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95 Citations 23 References 13 Figures
Hardened AISI 52100 Steel in Hard Machining Processes
n Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering 124(1) · February 2002 with 12,315 Reads
C. R. Liu
niversity of Alabama
n approach using tensile tests at elevated temperatures to estimate mechanical properties of the work
tic and plastic deformations in a broad range of strain, strain rate, and temperature in machining. The
s been applied to estimate mechanical properties of hardened AISI 52100 steel in hard machining. Tensile
ble of estimating the mechanical properties of both elastic and plastic regions with large strains at elevated
resses at high strain rates in machining can be obtained by extrapolating the data from tensile tests by using
temperature. Flow stress data from tensile and cutting tests is consistent with regard to the velocity-modified
ature is the dominant factor of mechanical properties of this material, while the effect of strain rate is
rces and chip geometry predicted by the 3D FEM simulation of hard turning using the material property data
veloped method agree well with the experimental data.
research
bers
cations
rojects
Guo Author content

copyright.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/245368267_Mechanical_Properties_of_Hardened_AISI_52100_Steel_in_Hard_Machining_Processes 1/13

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+10
and dimension The engineering stress-strain curve for The engineering stress-strain curve for
AISI 52100 steel " 62 HRC… at room… AISI 52100 steel " 62 HRC… at 200°C
Content uploaded by Y.B. Guo Author content

DF
Content may be subject to copyright.
Mechanical Properties of
Hardened AISI 52100 Steel
Y. B. Guo *
Hard Machining Processes
This paper provides an approach using tensile tests at elevated temperat
C. R. Liu mechanical properties of the work material for both elastic and plastic d
broad range of strain, strain rate, and temperature in machining. The pro
School of Industrial Engineering, has been applied to estimate mechanical properties of hardened AISI 52
Purdue University, machining. Tensile testing is shown capable of estimating the mechanica
West Lafayette, IN 47907 both elastic and plastic regions with large strains at elevated temperatur
at high strain rates in machining can be obtained by extrapolating the da
tests by using the velocity-modified temperature. Flow stress data from te
tests is consistent with regard to the velocity-modified temperature. Temp
dominant factor of mechanical properties of this material, while the effec
secondary. Cutting forces and chip geometry predicted by the 3D FEM s
turning using the material property data obtained from the developed me
with the experimental data. 关DOI: 10.1115/1.1413775兴
duction 2 Literature Review and Testing Method

orter production sequences and higher flexibility are be- The following mechanical properties, which ar
ncreasingly important, the potential of time saving and strain/strain rate and temperature, are desired in b
y made possible by hard machining processes are highly academia: 共1兲 Young’s modulus; 共2兲 Poisson’s ra
Hard machining with geometrically defined cutting edges strength/strain; and 共4兲 flow stress/strain, and so
possible ways to get the mechanical properties, te
otential to replace grinding as a finishing process. Sub-
pression tests and cutting experiments. Material p
dvantages in terms of flexibility, lower cost, and more
elastic and plastic regions can be obtained from t
mentally-friendly production in addition to high surface pression test under elevated temperatures and mo
and surface finish may be achieved with this innovative rates. Average flow stress and strain may also be
gy 关1–3兴. cutting models.
of the workpiece materials used in hard machining are
A f ll d i d hi i t t
Seehardened
all › SeeThis
all › paper focuses
Seeonall the
› bearing A carefully designed machining test may prov
hrough steels. method for Download
measuring a material’sShare
average flow s
SI 52100 共62 HRC兲 which
95 Citations is widely used13inFigures
23 References engineering at a strain rate range atcitation
cutting conditions. In fact Download full-text PDF
ons. 共1 and over兲, strain rates (10 3 to 10 6 /s) and tem
aterial properties are determining factors on the advan- 1000°C兲 encountered in machining, it is difficult
ntioned above. The material properties are also essential more suitable testing method. The philosophy of
r any FEM simulation and other analytical modeling of material’s flow stress properties from relatively f
chining processes to predict machining performance. In test results and then applying these to make pred
forces, and so on, over a much wider range of co
the material properties are required to measure the sur-
fore, appears a sound one. However, the approac
grity parameters such as residual stresses. As it is well chining results to predict machining results clear
one of the most significant problems for the simulation of tions of tail chasing 关5兴. The disadvantage of a m
erials is to obtain material properties in the elastic and that only one data point of average flow stress/str
egions under machining conditions such as high strain/ range of strain, strain rate, and temperature is ava
e, high temperature and their histories. Obtaining the nec- cutting test. Using multiple cutting conditions, on
ata of material properties has been identified as one of two of stress/strain data. However, it is impractical to
lems for the future of computational mechanics of the conditions to generate flow stress at the specified
ng process 关4兴. Although research on hard machining has rate, and temperature. The material property depe
ducted for years, the material properties of 52100 steel strain rate and temperature histories is next to im
兲 at conditions as are occurring in cutting operations are from metal cutting tests as they are difficult to co
literature. Thus, one objective of this paper is to develop models are also difficult to estimate flow stresses
broad range of strain, strain rate, and temperature
liable, systematic and efficient approach to obtain mate-
estimated average flow stresses, it is difficult to e
erty data of 52100 steel 共62HRC兲 in hard machining. The
responding strain rate and temperature as these p
ective is to show that FEM prediction in terms of cutting difficult to measure or calculate in machining pro
nd the chip geometry is good with reasonable accuracy of it is that cutting models may not estimate mec
ese material data obtained from the developed method. data including Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ra
range. However, cutting models provide an appro
ponding author 共guo –yb@yahoo.com兲
uted by the Manufacturing Engineering Division for publication in the
to obtain the average flow stress/strain data in me
OF MANUFACTURING SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING. Manuscript received processes.
9; revised April 2001. Associate Editor: M. Elbestawi. Alternatively if one has an accurate constitutiv
of Manufacturing Science and Engineering FEBRUARY 2002, Vol. 124 Õ 1

Copyright © 2002 by ASME
meters of the model using a few cutting tests, it would be test results will not be accurate due to the differe
method. However, this constitutive model is not cur- speeds of the bars. 共2兲 Strain: The failure stress/s
ailable. materials are difficult to obtain from compression
e time being, either method discussed above is thought in the tensile testing are usually larger than those
cal to get the complete data as needed in FEM analysis. It sion testing which is limited by the equipment lo
e far better, from viewpoint of attempting to predict ma- the large deformation of the specimen. The strain
responses, if this could be done using material properties may be determined accurately by using a high tem
from an independent test. someter, while the strain can only be estimated fr
ical tension or compression tests the strain rate is lower which are usually corrupted by the wave phase la
usually encountered in machining but the testing tem- relatively high strain rates 共up to 2000 s ⫺1 兲 ca
can cover a wide range 共room temperature to 1100°C兲. split Hopkinson bar testing, while low strain rate
kes it possible to extrapolate the tension or compression may be obtained in tensile testing. However, high
ts into the machining range by using the velocity to 10 6 s⫺1) are common in cutting. Neither testin
temperature parameter concept of MacGregor and achieve such a high strain rate, and the magnitud
mod 关6兴. very large. 共4兲 Specimen factor: The hardness of
son bar is similar to the hardness of the work ma
T mod⫽ T关 1⫺ ␯ log 共 ␧˙/␧˙ 0兲兴 (1)
52100 共62 HRC兲 and can be damaged during test
nd ␧˙ are the testing temperature and strain rate, and ␯ and vantage can be easily avoided in the tensile testin
aterial constants for a given material and range of testing property data from either test need to be extrapol
ns. For a wide range of materials, from low carbon to high degree to apply the data to machining. The strain
teels, ␯ and ␧˙ 0 are 0.09 and 1, respectively 关5兴. Research trapolated to the machining range 共up to 10 6) ba
iven support to the validity of the velocity modified tem- ity modified temperature using tensile testing at e
parameter. It has shown that flow stress data obtained ture. Both temperature and strain rate needed to b
h speed compression tests for a range of plain carbon the split Hopkinson bar testing is used. Unfortun
suitable for use in making machining predictions. The is usually the dominant factor for material flow s
ive equation can be achieved by obtaining values of H
t ff t i t i t t C id i th
rate effect is not as important. Considering these
hichSee
through
all › the following
See all equation,
› areSee
taken
all as
› defining thors used tensile testing at elevated temperature
s-strain curve of a material
95 Citations for a given strain
23 References rate and
13 Figures
Download
the temperature citation
of tensile testing Share
were not extrap Download full-text PDF
ure, from tension test results and then expressing these as the data to FEA of the cutting process. The avera
s of velocity modified temperature. stress/strain under cutting conditions may also be
proximately from cutting models. Both tensile an
␴ ⫽ H␧n (2)
are used and viewed as complementary in this re
nson and Stephenson 关7兴 and Stevenson 关8兴 have shown this, material behavior in machining processes m
flow stress data derived by the metal cutting models is It is clear that the problems treated in this paper a
ent’’ with those by the compression test at very low cut- in nature and the right answers are not available.
ds and low strain rates. Mechanical properties, including motivation for this original work.
ratio and failure stress/strain as a function of temperature, Two hypotheses are made in this paper:
obtained. This means the standard material test may give
rial properties at low cutting temperatures. 1 Tensile testing at elevated temperature may e
literature review and reasoning we see that conducting chanical properties of the work materials in
dent material testing at elevated temperature and extrapo- 2 The FEM model can simulate machining pro
perimental data to machining range is a feasible approach sonable fidelity using the tensile testing data
ximate the material behavior in machining. The material
es are also homogeneous from the tensile or compression
Spaans 关9兴 was one of the first researchers to use the Split 3 Experimental Procedure
on method to estimate mechanical properties of the work The annealed 7/16 in. diameter AISI 52100 ste
in metal cutting. Torsional Hopkinson bar tests were con- chined into tensile specimens 1/4 in. in diameter
o measure stress-strain properties relevant to machining The chemical composition of AISI 52100 steel is
speed forming 关10兴. Split Hopkinson bar impact testing The 52100 bars in annealed state were turned, gr
used to obtain the flow stress data of the materials under polished to achieve the specified geometric tolera
temperature and relatively low strain rate 共below 2000 finish. The effect of imperfection or pre-existing
–12兴. However, the testing system is very complex. testing data should be very small. The machined
ros and cons of the compression and tensile tests may be held at 1550°F⫾25°F for three hours in a 1 perce
d in terms of four characteristics: 共1兲 High temperature: tential atmosphere, and were then quenched in oi
le testing can be conducted in the chamber with accurate 140°F for fifteen minutes. A subzero treatment w
ure control 共up to 1000°C兲. The compression test such as improve the microstructure stability of the specim
Hopkinson bar may be conducted at elevated temperature brittleness and residual stresses, and increase duc
ally, but in practice, it is very difficulty to implement due ness, tempering was done at 300°F⫾10°F for on
mall size of the specimen 共the diameter and the height of by air cooling to room temperature. The measure
men are usually less than 10 mm兲. To make such a small specimen is 62 共⫾1兲 HRC. The heat-treated spec
using induction heating with accurate temperature con- cleaned gently using sandpaper. The hardness of
allenging. Furthermore, even if such a chamber can be rechecked after cleaning to ensure the specimens
e transmission bar with the specimen mounted on it is hardness. It is believed that there were no extens
he high temperature field while the incident bar is not. The microstructure change induced in specimen clean
Table 1 Chemical composition of AISI 52100 Steel
124, FEBRUARY 2002 Transactions of the ASME
See all › See all › Fig. 1 Specimen

See all › geometry and dimension
ough hardened 52100 steel 共62HRC兲 is brittle in nature at uniformly distributed thermocouples and control
d low temperatures, fracture resulting from surface cracks puter. The tensile testing doesn’t begin until a un
e testing may create difficulty in determining the strain ture of the specimen is reached. The high temper
ation and thus affect the testing results. The potential eter was attached to the specimen by a cobalt allo
racks were minimized by gentle grinding, polishing and high temperature resistance and rigidity. Signals
after heat treatment to achieve a high surface finish. The and the extensometer were fed into the PC-based
geometry and dimension of the specimen is shown in Fig. and analysis unit. The cylindrical specimen with
pecimen ends have threads that connect to the grippers of fixtured into a closely aligned 3 post servo-hydra
le testing machine. Stepped diameter was designed for that is calibrated according to ASTM E4. The sy
ning break location and reducing the failure load of the sliding platen to ensure lateral rigidity. The samp
n. A radius at the diameter change provides smooth size that backlash is effectively eliminated.
n. Burrs were removed and sharp edges were chamfered. In tensile testing at room temperature, the spec
ecifications should reduce stress concentrations in tensile strain gage are:
Minimizing stress concentration and surface cracks on the Gage factor S g : 2.155 at 24°C
n surface are important for successful tensile testing at Voltage V: 4.0 Volts
mperature as the material is brittle. In addition, straight- Amplitude factor C: 100
roundness were also specified to reduce the bending Extensometers are of ASTM E83 class B-2. Th
tensile testing. determination of Poisson’s ratio at room tempera
e tests were conducted at six temperature levels: room temperatures was different. At room temperature
ure, 200°C, 400°C, 600°C, 800°C, and 1000°C. Although someter is rotated in approximately 120 deg incr
material property testing needs to have the same heating corresponding load vs. strain recorded for each o
as that of cutting process, the heating condition in a tions. The diametral extensometer is rotated in 60
rocess can only be approximated in an independent ma- and again the corresponding load vs. strain recor
t. In each tensile test, the temperature of the specimen ratio is determined from the average of the slope
le and controlled with high accuracy 共⫾5°C兲. The tem- measurements. At elevated temperature, both an
of the specimen rose very quick in the chamber for the metral extensometer were attached to the test sam
n to achieve as high as 1000°C. The tensile tests were Two sets of hard machining tests using the sam
ed at strain rates of 1–100 s ⫺1. The hardness of the unde- as that in the tensile tests were conducted. The or
ection of the specimens was rechecked after each testing experiments with sharp PCBN tools, in Table 2, w
d to still be 53 HRC after testing at 400°C. During the calculate the average flow stress of the work mat
he authors cannot in-process measure the hardness of the
n in the chamber. The specimen did experience some tem-
the heating process. A tempered layer on the machined
an also be noticed in hard turning experiments. Temper-
e chips is usually larger than that on machined surface. It
assumed that extensive tempering and spheroidization
ake place during such a short heating time. The discrep-
ween the specimen heating process and the heating ex-
during cutting should not be large. The duration of the
n at elevated temperatures in any material tests affects the
d values of the mechanical properties. An ideal material
test needs to have the same heating condition as that in
ng process. However, the heating condition in a cutting
can only be approximated in an independent material test.
be realized that the values of the mechanical properties
d in the tests might deviate from those occurring in cut-
e deviation should not be too large under good approxi-
sting conditions.
tensile tests at each temperature level were conducted to
he experimental errors. Figure 2 shows the experimental
elevated temperatures, which are recorded and controlled
omputer. The setup for tensile testing at room temperature
r to Fig. 2 except a strain gage was used instead of an Fig. 2 Experimental setup schematic of tensile
meter. The specimen temperature was measured by three evated temperature
See all › See all › Table 2 Cutting

See all › conditions of orthogonal cutting
Table 3 Cutting conditions of hard facing
chip temperature, in Appendix B, and to correlate the data microscope. The deviation from linearity, Fig. 3,
se from tensile testing. The hard facing experiment, Table the initial crack opening displacement and the fra
sed to verify the results of FEM simulation of the hard responds to the gross fracture. It should be pointe
rocess. In both sets of cutting experiments, forces were tensile strength at room temperature is not define
by a two-component force dynamometer. as the material is brittle in nature at this temperat
At 200°C, the specimen has appreciable deform
rimental Results and Discussion increased ductility at elevated temperature. Neck
the middle of the specimen. Compared to the stre
nsile testing was repeated three times at each testing tem-
room temperature, higher stress values exist in th
s. It was found that the engineering stress-strain data of
because of strain hardening resulting from relativ
52100 specimens 共62HRC兲 has little variation at each
deformations in Fig. 4. Two mechanisms which a
emperature indicating the testing results have good repeat-
The engineering stress-strain curves for the AISI 52100
ns 共62 HRC兲 are shown in Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 at
mperature, 200°C, 400°C, 600°C, 800°C, and 1000°C,
vely.
m temperature, the engineering stress is calculated by
the load by the original cross section area. The engineer-
n e is calculated using
4⌬E
e⫽ (3)
S g•V•C
ing was observed in the room temperature tensile tests.
surement of the diameter before and after testing shows
diameter change is negligible. This shows that AISI 52100
HRC兲 is brittle at room temperature. The yields stress
n corresponding to the point where the curve deviates
straight line would be found from Fig. 3. However, the
0.2 percent offset strain is not taken as the yield stress
n for the material at room temperature as the definition is
used for ductile materials. As the specimen at room tem-
had such a little deformation before breakage in a very
Fig. 4 The engineering stress-strain curve for A
e that the plastic deformation cannot be observed under a
„62 HRC… at 200°C
See all ›
he engineering See all › curve for See
stress-strain AISI all ›
52100 steel Fig. 5 The engineering stress-strain
… at95
room temperature „62 HRC… atDownload
400°C citation Sharecurve for A Download full-text PDF
Citations 23 References 13 Figures
124, FEBRUARY 2002 Transactions of the ASME
strain hardening stage. Generally, as the test temp

creased, tensile strength decreases while ductility
particular, note the precipitous decrease in tensile
tween 400°C and 600°C, shown in Figs. 5 and 6.
microstructure change results in the change of str
pattern near the yield stress in Fig. 6. At this tem
pattern of the stress-strain curve is similar to that
steel characterized by the curve feature near the y
flat stress curves of Figs. 7 and 8, demonstrate th
strain hardening is largely cancelled by that of th
The stress-strain pattern near the yield strength in
microstructure change around 1000°C, but the ty
uncertain in both Figs. 6 and 8. The dramatic dec
strength can be noticed after 600°C due to the co
thermal softening and possible microstructure ch
ticular pattern of the stress-strain curve near the y
6 and 8, might be attributed to microstructure cha
testing temperatures. The testing equipment relat
he engineering stress-strain curve for AISI 52100 steel excluded as another three tests under the same te
… at 600°C were conducted and produced the same results. T
did not occur at other testing temperatures such a
ture, 200°C, and 400°C. Therefore it is reasonabl
microstructure change might exist at certain testi
Phase transformations of the machined surface an
can also be noticed in hard turning experiments.
uncertain which phase transformation occurs as a
ship between microstructure, temperature and tim
for machining this work material. The metallurgy
phenomena may be addressed in another study. T
rent interest is to obtain the mechanical property
evated temperature.
In most situations, such as FEM simulations, t
data is needed. The engineering stress-strain data
ments can be easily converted to its true counterp
tions employed to generate the true stress-strain d
in Appendix A. The converted true stress-strain d
sured Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio are li
The data was corrected by the Bridgman factor d
he engineering stress-strain curve for AISI 52100 steel necking. Curve fitting can be applied easily to th
… at 800°C data to find the coefficients H and n in Eq. 共2兲.
The elevated temperature testing covers a wide
perature 共room temperature to 1000°C兲 and strain
strain rate is lower than that usually encountered
The effect of strain rate on material properties of
共62HRC兲 need to be examined. In order to correl
erties from tensile testing and the cutting experim
forces were measured in the orthogonal cutting o
共62HRC兲 tube using cutting condition of Table 2
ting data were analyzed in the conventional way
flow stress, strain rate, and the average temperatu
chip. The strain rate and the average temperature
were calculated using an approach proposed by O
demonstrates excellent results. Three sets of cutt
different cutting conditions were conducted whil
See all › See all › See all › thrust forcesDownload

were measured and used to estimate
95 Citations 23 References 13 Figures strain rates, and average temperature
citation rise of the c Download full-text PDF
Share
lated flow stresses and the corresponding T mod is
4 ⫺
corresponding to strain rate of 6.57⫻ 10 s
which is in the strain rate range of machining. Ad
are provided in Appendix B. It was observed tha
he engineering stress-strain curve for AISI 52100 steel chip portion stills exists in hard turning experime
… at 1000°C still the main mechanism of chip formation. Toen
that the ductile mode of work materials exists clo
of cutting edge in hard turning. These facts suppo
i.e., strain hardening and thermal softening, compete in the conventional analysis of flow stress in hard m
rmation process. At this temperature, strain hardening is stress points, taken from the curves in Figs. 3 to
t. The effect of thermal softening becomes obvious at against T mod in Fig. 9 and can be seen to fit a sin
n Fig. 5. It shows that the flow stress value varies within a data from the cutting experiments fits the curve w
nge over a large range of plastic strain after an initial ing the use of Eq. 共1兲 for conditions where strain
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See all › See all › See all ›

Hardened AISI 52100 Steel in Hard Machining Processes

n Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering 124(1) · February 2002 with 12,315 Reads

Guo Author content

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Content uploaded by Y.B. Guo Author content

duction 2 Literature Review and Testing Method

of Manufacturing Science and Engineering FEBRUARY 2002, Vol. 124 Õ 1

Table 1 Chemical composition of AISI 52100 Steel

124, FEBRUARY 2002 Transactions of the ASME

See all › See all › Fig. 1 Specimen

of Manufacturing Science and Engineering FEBRUARY 2002, Vol. 124 Õ 3

See all › See all › Table 2 Cutting

Table 3 Cutting conditions of hard facing

124, FEBRUARY 2002 Transactions of the ASME

strain hardening stage. Generally, as the test temp

See all › See all › See all › thrust forcesDownload

of Manufacturing Science and Engineering FEBRUARY 2002, Vol. 124 Õ 5

es [48] . 303 ...

volution in overloaded roller bearings using energy dispersive X-ray diffraction

s Simpson · I. Martinez · Mahmoud Mostafavi

· Chao Li · J.F. Liu · Michael P. Sealy

Alumina Ceramic Tiles:Experiments and Finite Element Simulations

zone for roller bearing overloads using neutron transmission imaging

nez · M.B. Marshall · Mahmoud Mostafavi

s Development in Hybrid Processing by Additive Manufacturing and Laser Shock Peening

elling of ball screw preload force variation in different working conditions

pproach to predict white and dark layer thickness of hard machining

See all › See all › See all ›

Fatigue life prediction

Fundamental Research on Hobbing Hard Gears Using Fly-Tools

Akira WAKURI · Taku Ueno · Masato Ainoura · Akira Katsuki

See all › See all › See all ›

FEM of Saw Tooth Chip Formation under Different Cutting Edge

William M. Sherry · James S. Erich · Michael K. Bartschat · Friedrich B. Prinz

Unai Alonso · Naiara Ortega · J. A. Sanchez · [...] · S. Plaza

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