Lexicon = the vocabulary of a language

Lexicology = the study of a language's vocabulary

Morphology = the study of how words are built

IS THE SMALLEST SIGN IN LANGUAGE THE WORD? NO.

APPLE

REREADING

RE + READ + ING

MORPHEME - the smallest sign in language (smallest form with a specific

meaning)

renewable rewritable
re + new + able re + writ(e) + able

MORPHOLOGY

= the study of how words are built

= set of morphemes + the rules of how they are combined

= "word grammar"

Problems in defining the morpheme

fatter bigger worker teacher screwdriver

fat(t)+er big(g)+er work+er teach+er screwdriv(e)+er

Homomorphs - morphemes with same form but different meanings

-ER1 (comparative): fat(t) + er big(g) + er

-ER2 (human agent): work + er teach + er

-ER3 (inanimate instrument): screwdriv(e) + er

redder tiger salamander character can opener hammer

Cranberry morph: appears only in a single word, like "ham" in hammer, also:
uncouth, huckleberry, lukewarm, knowledge
ALLOMORPHS:

- red [r E d] red in "redder" [r E |]

- fat [f œ t] fat in "fatter" [f œ |]

ALLOMORPHS = forms with the same meaning but slightly different

sound-shapes, and the difference is predictable

sincere / sincerity severe / severity profound/profundity

confuse / confusion, use / usury

**Both "Morpheme" and "Word" are fuzzy concepts, hard to define

Classification of Morphemes

1. According to their position in the word:

read re+read read+ing rereading

root prefix + root root + suffix prefix + root + suffix

infix: kilad (red) --> kumilad (be red)

circumfix: chokma (it is good) --> ikchokmo (it is not good)

lakna (it is yellow)

--> iklakno (it is not
yellow)

AFFIX TYPES: prefix, suffix, infix, circumfix,

agglutination: affixes don't change form when combined

simple fusion: at least one of the morphemes changes form:

confuse -> confus+ion, able -> abil+ity, explain ->

explan+ation, electric-> electric+ity, long -> leng+th

symbolic fusion: tooth -> teeth, run -> ran, take -> took, use
(the noun) -> use (the verb)

2. Types of affixes:

Derivational affixes make new words by adding concrete meanings

to old words:

, -ess -hood, -ive, -ness, re-, un-

 All English prefixes and most suffixes are derivational.

Inflectional affixes make different grammatical forms of the same

word. English has only 8 productive inflections:

3 for verbs: -ed, -s, -ing work+ed, work+s, work+ing

3 for nouns: -s, -'s -'s boys, boy's, boys'

2 for adjectives: -er, -est smart+er, smart+est

There are several unproductive inflections too, like the plural

-en in oxen, and the participial -en in given.

stem + ending (inflectional suffix)

3. Classification according to whether morpheme = word

FREE BOUND

most roots in English most prefixes and suffixes

but: adept, inept (BOUND

ism (free suffix) ex, pro, con (free prefixes)
ROOT)

4. Classifying words according to morpheme structure

Simple words- a single morpheme: house, I, the, off, salamander

Complex words - root + at least 1 affix: worker, reread, retelling

anti + dis + establish +ment + ari + an +ism

Compound words - 2 roots: ashtray, mailbox, lazybones

Minor word formation techniques (major ones are compounding and affixation)

1. null affixation sheep (is) vs. sheep (are)

zero morpheme morphological conversion.

2. reduplication (common in Hawaiian)

- wiki move
fast -> wikiwiki quick, helu count-> heluhelu read. partial
reduplication: 'uku flea --> 'u'uku tiny
3. blend smog (smoke + fog) Great Eggspectations

4. abbreviations (several types)

clipping, or clipped word: grad, prof, dorm, Liz, Flo, Ed, Al.

stub compound: polysci, sci-fi, physed

true acronym: scuba, radar, AIDS.

alphabetism: DJ, VIP, OK, USA

5. back formation: enthusiasm -> enthuse; action -> act

also: cherry <cherise, pea < pease

6. agglomerations: irregardless, komiksy, Zaliv Pyudzhet Saund.

7. eponym (proper noun becomes a common noun): sandwich, Sequoia,

sideburns, hooker.

Minor inflectional techniques:

symbolic fusion (only in some noun plurals, some denominal verbs, and some
past tense verbs)

suppletion (change the morpheme instead of adding an affix):

bad -> worse, good -> better, go -> went, is -> was, am, is, are

partial suppletion: was -> were, teach -> taught

Diphthongs and Gliding Vowels

A single vowel, such as the "O" or "I" in "oil" is called a monophthong (mono for one,
di for two). An example of a monophthong is the "O" in "hop." But, when we move
from one vowel sound to another, such as the "oi" in "oil," it's called gliding. As such,
diphthongs are sometimes referred to as "gliding vowels."
/aɪ/
This diphthong uses letters and letter combinations like /i/, /igh/, and /y/ to form
sounds similar to "eye." Here are a few more examples:
Cry
My
Like
Bright
Lime
/eɪ/
This diphthong uses letters and letter combinations like /ey/, /ay/, /ai/ and /a/ to form
sounds similar to "great." Here are a few more examples:
Bake
Rain

Lay
Eight
Break
/əʊ/
This diphthong uses letters and letter combinations like /ow/, /oa/ and /o/ to form
sounds similar to "boat." Here are a few more examples:
Go
Oh
Slow
Loan
Though
/aʊ/
This diphthong uses letters and letter combinations like /ou/ and /ow/ to form sounds
similar to "ow!" Here are a few more examples:

Bound
House
Brown
How
Now
/eə/
This diphthong uses letters and letter combinations like /ai/, /a/, and /ea/ to form
sounds similar to "air." Here are a few more examples:

Pair
Lair
Stare
Care
Bear
/ɪə/
This diphthong uses letters and letter combinations like /ee/, /ie/ and /ea/ to form
sounds similar to "ear." Here are a few more examples:

Career
Here
Near
Year
Pier
/ɔɪ/
This diphthong uses letters and letter combinations like /oy/ and /oi/ to form sounds
similar to "oil." Here are a few more examples:

Boy
Coy
Toy
Foil
Coin

Five vowel parameters

Whatever variety of English is spoken, vowels may be differentiated by differences in

five main parameters:

1. openness of the mouth

2. tongue elevation
3. position of tongue elevation
4. lip shape
5. length of vocalization

The first four of these alter the relative size and shape of the oral cavity. The final
parameter (length of vocalization) influences the duration of production.

Openness of the mouth

Vowels differ from one another according to the extent to which the jaws are
either open or close (not ‘closed’, as a complete closure would prevent the free flow
of air out of the mouth). Look at yourself in a mirror and say the vowel sound /ɑ/, as
in the word palm. It should be obvious that the jaws are wide apart and you have
adopted a relatively open mouth posture. This is, therefore, an open vowel. Now
contrast this with the vowel /i/, as in the word fleece. This time, you should notice that
the mouth is nearly closed, i.e. the vowel /i/ is a close vowel. You can both see and
feel the relative openness or closeness of the mouth by alternating the production of
these vowels in quick succession (/i/ – /ɑ/ – /i/ – /ɑ/ – /i/ – /ɑ/) as you observe yourself
in a mirror.

Tongue elevation

The tongue can take up a variety of positions in the mouth. On the vertical axis it is
usually described as taking up one of three positions:

1. high
2. mid
3. low

An example of the tongue occupying a high position is the vowel sound /i/ as in the
word fleece (which we know is also a close vowel). Try saying /i/ aloud again whilst
looking in a mirror. This time, instead of focusing on the position of the jaws, see and
feel that the front portion of the tongue is elevated relatively high in the mouth. Now
contrast this with the vowel /æ/ as in the word trap. This time you should notice that
the tongue takes up a low position in the mouth. An example of a vowel in which the
tongue is placed about halfway between high and low is the sound /ɛ/ as in the
word dress. This is, therefore, described as a mid vowel.

When articulating vowels, there is a correlation between tongue elevation and

openness of the mouth. Close vowels (with the mouth relatively closed) are
articulated with a relatively high tongue elevation. In contrast, open vowels are
typically articulated with a relatively low tongue position. As you will probably have
surmised, close-mid and open-mid vowels are generally articulated with the tongue
elevation in a mid position, intermediate between high and low.

Position of tongue elevation

Whereas the elevation of the tongue describes the position of the tongue on the
vertical axis (high, mid, low), the ‘position of tongue elevation’ refers to where this
elevation takes place on the horizontal axis. Again, three positions are recognized:

1. front
2. central
3. back

Referring once more to the vowel /i/, we have noted that it is both a close vowel and a
high vowel. In addition, you may have noticed when observing yourself articulating
this sound in a mirror that the elevation of the tongue is at the front of the mouth. It is,
therefore, also described as a front vowel. This is because the highest point of the
tongue is towards the front of the mouth, below the front portion of the hard palate.
Now contrast this again with the vowel /ɑ/, as in the word palm. This time, as you say
the vowel aloud, you should feel that the tongue elevation is towards the back of the
mouth. This is, therefore, a back vowel sound, i.e. the highest point of tongue
elevation is towards the back of the mouth, below the soft palate. The central position
is harder to both see and feel but an example of this is the vowel /ɜ/ as in the Southern
British English pronunciation of the word nurse. Central vowels are, logically,
articulated with the highest point of the tongue intermediate between the front of the
mouth (below the front portion of the hard palate) and the back of the mouth (below
the soft palate).

Lip shape

During the production of English vowels, just two lip shapes are usually adopted:

1. rounded
2. unrounded

The difference can be illustrated by alternating between saying the vowel sounds /u/,
as in the word goose and /i/, as in the word fleece. Look at yourself once more in a
mirror as you alternate between saying these vowels in rapid succession (/u/ – /i/ – /u/
– /i/ – /u/ – /i/). You will see that the lips are rounded and pushed forwards for the
production of /u/ but that they are spread (unrounded) for the vowel /i/.

Length of vocalization

Without exception, vowels are produced with the vocal folds vibrating. They are,
therefore, all voiced. In addition, vowels may be sustained for relatively longer and
shorter intervals of time. They are categorized as:

1. long
2. short

Again, saying the vowel sound /u/, as in the word goose. This can be heard to be a
relatively long vowel if you now contrast this by saying the vowel /æ/ as in trap.

A further example of a long vowel is /i/, as in peat. This can be contrasted with the
short vowel /ɪ/, as in pit. Again, try speaking aloud these two words, alternating
between them, i.e. peat – pit – peat – pit, and so on. This should help you distinguish
the relative difference in the length of vocalization of /i/ and /ɪ/. Sometimes, for
example when it is important to make clear that a particular vowel is a long vowel, a
colon-like mark (ː) is placed after the symbol for the vowel, e.g. /iː/, /uː/, /ɑː/.

Conversion refers to the process of changing or converting the class of a word without
changing its form. The word email, for instance, can be used as a verb in Modern
English though it was only a noun in the past.
Examples:
Noun to verb: bottle (The wine was brewed in France but bottled in Hong Kong.)
butter (Don't butter the bread for me. I prefer jam.)
Verb to noun: hit (He scored a hit in his first shot.)
cheat (He used some cheats in the computer game to make him win easier.)
must (It is a must for you to visit the Forbidden City if you go to Beijing.)
Adjective toregular (I am one of the regulars at the pubs in Tsim Sha Tsui.)
noun: final (It is obvious that the LA Lakers will enter the NBA Finals.)
crazy (Stop shouting and running around like a crazy.)
Adjective toempty (Can you empty the bin for me, please?)
verb: dirty (Don't sit on the floor. You might dirty your dress.)
dry (Caught in the rain, we were soaked to the skin. We dried ourselves beside
the fireplace.)

In Morphophonemic process, there are morphemes which are represented in

all occurrences by a single phonemic shape: for example, pay, represented by /pei/
inpays, paid, paying, payer, payee, payment, and so on, as well as in the whole word
"pay". If all the morphemes of English were like this, then the morphophonemics of
the language would be trivial. But there are complications in the English language.
Thus, in English, the past tense morpheme is represented by a suffix paid.. Suffixes
isa word that is added at the end of another word or base to make a new word. For
example : Plurals "-es" and "-s", as in "bus, buses", "bun, buns" . Besides ,there are
the example for morpheme that had change, such as in Plural form of "-f" is "-ves", as
in "leaf, leaves", “wolf, wolves”. Then different pronunciations for the past tense
marker is "-ed". In Morphology, there is known as inflectional Morpheme which
related with morphophonemic process. It also told us about the morpheme which add
a phoneme but doesn’t change the meaning. For example : stamp become stamps and
grape become grapes.
There are different kinds of morphophonemic change in English; here are some
of the common changes in morphophonemic in English :

1. Loss of phoneme
For example in the lost of phoneme /t/ when changing wordclass (adjective to
a
noun)
e.g. different → difference; democrat → democracy

2. Addition of phonemes
For example in the addition of “s” in the change of :
sword → swordsman; sale → salesgirl; craft → craftsman

3. Simple change of phonemes

The example which is mentioned above, the change from singular to plural
e.g. dog → dogs

4. Assimilation – Dissimilation
Assimilation is the process of replacing a sound by another sound
under the influence of a third sound which is near to it in the word or
sentence.

5. Synthesis
There is the fusion of the two phonemes brought together by
morpheme combination into a single new phoneme.
6. Stress shift, gradation
In many cases the addition of an affix to a word is accompanied by a
shift in stress called stress shift

7. Suppletion
This type of morphophonemic change is the occurrence of the
allomorph completely different in phonemic structure from the normal form.
Those are some common change of morphophonemic in English. If we can
predict the rule behind the different kind of pronunciation or monomorphemic

that happened, it will make it easier for us to learn English