Proceeding of the 4th ASEAN Civil Engineering Conference Yogyakarta, 22-23 November 2011

Development of Sustainable High Performance Grade 100 Concrete

Incorporating Rice Husk Ash

Hilmi Bin Mahmud and Syamsul Bahri

Department of Civil Engineering, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Abstract: Natural disaster such as earthquake can cause destruction to structural buildings and human casualties. To mitigate
this natural disaster, one aspect of construction design that needs to be considered is material selection. Most of existing
concrete structures are designed to have strengths of about 30 MPa. Concretes of this strength range are normally associated
with poor durability. Lowering the water/binder ratio and incorporating supplementary cementitious material (SCM) such as
silica fume, fly ash and rice husk ash (RHA), which are industrial and agricultural wastes respectively, can improve
compressive strength and durability of concrete. Furthermore, use of SCM can help save the environment, with respect to using
less cement, utilization of waste and sustainable construction. This paper reports the development of sustainable high
performance concrete (HPC) of 100 MPa incorporating RHA. The results showed that the fresh and mechanical properties of
sustainable high performance RHA concrete presented significant improvements over ordinary portland cement (OPC) or silica
fume concrete. Applications of this type of concrete may include natural disaster mitigation or resistance to blast in building
structures.

Keywords: Sustainable concrete, high performance concrete, rice husk ash, workability, mechanical properties

concrete will be more vulnerable to further leaching

1 INTRODUCTION
One aspect of construction design for lowering risk in
natural disaster is material selection, especially for
concrete to be used as building structures. One of
most frequent natural disaster in Indonesia is
earthquake (Medair, 2011), causing high human
casualties and destruction of buildings. Most
building structures are made of normal concrete with
compressive strengths of between 30-40 MPa.
Concrete of this strength range have flaws in its
microstructure: voids and low strength micro-
variations in the cement matrix structure and weak
transition zones between the aggregate and matrix
(Shao_dong, 1999). This type of concrete has higher
permeability and it is normally associated with low
durability. It is well known that low durability is
related to the poor condition of concrete
infrastructures (Lepech and Li, 2005). In normal
concrete, the hydration products are calcium silicate
hydrate (CSH) which forms 50-60% of the solid
volume and calcium hydroxide (CH) crystals,
contributing another 20-25% of the solid volume and
the rest is occupied by calcium sulfoalumininate,
monosulfate, unhydrated cement particle and paste
porosity (Sarkar, 2001). The most soluble of the
hydration products is CH and this is a weak link in
concrete from the durability point of view. The CH
will leach out (dissolve) if the concrete is exposed to
fresh water. Increased porosity also meant that the
and chemical attack (Thomas, 2008). As a
consequence, the expectation of life time of a structure
will decrease due to reduced mechanical properties.
However, these disadvantages could be improved by
applying low w/b and by properly partially replacing
cement with supplementary cementious material
(SCM) such as fly ash (FA), condensed silica fume
(CSF) or rice husk ash (RHA). Uniform distribution
of SCM particles between the cement particles is
nuclei of hydrates (Huu, 2008), which reduce and
disconnect the capillary pores, resulting in denser and
less porous concrete.
By 1990 and 2006, in Seattle and Hong Kong
respectively, high-rise buildings were constructed
using concrete with compressive strengths of up to
131 MPa and 100 MPa respectively. Some
advantages of using grade 100 instead of grade 30-40
are lower self weight due to reduced size of element
structures, less resources required compared with
lower grades and more reliable quality in areas of high
density reinforcement (Zheng, 2009). In comparison
with the use of reference 45 MPa concrete, the cross-
section area of columns and core walls are reduced by
about 33% (Zheng, 2009). The reduction in mass also
plays an important part in the economical design of
earthquake-resistant structures (ACI Committee 363-
1992, 1992). However, most information related to
HPC of grade 100 incorporate silica fume as SCM.
Silica fume is a by-product from the ferro silicon

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Proceeding of the 4th ASEAN Civil Engineering Conference Yogyakarta, 22-23 November 2011

alloy industry and its particle size is 100 times Table 2. Physical properties of cement and SCM
smaller than the cement grains. It could work either
Properties OPC RHA CSF
as a pozzolan or filler. Even as an industrial waste by
Avg. particle size (µm) 22.1 11.5 0.5
product, its price is expensive. As an alternative, Specific surface area (m2/g) 359 16900 26250
SCM from the agricultural industry such as rice husk Specific gravity (g/cm3) 3.14 2.06 2.31
can be used (Mehta, 1977 ; Mahmud, 1997). It is a
waste derived from milling of paddy. Generally rice
husks are dumped in landfill or burnt in open area
causing environment pollution. Through controlled
combustion with temperature between 500 oC and 700
°C, non crystalline silica ash is formed (Hamad, 1981
; Nair, 2008). Combustion lower than 500 °C
produces ash which contain high carbon content and
high loss on ignition and combustion with temperature
greater than 700 °C produces crystalline silica (Nair,
2008), which is less reactive. In amorphous form Si02
content in RHA is about 90 % and normally Figure 1. Particle size distribution of RHA and cement.
categorized as reactive pozzolan. RHA should be
pulverized to get the appropriate particle size because In this research the material used to develop
the particle size of RHA influences the workability sustainable high performance RHA concrete grade
and the strength of concrete (Habeeb, 2010). RHA is 100 are locally available. The cementious material
capable to be used as partial cement replacement used was ordinary Portland cement (OPC), classified
material and reduced the use of natural resources as ASTM type I and the supplementary cementious
(Habeeb, 2010 ; Kartini, 2010). Then, RHA concrete materials used were rice husk ash (RHA) and
should be categorized as sustainable concrete. condensed silica fume (CSF). Their chemical
Although high performance concrete (HPC) was composition and physical properties are given in
developed very rapidly and used worldwide, most of Tables 1 and 2, respectively. The surface area of
these are associated with silica fume concrete. There cement and CSF was tested by the Blaine test
are increasing researches related to use of RHA in according to ASTM C 204-94a and that of RHA was
concrete up to 80 MPa (Raman, 2011 ; Mahmud, tested by nitrogen absorption method. For the
2009). There is still much work remains to be done to purpose of this research, the average particle size of
relate the mechanical properties of high performance RHA used was 11.5μm, which is less than the average
RHA concrete of 100 MPa. This paper evaluates the particle size of cement of 22.1 µm. Particle size
effect of inclusion of RHA on the strength of high distribution of RHA and cement are shown in Fig. 1.
performance concrete compared to OPC and CSF
concrete.

2 MATERIALS and MIX PROPORTION

Table 1. Chemical composition of cement and SCM

Oxide (%) OPC RHA CSF

Silicon dioxide (SiO2) 20.99 88.82 92.06

Aluminium Trioxide (Al2O3) 6.19 0.46 0.48
Ferric oxide (Fe2O3) 3.86 0.67 2.11
Calcium oxide (CaO) 65.96 0.67 0.40
Magnesium oxide (MgO) 0.20 0.44 0.63 Figure 2. Particle size distribution of fine and coarse
Sodium oxide (Na2O) 0.17 0.12 0.28 aggregates.
Potassium oxide (K2O) 0.60 2.91 1.24
Phosphorus oxide (P2O5) 0.05 1.00 0.02
Titanium oxide (TiO2) 0.40 0.02 0.01
Manganese oxide (MnO) 0.06 0.08 0.23
Loss on ignition 1.53 4.81 2.54

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Proceeding of the 4th ASEAN Civil Engineering Conference Yogyakarta, 22-23 November 2011

polycarboxylate-ether high-range water-reducing

admixture (HRWRA) with 40% solid particles was
used to provide constant workability. Details of the
mix proportions for the concrete are given in Table 3.
The amount of fine aggregate was adjusted due to the
different specific gravity between cement and CSM of
RHA and CSF (specific gravity less than that of
cement).

3 TEST PROCEDURE
Figure 3. Bulk density of combination of fine and coarse
aggregates. To get the required workability for concrete with low
W/B ratio, addition of appropriate dosage of
Table 3. Mix proportion of High Performance Concrete superplasticizer is important during mixing. Prior to
mixing, cement and SCM were premixed. The
Constituent OPC RHA10 RHA15 CSF10
W/b 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 objective of concrete mixing is to coat the surface of
Sp (%) 0.45 1.1 1.2 0.95 all aggregate particles with cement paste, and to blend
Water (kg/m3) 137.5 137.5 137.5 137.5 all the gradients of concrete into a uniform mass.
Cement (kg/m3) 550 495 467.5 495 Mixing method adopted to produce HPC in this
RHA (kg/m3) 0 55 82.5 0 research was a two step mixing method; firstly
CSF (kg/m3) 0 0 0 55 advance preparation of a grout which is then blended
FA (kg/m3) 651.9 623.3 611.3 626.6 with aggregate to produce concrete (Rejeb, 1996).
CA (kg/m3) 1050 1050 1050 1050 The type of mixer used was a pan mixer with 100 L
capacity. The workability of concrete was measured in
The fine aggregate used was mining sand passing 4.75 terms of slump flow, performed immediately after
mm sieve with specific gravity of 2.61, fineness mixing the concrete. The slump flow test was carried
modulus of 3.1 and absorption of 0.76 %. The coarse out in accordance with BS 1881–102.
aggregate was crushed granite with size of 19.0-4.75
mm with specific gravity of 2.65, fineness modulus of For each mix, the following specimens were made: 42
6.76 and water absorption of 0.5 %. The coarse nos. of 100 mm cubes for compressive strength; six
aggregate met the grading requirements of ASTM C nos. of 150x300 (diameter x length) mm cylinders for
33 for 19.0–4.75 mm size aggregates as shown in Fig. modulus of elasticity and tensile strength; six nos. of
2. The key in HPC mix design is the optimization of 100x100x500 mm beams for flexure strength. After
the granular mixture. It was achieved by finding the demolding at the age of one day, 21 nos. of 100 mm
optimum density of combination of fine and coarse cubes, cylinder and beam were cured in a water tank
aggregates as shown Fig. 3. Domone et al. (Domone at 23± 1°C until the day of test and the other 21 nos.
and Soutsos, 1994) suggested the use of sand content of 100 mm cubes were air dried in laboratory room at
somewhat lower than that giving minimum voids in temperature of 28-30 °C and relative humidity of 70-
the aggregate combination required. In order to 80%.
achieve more flowability, the ratio of fine aggregate to
total aggregate used was 40:60 by mass, a little bit The compressive strength was determined according
lower than 48:52 as shown in Fig 3. All concrete to BS 1881: Part 116:1983 at 1, 3, 7, 28, 56, 91 and
mixtures had cementitious materials content of 550 180 days but samples of modulus of elasticity, tensile
kg/m3. A constant water to binder (W/b) ratio of 0.25 strength and flexure strength were tested at 7, 28 and
was used for all concrete mixtures and a 91 days. The standards followed for the modulus of
superplasticizer was employed in order to maintain elasticity, tensile strength and flexure strength were
the slump flow of fresh concrete of between 450 and BS 1881: Part 121: 1983 (equivalent MS 26: Part 2:
500 mm. The percentage of cement replacement by 1991), BS 1881: Part 117: 1983 (equivalent MS 7.1:
mass weight of RHA was 0 %, 10 % and 15 % and Part 4: 1971), BS 1881: Part 118: 1983 (equivalent
with that of CSF was 10 %, which are symbolized as MS 7.1: Part 4: 1971) respectively. For flexural test,
OPC, RHA10, RHA15 and CSF10, respectively. The the sample dimensions were conducted over a simply
dosage of superplasticer was adjusted to provide supported span length of 300 mm with two center -
similar slump flow. In calculating water to binder point loads. All tests were conducted using a testing
ratio the water present in the super-plasticizer was machine of 3000 kN capacity.
excluded. A commercially available modified

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Proceeding of the 4th ASEAN Civil Engineering Conference Yogyakarta, 22-23 November 2011

4 RESULTS and DISCUSSION 4.2 Effect of RHA on Compressive Strength of

Concrete
4.1 Effect of RHA on Workability of Fresh Concrete
Table 5. Compressive strength development of concrete
Table 4. Fresh property of high performance concrete specimens under water curing

Mixture W/b Sp Slump flow Age OPC RHA10 RHA15 CSF10

(% of binder) (mm) (Days) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
OPC 0.25 0.45 450 1 73.5 46.2 48.7 51.2
RHA10 0.25 1.1 455 3 87.2 89.4 85.8 84.1
RHA15 0.25 1.2 450 7 93.2 94.1 86.6 89.6
SF10 0.25 0.95 455 28 103.5 113.2 106.4 98.4
56 106 113 106.7 112.2
The workability of concrete in term of slump flow is 91 107.3 113 110.2 112.6
to maintain a constant slump flow of 450±10 mm. 180 108.5 113.1 115.2 112.7
Table 4 shows the dosage of superplasticizer
necessary to provide such flow for mixes with low Table 6. Compressive strength development of concrete
specimens under air drying
W/b ratios and containing different levels of RHA and
CSF. It can be observed from the fresh concrete result Age OPC RHA10 RHA15 CSF10
in the table that the mixes incorporating RHA and (Days) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
CSF tended to require higher dosages of 1 73.5 46.2 48.7 51.2
superplasticizer for similar workability. The higher 3 86.2 90.3 81.1 80.2
demand of superplasticizer with concrete containing 7 90.2 96.1 91.2 84.9
SCM can be attributed to their very fine particle sizes 28 102.7 101.4 93.2 96.9
that cause the superplasticizer to be adsorbed on their 56 106.4 108.1 97.4 104.8
surface. It should be noted that at the same cement 91 104.8 107 104.6 103.7
180 107.3 108 105 103.2
replacement level, the use of RHA in high
performance concrete require slightly higher amount Ordinary Portland concrete and high-performance
of superplasticizer than that of CSF concrete in order RHA concrete with an average compressive strength
to maintain the same workability. This is due to the of 100 MPa at 28 days were produced using different
particle of CSF which is of smaller size and mix compositions as shown in Table 3. Tables 5 and 6
spherically shaped, which reduced the friction show the compressive strength development up to 180
between cement and aggregates and resulted in an days of OPC, RHA and CSF concrete under water
increase in workability of fresh concrete (Sata, 2007) curing and air drying, respectively. Comparing the
In contrast, the particle of RHA which has high strength development of RHA and CSF concrete
porosity absorbed more water. Furthermore, RHA is cured in water, it is clear that partially replacing
cellular in nature and higher superplasticizer dosage cement with RHA improves the strength of concrete
is required for similar workability (Ramezanianpour, after 28 days and that RHA contributes to the strength
2009). Table 4 also shows that a reasonably good development as early as 3 days, similar to that
workability is achieved with SP of just over 1% in reported earlier (Mahmud et al., 2005). RHA at
cases of RHA10 and RHA15 mixes. In addition, replacement level of 10% performed consistently
incorporation of RHA and CSF eliminated bleeding better than OPC and CSF in terms of strength
when higher dosages of superplasticizer are used development after 3 days. Giaccio et. al. (Giaccio,
(Safiuddin, 2011). 2007) reported similar results in that compressive
strength of RHA concrete is better than that of OPC. It
seems that the mixtures containing SCM showed
lower rates of compressive strength gain at early ages,
1 day for RHA and 7 days for CSF, probably due to
the fact that there is not enough calcium hydroxide to
develop the pozzolanic reactions. RHA15 exhibited
marginally highest compressive strength results at 180
days, but at ages less than 90 days, its compressive
strength was lower than RHA10. Increase in
compressive strength after 56 days is negligible.
Meanwhile compressive strength of SF10 improves
after 56 days but after 91 days its strength is almost

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Proceeding of the 4th ASEAN Civil Engineering Conference
constant. This is attributed to the slow consumption of
the SiO2 of RHA and CSF at later ages and the rapid
formation of an inhibiting layer of reaction product
that prevent further reaction of RHA or CSF with
calcium hydroxide (Mazloom, 2004).
Figure 5. Percentage of compressive strength with respect
to 28 days compressive strength of OPC under water
curing.
Figure 6. Percentage of compressive strength with respect
to 28 days compressive strength of OPC under air drying.
Figures 5 and 6 show the rate of compressive strength
development with respect to 28 days compressive
strength of OPC concrete under both curing regimes.
For water cured samples at 1 day, the results of
samples containing RHA and CSF show 50% strength
with respect to 28 days of that of OPC. After 3 days
the strength increment is significant, indicating
pozzolanic activity. At 28 days onwards RHA10 and
RHA15 mixes showed 10 % and 4.5 % higher
strengths than that of OPC. These results suggest that
RHA used in the research is reactive and pozzolanic
reaction starts at the age of 3 days onwards. CSF10
shows similar strength to that of RHA10 after 180
days, implying that pozzolanic reaction of RHA is
similar to that of CSF. It is interesting to compare the
compressive strength of air dried concrete with that of
water cured. It can be seen that water curing
improved the compressive strength of CSF concrete at
180 days by about 10% but in air drying the
compressive strength is decreased. According to the
Concrete Society report (ACI Committee 363-1992,
1992) concrete containing silica fume should be moist
cured for at least 7 days. It is obvious that curing is
sensitive for concrete containing SCM. Under air
Yogyakarta, 22-23 November 2011
drying, except for RHA10 mix, concrete incorporating
RHA and CSF have compressive strength lower than
that of OPC at 28 days and beyond. This information
is beneficial for concrete contractors to better
understanding the performance of concrete containing
these materials when deprived of water curing.
Improvements in compressive strength of concrete
mixes containing RHA can be explained by the
chemical and physical effects of RHA (De Sensale,
2006). Chemical effect is mainly due to the
pozzolanic reaction between the amorphous silica in
RHA and calcium hydroxide (CH) produced by the
hydration of OPC to form secondary calcium–silicate–
hydrates (C–S–H). The physical effect, which can also
be considered as filler effect, is due to the increase in
RHA particles in packing of the solid materials, by
filling the spaces between the cement grains in much
the same way as cement filling the spaces between
fine aggregates and fine aggregates filling the spaces
between coarse aggregates in concrete
(Ramezanianpour, 2009).
4.3 Effect of RHA on Splitting Tensile Strength of
Concrete
Table 7. Splitting tensile strength development of concrete
specimens under water curing
Age OPC RHA10 RHA15 CSF10
(Days) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
7 4.69 4.37 4.67 4.6
28 5.75 6.05 4.94 5.4
91 6.95 7.03 6.08 6.3
The results of the splitting tensile strength tests for all
of the mixtures are presented in Table 7. The increase
in splitting tensile strengths of the OPC, RHA10, and
CSF10 between 28-and 91-day is 20%, 16% and 16%
respectively. The splitting tensile strengths of the
OPC, RHA10 and CSF10 water cured concretes
increased from 5.75 to 6.95 MPa, 6.05 to 7.03 MPa
and from 5.4 to 6.3 MPa respectively. The splitting
tensile strengths of RHA10 consistently exceeded
those of the corresponding OPC and CSF10. This
result is similar to that from previous research
(Mahmud et al., 2005 ; Mahmud, 2009). In general,
the splitting tensile strengths of RHA concretes were
substantially higher than those of OPC and CSF
concretes, again probably due to stronger bonding
between the cement paste and aggregate. However,
the splitting tensile strengths of RHA15 and CSF10
were consistently lower than those of the
corresponding OPC.
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Proceeding of the 4th ASEAN Civil Engineering Conference Yogyakarta, 22-23 November 2011

4.4. Effect of RHA on Static Modulus of Elasticity of 2. The results of splitting tensile and flexural tests
Concrete showed higher strength for RHA concrete
compared to OPC concrete due to filler and
Table 8. Static modulus of elasticity development of pozzolanic effects.
concrete specimens under water curing 3. The optimum 28-day compressive strength was
Age OPC RHA10 RHA15 CSF10 obtained with 10 % RHA replacement of cement.
(Days) (GPa) (GPa) (GPa) (GPa) 4. Both the splitting and flexural strengths follow
7 36 37.5 40.9 41.2 similar strength development to that of
28 39.6 43.8 42.9 42.3 compressive strength.
91 46.5 47.6 46.2 47.2 5. 100 MPa concrete can be obtained by incorporating
RHA. Since RHA is much cheaper than CSF, it is
The modulus of elasticity of HPC is shown in Table 8. the better alternative material than CSF to produce
The values of modulus of elasticity at 28 days for concrete of this magnitude.
RHA10, RHA15 and CSF10 concretes were 43.8,
42.9 and 42.3 GPa respectively, while that of the OPC ACKNOWLEDGMENT:
concrete was 39.6 GPa. This result indicated that the
use of SCM caused increase in modulus of elasticity The authors would like to thank the University of
of concrete; similar to that of previously reported Malaya for awarding the research grant PS113/2008B
(Mahmud et al., 2005 ; Mahmud, 2009). Higher to conduct the present research.
modulus of elasticity values implies better resistance
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