6
BASIC CONCEPTS OF NUCLEAR FISSION
Pavel V. Tsvetkov
Department of Nuclear Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
6.1 NEUTRON ECONOMY
In the nuclear fission process, energy is released as a result
of division of an original heavy nucleus into two or more
fission fragments. Examples of such heavy nuclides include
U235, Pu239, Am242m, and others. Although ternary fis-
sions are possible, binary events dominate in the secondary
particle distributions where two fission fragments are
formed. Nuclear fission events can be induced by collisions
of heavy nuclei with elementary particles, e.g. neutron-
induced fissions. In neutron-induced fission events, neutron
collisions with heavy nuclei lead to compound nucleus for-
mation. Unstable compound nuclei release their excitation
energy through various channels including fission events.
As atomic weight increases, chances for spontaneous
fission events increase, although α –particle emissions typ-
ically dominate for the majority of radioactive nuclides. A
selected group of heavy nuclides, including Pu241, Cm250,
and Bk249, decays via β –particle emissions. The reaction
energetics is governed by binding energy per nucleon. For
fissile nuclides, such as U233, U235, Pu239, Pu241, fis-
sions can be induced by neutrons of very low energies,
while for fissionable nuclides, such as U238, neutron ener-
gies must exceed reaction threshold energies. Neutron cap-
ture events by such threshold-fissionable nuclides initiate
transmutation chains, leading toward fissile nuclides, for
example, U-Pu conversion chains.
Particle yields of neutron-induced fission reactions
consist of light fission fragments, neutrons and other types
of particles, and radiations. These secondary neutrons create
a chain of fission events—fission chain reaction. The fission
chain reaction can be controlled by managing neutron
absorption and scattering as depicted in Figure 6.1. The
neutron economy in a reactor system can be managed
by maximizing probabilities of neutron moderation and
fission events and minimizing parasitic neutron absorption.
The factors limiting neutron economy optimization are the
requirements of controllability and safety, economics and
performance.
Today, on a large scale, fission energy is successfully
recovered in nuclear fission reactors and converted into
heat energy that is later transformed into electricity or
utilized directly in heat processes. Man-made devices take
advantage of both neutron-induced fission reactions and
spontaneous fissions.
6.2 NUCLEAR FUEL APPROACHES
The probability of neutron capture leading to fission is
larger for slow neutrons than for fast neutrons. Therefore,
most common reactors are “thermal” reactors, that is, they
utilize the higher thermal cross sections. The naturally
occurring fuel is the fissile isotope of uranium—U235. As
a result, the majority of nuclear reactors utilize this nuclide
as a fuel. Alternative fuels include U233 (fissile nuclide
produced from Th232) and Pu239 (fissile nuclide produced
from U238). The best moderator has high moderation
efficiency, low neutron absorption, high resistance to
radiation and corrosion, and low cost. The moderators in
commercial power reactors are graphite, ordinary water,
and heavy water.
Naturally occurring uranium is composed of 0.7% U235
and 99.3% U238. This fraction of fissile U235 is too low
45
46 BASIC CONCEPTS OF NUCLEAR FISSION

Fission chain A
X
Fission γ Z

γ
1
Fission γ 0n
FF
FF
γ A
X 200 MeV
Z
1
FF
0n
FF 1 FF γ
Incident A
FF 0n
Z
X 200 MeV
neutron FF 1
FF 0n
γ γ
1 1
0n 0n
A
X γ A
Z 1 X
Z
0n
γ
Radiative capture Scattering Leakage from system

Figure 6.1 Fission chain reaction.

to sustain a fission chain reaction in combination with energy generated per unit quantity of heavy atoms charged
most neutron moderator materials. To achieve criticality, to the core,
either the probability of fission must be enhanced by  
MW d PR (MW ) · Tf (d)
increasing fissile fraction (enrichment) or the moderator B̄R = .
effectiveness must be enhanced by facilitating neutron, kg H.M. m(kg H.M.)
slowing down and reducing chances of parasitic neutron This is the fission energy release per unit mass of fuel.
absorption. Some reactor designs, PWR, BWR, HTR, use When burnup is reported in MWd/kg H.M., the fuel mass
enriched fuel in combination with inexpensive moderators in the denominator includes the initially loaded heavy atoms
like ordinary water and graphite. Other designs, such as only (heavy metal (H.M.)). It does not include the oxygen
CANDU, take advantage of natural uranium in combination in oxide fuel. The oxide fuel mass m(kg Oxide) (if used)
with more expensive, but better as moderator, heavy water. must be multiplied by the ratio of the total fuel heavy atoms
Fast fissions in U238 contribute about 3–4% to the fission atomic weight M (H.M .) to the oxide fuel molecular weight
process in a typical thermal reactor. As mentioned above, M(Oxide Fuel), in order to obtain the heavy atoms mass
some of the fertile U238 is converted to fissile Pu239. m(kg H.M.) for use in calculating burnup:
The most commonly used nuclear fuel material is uranium
dioxide with various enrichments in U235. Some modern M(H.M.)
m(kg H.M.) = m(kg Oxide) · .
designs use mixed oxide fuels containing plutonium in their M(Oxide F uel)
fresh fuel loadings.
In calculating burnup, one must be careful to distinguish
between chronological time TR and time at rated power, Tf .
Time at rated power, Tf , is the product of a load factor (or
6.3 REACTOR POWER, FUEL BURNUP,
capacity factor) f and a chronological time TR . The load
AND FUEL CONSUMPTION
factor f is the fraction of chronological unit of time during
which the reactor is operated at the thermal power level PR :
When fuel is irradiated, a net decrease in heavy atoms
occurs due to fission and the fuel is said to be burned or Time at rated power = Tf = f · TR .
depleted. The term burnup is used as the measure of either
the energy obtained from the burned fuel or the fraction of The reactor operation time between two core reloadings
fuel that has fissioned (i.e., burned). The two units most is called the refueling interval TR . The fuel irradiation pro-
widely used for reporting burnup of fuel are cess begins at the time of reactor startup after refueling and
ends when the reactor is shut down for subsequent refu-
MWd eling. The refueling interval TR is given in chronological
and atom %;
kg H.M. time. Thus, the average fuel burnup, B̄R (MWd/kg H.M.),
during the refueling interval TR is
MW d
kg H.M. measures the energy obtained from irradiating fuel:  
The useful lifetime of fuel in a reactor is indicated by the MW d PR (MW ) · f · TR (d)
B̄R = ;
burnup, this is a measure of the total amount of thermal kg H.M. m(kg Oxide) · M(Oxide
M(H.M.)
F uel)

atom % measures the fraction of heavy atoms in the fuel
that undergo fission. The two burnup units are related to one
another; the ratio of the specific energy value, B̄R (MWd/kg
H.M.), to the percent fission value, B̄R (atom %), is:
   
MW d MW d
B̄R B̄R
kg H.M. kg H.M.
=  
B̄R (atom %) % f issions
B̄R
atoms H.M.
 
atoms H.M.
6.023 × 1026 ·
kg − mol. H.M.
=     
% f issions
100 · · 2.9 × 1016 ·
absolute  MW · s 
s  kg H.M.
·0.864 × 105 · · 238 ·
d kg − mol. H.M.
= 10.
6.4 FISSION REACTOR CONSIDERATIONS
The primary objective in the design and operation of a
nuclear reactor is the utilization of the energy released
by a controlled chain reaction of nuclear fission events
maintained within the reactor core. Since 2 to 3 neutrons
are released in every neutron-induced fission reaction, the
probability of a sustained neutron chain reaction is obvious.
In the proper environment of fissionable material, these
fission neutrons are capable of inducing further fissions with
the release of more neutrons, and so on. This sequence of
events is known as a chain reaction and is the process by
which nuclear energy is utilized in practical applications. A
nuclear reactor is a device in which things are so arranged
that a self-sustained fission chain reaction can occur in a
controlled manner.
The required condition for a stable, self-sustained chain
reaction in a nuclear reactor is that exactly one neutron
must be produced per fission, which eventually succeeds in
inducing another fission. In other words, one fission must
lead to another, and if this is the case, the number of fissions
occurring per unit time within the system will be constant.
If, on the other hand, each fission eventually leads to more
than one fission, the fission rate will increase in time,
and conversely, it will decrease with time if less than one
additional fission occurs per fission. There is competition
for the fission neutrons:
• Radiative neutron capture events (n, γ ): Some will be
absorbed in fuel nuclides as radiative capture events
(n, γ ) rather than fission events (n, F ).
• Neuron disappearance due to non-fuel absorption:
Some will be absorbed by non-fuel nuclides and
disappear.
• Neutron leakage: Some will leak out of the system.
FISSION REACTOR CONSIDERATIONS 47
Elastic and inelastic scattering events, (n, n) and (n, n/ ),
do not change a neutron population because in both cases
the scattered neutron remains in the system and may still
cause a fission event (n,F ). However, inelastic scattering
events (n, n/ ) may change neutron energies and thus, they
affect the relative probabilities of the next fission events.
The nuclear reactor configuration is called critical if
it maintains the steady-state fission chain process, which
is the stable balance between fission reactions (neutron
production) and neutron capture and leakage (neutron
disappearance).
The multiplication factor is defined as the ratio of the
number of fissions in any one generation to the number
of fissions in the immediately preceding generation. When
this factor is exactly equal to unity the number of fissions
in each succeeding generation, it is a constant, and a chain
reaction initiated in the system will continue at a constant
rate. Such a system is said to be critical. If the multiplication
factor is greater than unity, the number of fissions increases
with each succeeding generation. In this case, the chain
reaction diverges and the reactor is said to be supercritical.
Finally, if the multiplication factor is less than unity, the
chain reaction eventually dies out, and the system is called
subcritical.
⎧
⎪
⎨Subcritical Configuration: k < 1
P (t)
k≡ ⇒ Critical Configuration: k = 1
L(t) ⎪
⎩
Supercritical Configuration: k > 1
where it is explicitly noted that the production P(t) and
loss L(t) rates may change with time.
In order to maintain a self-sustained chain reaction in
a reactor, a careful balance must be established between
the rate at which neutrons are produced in the system
and the rate at which they disappear. Neutrons disappear
in two ways: They either leak from the surface of the
reactor or are absorbed within its interior. The rates at
which neutron leakage and absorption occur are governed
by the size and composition of the system. A reactor
will become supercritical or subcritical if its properties are
changed in such a way that its multiplication factor becomes
different from unity. These changes may occur in a number
of ways:
a. Fuel burnup: Initially loaded fissionable material
is consumed in an operating reactor at a rate
proportional to the power of the system. If fertile
materials, such as Th232 or U238, are present, fissile
nuclei will be produced (and also consumed) in time.
Thus, the fuel composition changes in time, and this
effect naturally has an impact on the multiplication
factor.
b. Fission product buildup and decay: Some of the
fission products are strong neutron absorbers and
48 BASIC CONCEPTS OF NUCLEAR FISSION
may substantially increase the absorption cross
section of a composition.
c. Temperature variations: Many reactor parameters
depend upon temperature, and the multiplication
factor of a reactor is therefore also temperature
dependent. Reactor temperature, however, is usually
a function of the operating power of the reactor, and
changes in power level may lead to changes in the
criticality of the system.
d. Reactivity changes due to movement of control rods
or other geometrical and material changes within the
reactor. Most reactors are controlled by moving rods
of neutron-absorbing material that are inserted in
their interiors. The movement of these control rods
changes the absorption characteristics of the reactor,
and this changes the multiplication factor.
e. Environmental changes: Some reactors are coupled
to and are therefore affected by changes in their
environment.
f. Accidents: Unforeseen events may suddenly change
the properties and criticality of a reactor.
Each of these phenomena is characterized by a different
time constant. The results of reactivity changes are usually
transients with time constant that are determined by the
lifetime of the prompt and delayed neutrons in the reactor.
The reactivity effects of fuel depletion must be compen-
sated to maintain criticality over the fuel burnup cycle:
• The major compensating elements are the control
rods, which can be inserted to compensate positive
depletion reactivity effects and withdrawn to compen-
sate negative depletion reactivity effects.
• Adjustment of the concentration of a neutron absorber
(boron) in the water coolant is another method used
to compensate for fuel depletion reactivity effects.
• Burnable poisons (B, Cd, Er, Gd) located in the fuel
lattice, which themselves deplete over time, can be
used to compensate the negative reactivity effects of
fuel depletion.
Fuel depletion and the compensating control actions
affect the reactor power distribution over the lifetime of
the fuel in the core. Depletion of fuel will be greatest
where the power is greatest. The initial positive reactivity
effect of depletion will enhance power peaking. At later
times, the negative reactivity effects will cause the power
to shift away to regions with higher neutron multiplication.
In general, the fuel depletion effect is to flatten the power
distribution because the regions of high power are more
rapidly depleted.
Core management deals with the schemes for loading
(and unloading) of fuel and, to some extent, with reactivity
control. Core management has two main objectives:
• To increase the burnup of the fuel, thereby improving
its utilization.
• To achieve a more uniform thermal power distribution
in the core, thereby facilitating heat removal.
Efficient core management basically involves the use of
fuel with different degrees of enrichment (fissile content)
distributed in the core so that the enrichment is high
where the neutron flux is low, and vice versa. The thermal
power distribution, which is related to the product of the
enrichment and the neutron flux, is thus “flattened.” Another
requirement in core management is to minimize downtime
while the reactor is being refueled and is not generating
power.
Fuel can be loaded into nuclear reactors either contin-
uously or batch-wise. In batch loading, some fraction of
the irradiated fuel is replaced by a fresh batch of fuel at
periodic shutdowns for refueling. If one-third of the fuel is
replaced, there would be three batches of fuel in the reac-
tor, each with its separate irradiation history. Generally,
the refueling interval is one year, primarily because that is
convenient for utilities.
The time-dependent phenomena include changes in the
neutron population (neutron flux) as well as causally related
changes in the reactor system, i.e., composition, tempera-
ture. The relationship between the neutron population (neu-
tron flux) and the physical reactor system (composition,
temperature, etc.) may occur in either direction; that is,
changes in the composition or temperature of the system
may cause a change in the flux, or changes in the flux
may alter the composition or temperature and thus the den-
sity and absorption characteristics of the system. If the flux
changes cause changes in the reactor and these changes
subsequently “act back” on the flux, the phenomenon is
called “feedback.” The energy and nuclear reactions that
occur during the operation of a nuclear reactor change the
material properties of the core and thus the multiplication
factor. This change in the reactivity of the reactor is called
feedback reactivity.
Reactivity feedback is called “inherent” if its occurrence
is based on an unavoidable and thus totally reliable phys-
ical phenomenon. An example is the Doppler broadening
of resonances that is directly associated with the fuel tem-
perature. Doppler broadening of resonances automatically
leads—through reduction in resonance self-shielding—to
an increase in neutron absorption and thus to a negative and
inherent reactivity feedback (note that resonance capture
dominates resonance fission in all thermal power reactors).
The reactor reactivity variation with temperature is the prin-
cipal feedback mechanism determining the inherent stability
of a nuclear reactor with respect to short-term fluctuations in
power level. Such feedback is called “prompt” if it directly
follows the changing fuel temperature. If additional physi-
cal phenomena such as material motion or heat transfer are

required to produce a certain feedback effect, a delay exists
between the energy production in the fuel and the feed-
back. The delay of axial fuel expansion is small enough that
this expansion can also be considered a prompt feedback
effect.
The large negative Doppler coefficient accounts for the
stability of thermal power reactors to temperature transients.
The Doppler coefficient in a fast reactor depends, in the
first place, on the nature and amounts of the fissile and
fertile nuclides in the fuel. It is numerically larger in a
softer than in a harder spectrum because of the increased
flux of neutrons in the 1-keV energy region. The negative
Doppler coefficient of U238 is therefore more significant
in a fast reactor with oxide fuel than in one with metal
fuel. Neutron absorption in Pu239 can result either in
parasitic capture (to form Pu240) or in fission, and there
are resonances for both types of absorption. If the Doppler
broadening is accompanied by an increase in parasitic
capture relative to fission, an increase in temperature
will produce a decrease in reactivity. On the other hand,
if the reverse is true, the reactivity will increase with
temperature. Although the effect of temperature on the
capture-to-fission ratio in Pu239 depends on the neutron
spectrum, it appears that the Doppler coefficient for this
nuclide is generally positive but small. In large fast reactors,
the fuel consists of about 80% U238 (as oxide); the
negative temperature coefficient of the fertile material is
CONCLUSIONS 49
thus dominant, and the fuel temperature coefficient is
negative. The Pu240 formed during operation of the reactor
also has a negative temperature coefficient. Power transients
under the influence of temperature-stimulated counteraction
(feedback) have been investigated since the realization of
the first chain reaction. Feedback, especially prompt and
inherent reactivity feedback, is vitally important for the
safety of nuclear reactors.
6.5 CONCLUSIONS
The prediction of the physical properties of a reactor
throughout its life is one of the most important problems
in reactor design. The objective is the utilization of the
energy released by a controlled chain reaction of nuclear
fission events maintained within the reactor core. At startup,
the reactor must be fueled with more fissile material than
required for criticality in order to provide for the burnup of
the fuel and for other reactivity changes. To compensate for
this excess fuel, control rods are inserted into the reactor
and then slowly withdrawn to keep the system critical as
the fuel is consumed and poisons accumulate.
Today, on a large scale, fission energy is successfully
recovered in nuclear fission reactors and converted into heat
energy that is later transformed into electricity or utilized
directly in heat processes.