function as receptors for hormones.
5. Some function as regulatory molecules, that arrive at
outer surface of the membrane.
6. Some serve as ‘markers’ (antigens), that identify
blood & tissue type of an individual.
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Cytoplasm & Organelles

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Cytoplasm

• The aqueous content of a cell (fluid, jellylike

substance), that lies between cell membrane &
nucleus in which organelles are suspended.

• Serves as matrix substance in which chemical
reactions occur.

• ‘cytosol’ is the term used to describe fluid
portion of the cytoplasm.

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 Organelles

(excluding nucleus)

• Subcellular structures within the cytoplasm that

perform specific functions.

□ Generalized view of a mammalian cell showing organelles common to all cells (such as
the Golgi complex) as well as specialized structures (e.g., cilia) found only in some cells.
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Cytoplasmic Organelles: Structure &
Function
Component Structure Function

Endoplasmic System of Agranular (smooth) ER metabolizes nonpolar

reticulum interconnected compounds & stores Ca
membrane-forming cells; granular (rough) ER assists in protein
canals & tubules sysnthesis

Ribosomes Granular particles Synthesize proteins

composed of protein &
RNA
Golgi complex Cluster of flattened Synthesizes carbohydrates & packages
membranous sacs molecules for secretion. Secretes lipids &
glycoproteins
Mitochondria Membranous sacs w Release energy from food molecules &
folded inner partitions transform energy into usable ATP

Lysosomes Membranous sacs Digest foreign molecules & damaged

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organelles
• The endoplasmic reticulum. Agranular ER has ribosomes
attached to its surface, whereas granular ER lacks
ribosomes.

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• The structure of a mitochondria. The outer mitochondrial
membrane & the infoldings of the inner membrane. The
fluid in the center is the matrix.

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Cytoplasmic Organelles: Structure & Function (continued)

Component Structure Function

Peroxisomes Spherical membranous Contain enzymes that detoxify harmful

vesicles molecules & break down hydrogen peroxide

Centrosome Nonmembranous mass Helps to organize spindle fibers & distribute

of 2 rodlike centrioles chromosomes during mitosis

Vacuoles Membranous sacs Store & release various substances within the
cytoplasm

Microfilaments Thin, hollow tubes Support cytoplasm & fx as cytoskeleton,

& transport materials within the cytoplasm
microtubules
Cilia & flagella Minute cytoplasmic Move particles along cell surface, or move the
projections that extend cell
from the cell surface
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• The formation of the cytoskeleton by microtubules.
Microtubules are also important in the motility (movement)
of the cell, & movement of materials within the cell.

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Nucleus

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Cell Nucleus
• Is a large spheroid body.
• Largest of organelles.
• Contains the genetic material (DNA).
• Most cells have a single nucleus.
• Enclosed by inner & outer membrane (nuclear
envelope).
– Outer membrane is continuous w ER.
• Nuclear pore complexes fuse inner & outer
membranes together.
– Selective active transport of proteins & RNA.

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Cell Nucleus
• Nucleoli:
– Dark areas within the nucleus, not surrounded by
membrane.
– Centers for production of ribosomes.

• Chromatin:
– Threadlike material that makes up chromosomes.

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Body Fluids

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 Body composition
• In average young adult male:

Body composition % of body weight

Protein, & related substances 18%

Fat 15%

Mineral 7%
Water 60%

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Body Fluids
• Water content in body is divided into 2 compartments:

1. Extracellular fluid (ECF):
- fluid outside the cells.
≈ 1/3 volume of fluids in body (≈ 33% of total body
water).
- contains ions & nutrients needed for cellular life.

2. Intracellular fluid (ICF):
- fluid inside the cells.
≈ 2/3 volume of fluids in body (≈ 67% of total body
water).

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 Fluid Compartments

≈ 60% of body weight

Extracellular fluid Intracellular fluid

(≈ 1/3) (≈ 2/3)
≈ 33% of TBW ≈ 67% of TBW
≈ 20% of body wt ≈ 40% of body wt

Plasma Interstitial fluid Transcellular fluid

≈ 25% of ECF ≈ 75% of ECF CSF
≈ 5% of body wt ≈ 15% of body wt Intraocular
Pleural
Peritoneal
Pericardial
Synovial
Digestive 35
secretions
Differences between ECF & ICF

ECF ICF
Cations: Anions: Cations: Anions:
Na Cl Na Cl
K HCO K HCO
Mg Mg Phosphate ions
Nutrients:
O Nutrients:
High concentrations of
amino acids. proteins.
Wastes:
CO
excess water, & ions.
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Factors affecting body fluids
• Water intake & output
• Age:
- infant: 73%
- elderly: 45%
• Sex:
- adult male: 60%
- adult female: 40-50%
• Obesity
• Climate
• Habits
• Level of physical activity

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Daily intake & output of water (ml/day)
Normal Prolonged, heavy exercise
Intake:
□ Fluids ingested 2100 ?
(Drinking/in food)
□ From metabolism 200 200
Total intake 2300 ?
Output:
□ Insensible – skin 350 350
□ Insensible – lungs 350 650
□ Sweat 100 5000
□ Feces 100 100
□ Urine 1400 500
Total output 2300 6600
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In steady state, water intake = water loss
Body Fluid Compartments
– Internal environment = fluid surrounding cells =
extracellular fluid (ECF)
– 70 kg man
- Total body water = 42 liters
– 28 liters intracellular fluid (ICF)
– 14 liters extracellular fluid (ECF)
- Three liters plasma
- 11 liters interstitial fluid (ISF)

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Control of body fluids
• Thirst
• Sweating
• Renal control (aldosterone)
• Neuronal (osmoreceptors, baroreceptors)

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Dehydration
• Loss of water from the body,
e.g. vomiting, diarrhea, sweating, & polyuria.
• Leads to ↓ in both ECF & ICF volumes.
• General signs:
- Dry tongue
- loss of skin elasticity
- soft eyeballs
- ↓ blood pressure

• Treated with fluid replacement (orally, or IV).

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Transport through the cell
membrane

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Transport through the cell membrane
• Cell membrane is selectively permeable to some
molecules & ions.
– Not permeable to proteins, nucleic acids, & other
molecules.

• Lipid or fat-soluble substances, e.g. O2, CO2,
OH; enter directly into cell membrane through the
lipid bilayer.

• Water-soluble substances, e.g. ions, glucose,
water; enter through proteins of the cell
membrane.
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• Gas exchange occurs by diffusion. The color dots, which represent
oxygen & carbon dioxide molecules, indicate relative concentrations
inside the cell & in the extracellular environment. Gas exchange
between the intracellular & extracellular compartments thus occur by
diffusion.

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• Ions pass through membrane channels. These channels are composed of
integral proteins that span the thickness of the membrane. Although some
channels are always open, many others have structures known as ‘gates’ that
can open or close the channel. This figure depicts a generalized ion channel;
most, however, are relatively selective – they allow only particular ions to pass.

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 Diffusion
(passive transport)

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1. Diffusion (passive transport)
• Random movement of substance through the
membrane, either directly or in combination
with carrier protein down an electrochemical
gradient.

a. simple diffusion
b. facilitated diffusion
c. osmosis

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a. Simple diffusion
• Non-Carrier mediated transport.

• Involves net transport down an electrochemical
gradient (from higher to lower conc).

• Does not need cellular metabolism energy.
However, it’s powered by thermal energy of the
diffusing molecules.

• Net diffusion stops when the conc is equal on
both sides of the membrane.

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• Diffusion of a solute.
(a) Net diffusion occurs
when there is a
concentration difference
(or concentration
gradient) between two
regions of a solution,
provided that the
membrane separating
these regions is
permeable to the
diffusing substance.

• (b) Diffusion tends to
equalize the
concentrations of these
regions, & thus to
eliminate the
concentration
differences.

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 b. Osmosis
• Net diffusion of H20 across a
selectively permeable membrane.
• Movement of H20 from a high [H20] to
lower [H20] until equilibrium is reached.
• 2 requirements for osmosis:
– Must be difference in [solute] on the 2
sides of the membrane.
– Membrane must be impermeable to the
solute.
• Osmotically active solutes:
– When solutes cannot pass freely
through the membrane.

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• Red blood cells in isotonic, hypotonic, & hypertonic solutions. In each case, the
external solution has an equal, lower, or higher osmotic pressure, respectively, than
the intracellular fluid, As a result, water moves by osmosis into the red blood cells
placed in hypotonic solutins, causing them to swell and even to burst. Similarly, water
moves out of red blood cells placed in a hypertonic solution, causing them to shrink &
become crenated.

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c. Facilitated diffusion
▪ Protein-Carrier Mediated transport, within the
membrane.

▪ Involves net transport down an electrochemical gradient
(from higher to lower conc).

▪ Does not need cellular metabolic energy. However, it’s
powered by thermal energy of diffusing molecules.

▪ Molecules that are too large & polar to diffuse are
transported
across plasma membrane by protein carriers.

e.g. Glucose, most of amino acids, & other organic
molecules.
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 Facilitated Diffusion (continued)

• Passive transport:
– ATP not needed.
• Powered by thermal
energy of diffusing
molecules.
– Involves transport of
substance through cell
membrane down conc
gradient by carrier
proteins.
• Transport carriers for
glucose in intestines & in
kidney’s basal membrane.

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Active transport

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2. Active transport:
• Protein-Carrier mediated transport.

• Involves net transport (uphill), i.e. against
electrochemical gradient (from lower to higher
conc).

• Requires metabolic energy (ATP).

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Homeostasis
– Ability to maintain a relatively constant internal
environment
– Conditions of the internal environment which
are regulated include
• Temperature
• Volume
• Composition

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Disease is a homeostatic imbalance.

Symptoms are subjective changes that are

not apparent to an observer.

Signs are objective changes which can be

observed or measured.

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