Botany Lab Manual: Bsc.-Ii Medical

Department of Botany, DAV College, Jalandhar (PB.
BOTANY
Lab Manual
BSc.-II Medical
Semester III
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Department of Botany, DAV College, Jalandhar (PB.)
Syllabus
UNIT- I
Characteristics of seed plants; Evolution of the seed habit; Distinguishing features of
angiosperms and gymnosperms.
Major contribution of cytology, phytochemistry and taximetrics to taxonomy.
UNIT–II
General features of gymnosperms and their classification; Evolution and diversity of
Gymnosperms including fossil and living gymnosperms; Geological time scale and fossilization.
Morphology of vegetative and reproductive parts; Anatomy of root, Stem and leaf; Reproduction
and life cycle of Pinus, Cycas, Epherda and Ginkgo
UNIT–III
Angiosperms: Origin and evolution. Some examples of primitive angiosperms.
Angiosperm taxonomy; Brief history, Aims and fundamental components (alpha - taxonomy,
Omega-taxonomy, Holotaxonomy); Identification, keys. Taxonomic literature. Botanical
nomenclature: Taxonomic ranks; Type concept; Principle of priority.
UNIT–IV
Classification of angiosperms; Salient features of the systems proposed by Bentham and Hooker,
Engler and Prantl.
Diversity of flowering plants as illustrated by members of the families Ranuculaceae,
Brassicaceae, Rutaceae, Fabaceae, Apiaceae, Acanthaceae, Apocynaceae, Asclepiadaceae,
Solanaceae, Lamiaceae. Chenopodiaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Liliaceae, Orchidaceae and Poaceae
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PLANT SYSTEMATICS
Brassica campestris
Division: Spermatophyta
Subdivision: Angiospermae
Class: Dicotyledonae
Subclass: Polypetalae
Series: Thalamiflorae
Order: Parietales
Family: Brassicaceae
Genus: Brassica
Species: campestris
Habit: Annual or biennial herb of winter, cultivated as pot-herb too.
Root: Branched tap root.
Stem: Young plants have reduced stem but in older it is erect and branched, cylindrical,
herbaceous above ,woody below, hollow, green, glabrous, hairy.
Leaf: Young plants have radical leaves but in older plants it is cauline and ramal. Leaves
simple, lyrate, exstipulate, sessile or subsessile lower leaves incised and lyrate, upper
leaves ovateor ovate lanceolate or auriculate, hairy, herbaceous, reticulate unicostate.
Inflorescence: Corymbose raceme.
Flower: Ebracteate, Ebracteolate, pedicillate, complete, regular, actinomorphic, bisexual,

hypogynous, cyclic,yellow.
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Calyx: 4, free, polysepalous, in two whorls, outer whorl antero-posterior, the two laterals
form inner whorl and are saccate with a pouch like structure at the base to store
nectar, green or yellowish green, lanceolate, margin of sepals entire, apex acute,
inferior.
Corolla: 4, free, polypetalous, cruciform, clawed, longer than sepals, spreading, valvate,
yellow with entire or slightly extrorse margin, inferior.
Androecium: 6, polyandrous, tetradynamous, 4 longer stamens form antero-posterior pairs and

are arranged in an inner whorl and two smaller lateral stamens form the outer whorl.
Anthers basifixed, bithecous, dehiscence longitudinal with longer extrose anthers and
shorter introse anthers; four distinct green dot like nectar glands are present at the
base of the outer and inner paired stamens, inferior.
Gynoecium: Bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary, unilocular becomes bilocular by the

formation of false septum called replum, parietal placentation, many ovules, style
short, stigma bifid.
Fruit: Siliqua
Seed: Non-endospermic, many, small in size with folded cotyledons.
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Citrus aurantium (Orange)
Series: Disciflorae
Order: Geraniales
Family: Rutaceae
Genus: Citrus
Species: aurantium
Habit: A small tree, cultivated in India for its edible fruits and medicinal properties.
Stem: Aerial, erect, branched, solid, woody, green,glabrous.
Leaf: Evergreen, cauline and ramal, alternate, exstipulate, petiolate, winged petiole,
compound unifoliate actually trifoliate but the two lateral leaflets fall off leaving a
scar, terminal leaflet unicostate reticulate, gland dotted, glaucous. A spine is present
in the axil of each leaf which is the modified first leaf of the supressed axillary shoot.
Inflorescence: Solitary, axillary or group of flowers in axillary position.
Flower: Ebracteate, ebracteolate, pedicillate, complete, regular, actinomorphic, bisexual,

pentamerous, cyclic, hypogynous, white and scented.
Calyx: 5, gamosepalous, cup shaped, pentafid, green, gland dotted, inferior.
Corolla: 5, polypetalous, petals lanceolate, sweet scented, gland dotted, white, imbricate,
alternating with sepals, inferior.
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Androecium: Many in one whorl, polyadelphous, filamemts united into groups at the base.
Bithecous, dorsifixed anthers introse longitudinal dehiscence, yellow anther lobes,
inferior.
Gynoecium: Polycarpellary syncarpous, superior, multilocular ovary with axile placentation,

style short, stigma capitate, a large honey secreting disc present below the ovary,
ovules many in each loculus.
Fruit: Berry (Hesperidium)
Seed: Many, non-endospermic, testa mucilaginous.
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Murraya exotica (Kaamini)
Series: Disciflorae
Order: Geraniales
Family: Rutaceae
Genus: Murraya
Species: exotica
Habit: Evergreen small cultivated ornamental tree.
Stem: Erect, branched, woody, cylindrical, solid, glabrous.
Leaves: Evergreen, ramal and cauline, exstipulate, petiolate, imparipinnate, 3-7 pinna.
Leaflets: Alternate, shortly stalked, ovate, obovate or rhomboidal, entire, acute apex dark
green, shining above, unicostate reticulate.
Inflorescence: Solitary axillary or solitary terminal.
Flower: Ebracteate, ebracteolate, pedicillate, pentamerous, complete, regular, actinomorphic,

bisexual, hypogynous with a distinct nectar secreting disc below the ovary, cyclic,
highly fragrant, greenish white or white.
Calyx: 5, gamosepalous, pentapartite, green, small, inferior.
Corolla: 5, free, oblong-lanceol0ate, gland dotted, greenish white, fragrant, reflexed with
spreading above, imbricate, sweet smelling, entire, acute apex, alternisepalous,
inferior.
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Androecium: 10, polyandrous, diplostemonous, the outer 5 alternating with the petals and inner
five opposite the petals, the filaments of outer stamens are longer than those of inner
stamens, anthers bithecous, basifixed, young anthers hairy, dehiscence longitudinal
introrse , inferior.
Gynoecium: Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, bi-trilocular, two ovules per locule, axile
placentation, ovules anatropous, and ovary lies on large nectariferous disc, single long
green style, bifid sticky stigma.
Fruit: Red and ovoid berry, gland dotted with 1-2 seeds.
Seed: Endospermic, with hairy testa.
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Cassia fistula (Amaltas)
Series: Calyciflorae
Order: Rosales
Family: Fabaceae
Sub Family: Caesalpiniodeae
Genus: Cassia
Species: fistula
Habit: Ornamental, cultivated tree with beautiful yellow pendulous racemes.
Root: Highly branched tap root.
Stem: Aerial, erect, solid, cylindrical, woody and branched.
Leaves: Ramal, stipulate, stipules small and caducous, alternate, petiolate, compound,
paripinnate, 6-10 leaflets arranged opposite to each other.
Leaflets: Opposite, ovate, entire margin, acute apex, sub sessile with pulvinus at the base,
margin of leaflets slightly wavy, unicostate reticulate, glabrous, leathery when old,
green.
Inflorescence: Long, pendulous raceme, panicle or compound.
Flower: Bracteates, pedicillate, ebracteolate, irregular, zygomorphic, complete, bisexual,

perigynous, pentamerous in outer three whorls, cyclic, yellow.
Calyx: 5, polysepalous, imbricate, odd sepal anterior, inferior, green or greenish yellow.
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Corolla: 5, polypetalous, ascending imbricate, the posterior petal small and innermost in the
bud, postero-lateral petals cover it, ovate, entire, distinctly veined, yellow, inferior.
Androecium: 10, polyandrous, unequal, anterior 3 stamens are long and sickle shaped and bears
fertile anthers with longitudinal dehiscence. The four stamens are medium sized
fertile and bithecous but have dehiscence by apical pores, the three smaller posterior
stamens are sterile and are called as staminodes, anthers basifixed, medium sized
anthers sometimes bend after dehiscence.
Gynoecium: Monocarpellary, ovary superior, slightly stalked, curved, marginal placentation,

short style, terminal and hairy stigma, ovules many.
Fruit: Cylindrical, indehiscent pod with one seeded transverse compartments.
Seed: Endospermic
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Acacia arabica (Kikar)
Series: Calyciflorae
Order: Rosales
Family: Fabaceae
Sub Family: Mimosoidaeae
Genus: Acacia
Species: arabica
Habit: Evergreen tree with dark brown bark, grows wild as well as cultivated, xerophytic.
Root: Branched tap root, deep feeder.
Stem: Aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, woody, solid, dark brown, bark secretes a gum
called gum Arabica, stipular spines on stem.
Leaves: Cauline and ramal, alternate, stipulate, stipules modified into spines, petiolate,
alternate, bipinnate, compound.
Leaflets: Opposite, sub sessile, small, oblong, entire, obtuse, unicostate reticulate, glabrous,
rachis downy with several glands.
Inflorescence: Axillary cymose head, yellow.
Flower: Bracteate, ebracteolate, sub sessile, regular, actinomorphic, bisexual, hermaphrodite,

cyclic, pentamerous in outer 2 whorls, cyclic, hypogynous small, inconspicuous,
yellow, fragrant.
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Calyx: 5, gamosepalous, slightly petaloid, pentafid, campanulate, greenish yellow, inferior,

odd sepal anterior.
Corolla: 5, gamopetalous, tubular, tube twice long than sepals, yellow, inferior.
Androecium: Indefinite, polyandrous, filaments long and conspicuous, exerted anthers small
with stalked glands.Yellowish , anthers bithecous, dorsifixed, longitudinal introrse
dehiscence, pollen grains agglutinated in groups.
Gynoecium: Monocarpellary superior ovary, unilocular marginal placentation, many ovules in

the carpel, ovary sessile, style long filiform, stigma minute, ovary green, bears small
white glands.
Fruit: Legume, lomentaceous, fleshy pod with 10-12 parts due to sutures deeply indented
between the seeds.
Seeds: Non-endospermic
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Calotropis procera (Ak)
Subclass: Gamopetalae
Series: Bicarpellatae
Order: Gentiales
Family: Asclepiadaceae
Genus: Calotropis
Species: procera
Habit: Medium sized shrub growing as a weed in xerophytic areas. Mature stems are woody
while young stems are green and herbaceous, whole of the plant is clothed with soft
white tomentum. Leaves and stem contain a milky juice or latex.
Root: Branched, deep, tap root.
Stem: Aerial, erect, branched, cylindrical, soft, woody below and herbaceous above,
tomentose, solid, milky latex present.
Leaves: Cauline and ramal, exstipulate, sessile or sub sessile, opposite, deccusate, simple,
obovate-oblong, margin entire, apex acute or shortly acuminate, lower side is covered
with wooly tomentose, base amplexicaul, reticulate-unicostate, latex present.
Inflorescence: Large flowers arranged in axillary umbellate cymes.
Flower: Bracteate, pedicillate, ebracteolate, complete, actinomorphic, bisexual, hypogynous,

pentamerous except pistil, cyclic, purplish white with strong smell.
Calyx: 5, polysepalous, imbricate, rarely slightly fused at the base, green, inferior, greenish
white.
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Corolla: 5, gamopetalous, campanulate, valvate, 5-lobed, lobes erect, inferior, purple white.
Corona: Fleshy laterally compressed scales radiating from the large staminal column, their
bases terminating in an upcurving spur. The apex of the corona scale is bifid and
without auricles.
Androecium: 5, epipetalous, filaments fused to form a fleshy tube around the ovary (staminal
tube), the apex of the staminal tube is united with much dilated stigmatic disc to
which anthers are also coherent to form a pentagonal gynostegium, anthers short,
broad tipped with inflexed membranous flaps, two celled, the pollen of each cell
agglutinated to small waxy pendulous pollen mass (pollinium). The two pollinia of
the adjacent cells of adjoining anther lobes are connected with caudicles of their side,
the caudicles further unite at a point called corpusculum, which is sticking at an angle
of the gynostegium. This whole mechanism with two pollinia, two caudicles, and a
corpusculum make translator or rider.
Gynoecium: Bicarpellary, apocarpous, unilocular, superior ovary, marginal placentation, ovules

many, styles 2 free, meeting high up in stigmas which are united to form an angular
disc, to the side of which the anthers are coherent;
Fruit: An etaerio of follicle
Seed: Endospermic
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Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (China rose)
Series: Thalamiflorae
Order: Malvales
Family: Malvaceae
Genus: Hibiscus
Species: rosa-sinensis
Habit: Ornamental shrub with beautiful flowers.
Stem: Aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, woody below, and green herbaceous above, solid.
Leaves: Cauline and ramal, stipulate, petiolate, alternate, simple, ovate, serrate margin, acute
apex, glabrous, green, reticulate, multicostate.
Inflorescence: Solitary terminal or axillary.
Flower: Ebracteate, Ebracteolate, pedicillate, complete, perfect, regular, actinomorphic,

bisexual, hypogynous, mucilaginous, hairy, pentamerous, scarlet red, epicalyx present
outside the calyx, large and showy.
Epicalyx: Variable, 6-8,free, or fused, linear, hairy, green.
Calyx: 5, polysepalous, pentapartite, campanulate, green, persistent, inferior.
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Corolla: 5, polypetalous, twisted, petals scarlet red, large obovate or obcordate with wavy
margin, prominently veined, mucilaginous at the base, fused at the base with the
staminal tube, inferior.
Androecium: Infinite, monadelphous, epipetalous, staminal tube with distict 5 antisepalous teeth
at its upper end, staminal tube red in color, anthers yellow, reniform, monothecous,
transversely attached to the filaments, longitudinal extrose dehiscence, inferior.
Gynoecium: Pentacarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, pentalocular with axile placentation,

style single, long and passing through the staminal tube, stigma 5, capitate covered
with velvety growth, red, many ovules in each locule, ovules anatropous.
Fruit: 5 valved capsule.
Seed: Endospermic, glabrous, hairy.
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Ocimum basilicum (Niazbo)
Series: Disciflorae
Order: Geraniales
Family: Lamiaceae
Genus: Ocimum
Species: basilicum
Habit: A tall aromatic, cultivated herb.
Stem: Aerial, erect, quadrangular, branched, hairy, aromatic, and herbaceous above and
woody below.
Leaves: Ramal and cauline, opposite and decussate, exstipulate, petiolate, simple, ovate,
serrate margin, apex acute, unicostate reticulate, hairy, herbaceous.
Inflorescence: Raceme of verticillasters.
Flower: Ebracteate, pedicillate, pedicel small, complete, perfect, irregular, zygomorphic,

hermaphrodite,bilabiate, cyclic, hypogynous,purplish.
Calyx: 5, gamosepalous, tubular, bilabiate upper lip consists of 1 lobe and lower of 4 lobes,
purple,green, hairy, inferior.
Corolla: 5, gamopetalous, bilabiate, upper lip of 4 petals and lower of one petal only (4/1),
light purple, inferior.
Androecium: 4, fifth posterior stamen absent, polyandrous, alternipetalous, didynamous, two

anterolateral are long and two posterolateral are short. Each of these stamens has a
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long connective which bears a fertile anther lobe at its posterior end and sterile lobe at
the anterior end. The filaments are small, attached to the long connective near the
sterile end and are versatile in fixation, thus form a lever mechanism, dehiscence
longitudinal introrse, inferior.
Gynoecium: Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, deeply 4-lobed, bilocular at first

becoming quadrilocular due to the formation of the false septum, one ovule in each
loculus, axile placentation, a nectariferous disc with an anterior lobe is present below
ovary, style long, gynobasic, stigma bifid.
Fruit: Schizocarpic, cacerulus, with 4 nutlets.
Seed: Non-endospermic.
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Helianthus annuus (Sunflower)
Subclass: Gamopetalae
Series: Inferae
Order: Asterales
Family: Asteraceae
Genus: Helianthus
Species: annuus
Habit: Annual herb with beautiful capitula.
Stem: Aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, herbaceous, solid, hairy, glabrous.
Leaves: cauline and ramal, exstipulate, petiolate, hairy petiole, simple, ovate, margin serrate,
apex acute, alternate or sub opposite, unicostate, reticulate, surface hairy, green.
Inflorescence: yellow racemose head or capitulum, capitulum radiate heteromerous , consisting

of (a)bisexual, tubular, disc florets and (b) Pistillate or neuter,ligulate ray florets, disc florets
occupy the center and ray florets lie at the periphery. The capitulum is surrounded by 3 serie of
green involucre bracts.
(A) Ray Florets: bracteates, sessile, zygomorphic, female or sterile, yellow, tricyclic, epigynous,
incomplete, imperfect.
Calyx: 2-3, free, scale like, superior.
Corolla: 3-5, gamopetalous, ligulate, formed by small basal hairy tube and a large flat strap
shaped and clearly veined limb or strap, entire or 3-5 toothed (indicating no. of petals),
superior, yellow.
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Androecium: absent
Gynoecium: may be absent or when present bicarpellary, syncarpous, inferior, unilocular,

basal placentation, ovule single, bifid stigma, hairy and filiform style. Stigma curled and
hairy on the outside.
(B) Disc Florets: bracteates, bracts large, sessile, regular, actinomorphic, bisexual, epigynous,
tetracyclic, tubular, yellowish black.
Calyx: 2or 3 free, reduced scale like, hairy, generally antero-posterior, white, superior.
Corolla: 5, gamopetalous, tubular, tube slightly swollen near the base where nectar is
present, yellow, 5 toothed, teeth black, valvate, superior.
Androecium: 5, epipetalous, filaments free, short, alternating with the petals, syngenesious
anthers, introrse longitudinal dehiscence, anthersbasifixed with rounded base, bithecous,
superior.
Gynoecium:Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary inferior, unilocular with a single basal ovule,

style long, stigma black, bifid, ovary completely sunken in the thalamus whose walls are
hairy, stigma curled back to expose the inner stigmatic surface.
Fruit: An achene, cypsela.
Seed: Non-endospermic.
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PLANT ANATOMY
A. INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF DICOT STEM
1. Epidermis consists of parenchymatous cells, single layered, compactly arranged, interrupted

by multicellular hair, which is the extension of the epidermal cells , it is covered above by the
layer of cuticle, stomata are also present at intervals.
2. A few layered collenchymatous hypodermis also follows the epidermis.
3. Few layered parenchymatous cortex follows the hypodermis, it also has oil canals. Cells are
chlorenchymatous and perform photosynthesis too.
4. Endodermis is single layered having barrel shaped cells without casparian strips. Cells are
composed of single layered parenchyma.
5. Pericycle is heterogenous having both Sclerenchymatous and parenchymatous cells.
Sclerenchymatous patch is present opposite to vascular bundles and parenchymatous patch is
present in between the two vascular bundles and performs the storage function.
6. Vascular bundles are present in the form of a ring and called as the eustele, the bundles are
conjoint, collateral, endarch and open having well developed pith on the inner side.
7. Pith cells are parenchymatous and are having storage function.
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A: A part of TS of Dicot Stem
B: Enlarged View of Vascular Bundle
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B. INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF DICOT ROOT
1. Epiblema is single layered made up of compactly arranged thin walled parenchymatous cells.
Due to the presence of root hairs it is also called as piliferous layer. In T.S. cells appears
isodiametric, oval or rectangular. Root hairs are long, tubular, and are unicellular.
2. Epidermis is followed by cortex which is made up of thin walled cells; cells may enclose
intercellular spaces for diffusion of gases. Cortical cells may be replaced by suberised cells
as a result of secondary growth.
3. Cortex is followed by a single layered endodermis of barrel shaped cells, cells are living and
rich in starch grains, a characteristic band of thickening known as casparian strip is present
along the radial and tangential cells of the young epidermal cells.
4. The layer next to endodermis is pericycle, it is uniseriate and constitutes outer boundary of
vascular cylinder of the roots. It is made of thin walled parenchymatous cells.
5. Vascular tissueis present inner to the pericycle. The root is having alternate and radial
arrangement, primary xylem and phloem appear as separate bundles with the patches of
parenchymatous cells in between the no. Of xylem and phloem strands vary from 2-4.
6. As the protoxylem elements face towards the periphery, the root is called as exarch.
A: T.S of Dicot Root
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C. INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF NYCTANTHES ARBORTRISTIS- Stem
The stem of this plant has prominent angles and reveals a quadrangular outline in a transverse
section.
1. Epidermis is single layered parenchymatous with a compact arrangement. The cells are
covered by a continuous layer of thick cuticle. Multicellular hair arises from the epidermal
tissue.
2. Cortex is followed by epidermis having a few layered collenchymatous tissue towards
outside and oval, rounded cells on the inner side. The main function of cortex is storage.
3. Endodermis and pericycle are not distinct.
4. normal vascular bundles occur in the center in the form of a ring, the bundles are conjoint,
collateral, endarch and open, in addition to the normal ring of vascular bundles there is
present four inversely oriented vascular bundles in the cortex region at the four corners of the
stem.
5. These cortical bundles always get restricted to the four prominent angles of the stem. The
phloem in such bundles is restricted towards the inner side and xylem towards the outer side.
The bundles have the exarch condition.
6. The cambium present in the cortical bundles adds a small amount of secondary vascular
tissue sin a normal manner.
7. The cambium in normal ring in the center also functions in a normal manner and produces
secondary phloem towards outer side and secondary xylem towards inner side.
8. In the center of the stem there is broad pith which is composed of thin walled cells.
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A: T.S of Stem
B: Part of Stem showing Cortical Vascular Bundle
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D. INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF MIRABILIS JALAPA – Stem
1. Epidermis is made up of single layered compactly arranged parenchymatous cells with no

intercellular spaces. Cells are thin walled, covered with a layer of cuticle on the outer side.
2. Cortex is differentiated to two zones. Below the epidermis is present a zone of
collenchymatous cortex, this occurs in the form of patches, it constitutes 2-
2-4 layers of cells
which are thickened at the corners.
corners. Next zone is made up of chlorenchyma cells. This
constitutes few layers of loosely arranged oval or spherical cells. They are rich in chloroplast
content and enclose the small intercellular spaces.
3. Innermost layer of cortex is composed of colorless parenchymatous
parenchymatous cells rich in starch
content which is called as endodermis.
4. Next to endodermis is present one to two layers of thin walled parenchymatous cells which
composes pericycle tissue.
5. Large numbers of scattered bundles are visible in the pith region
region known as medullary
bundles. Of these only two are larger while others are smaller and are scattered. In addition
there is a normal ring of vascular bundles next to the pith. There are incomplete dwarf
bundles in the outer ring, these contain only phloem.
phloe
6. The bundles in the outer ring are complete. They are conjoint, collateral, endarch and open.
7. Medullary bundles are larger and are developed earlier as compared to other bundles which
are smaller in size.
A: A Part of T.S of Stem
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B: Part of Stem showing

s Vascular Bundle
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E. INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF BOERHAAVIA DIFFUSA – Stem
1. In transverse section, the stem shows a wavy outline. Outermost layer is epidermis composed
of single layered compactly arranged parenchymatous cells with no intercellular spaces.
Many epidermal cells bear multicellular hair, which are not the outgrowth of epidermal cells.
2. Next to epidermis is cortex which is differentiated into two zones, next to epidermis is
collenchymatous cells, next to collenchyma cells lies the zone of chlorenchyma cells. It is
made up of 4-6 layers of cells. The cells are circular, oval or even polygonal and have
abundant chloroplasts.
3. Innermost layer of cortex constitutes the endodermis. It is clearly distinguishable. It is made
up of thick walled tubular cells with no intercellular spaces.
4. Next to endodermis lie the zones of parenchymatous cells of pericycle which are interrupted
with sclerenchymatous cells in between in the form of patches.
5. Vascular bundles are present in three rings. The outermost ring have 15-20 small bundles,
this ring surrounds a middle ring of 6-14 vascular bundles. These are smaller in size and oval
or rounded in shape. In the innermost ring are present two larger vascular bundles which lie
in pith, these are called das medullary bundles. Of all the bundles these are the largest in size
and are oval in shape. These bundles are fully developed. The central bundles are enveloped
in a thin walled sheath and lie opposite to each other with xylem facing towards the center
and phloem facing outwards. The vascular bundles are conjoint, collateral, endarch and open.
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A: A Part of T.S of Stem
B: Part of Stem showing Vascular Bundle
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F. INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF DRACAENA – Stem
1. Dracaena is a monocot and as the vascular bundles are closed, the secondary growth does not
occur in monocots, secondary growth in dracaena is regarded as anomalous.
2. The outermost layer of the stem constitutes epidermis which is made up of rectangular cells,
on the outerside it is covered with a layer of cuticle.
3. Following
llowing the epidermis is found a layer of sclerenchymatous hypodermis. The cells of the
ground tissue may or may not enclose intercellular spaces.
4. Numerous vascular tissues lie scattered in the ground tissue. These are arranged in the form
of rings. The bundles
ndles in the outer ring are smaller and more in number as compared to the
inner rings.
5. Each vascular bundle is surrounded by a sclerenchymatous bundle sheath. The sheath is more
prominent towards the outerside.
6. Xylem elements are arranged in the form of letter ‘v’. The metaxylem elements occupy the
arms of ‘v’ and protoxylem elements are present at the angle of ‘v’.
7. Small amount of phloem lies between the metaxylem elements, lysogenous cavity is absent.
A: A part of T.S of Stem
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B: Developing Amphivasal Vascular Bundle
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PLANT EMBRYOLOGY
1. STRUCTURE OF ANTHER IN ANGIOSPERMS
T.S Young Anther
T.S of Mature Anther

A microsporangium is a sporangium that produces spores that give rise to male gametophytes.
Microsporangia are notable in spikemosses, and a minority of ferns. In gymnosperms and
angiosperms (flowering plants), the microsporangia produce the microsporocyte
microsporocyte, also known as
122
the microspore mother cell, which then creates four microspores through meiosis. The
microspores divide to create pollen grains. Structure of anther consists of:
1. A single layer of epidermis between, which becomes stretched and shrivels off at maturity.
2. A single layer of endothecium. The cells of endothecium possess fibrous thickenings. They
remain thin-walled and constitute stomium (line of dehiscence) in the shallow groove in
between the two microsporangia of the anther lobe
3. One to three middle layers. Cells of these layers generally disintegrate in the mature anther.
4. A single layer of tapetum. The tapetal cells may be uni-, bi- or multinucleate and possess
dense cytoplasm. The cells of the primary sporogenous layer divide further and give rise to
diploid sporogenous tissue.
123
(
2. DEVELOPMENT OF MALE GAMETOPHYTE IN ANGIOSPERMS
1. Each stamen consists of a lobed anther, containing the microsporangia and supported by a
thin filament.
2. Meiosis of the diploid microspore mother cells in the anther produces four haploid
microspores.
3. Each of these develops into a pollen grain consisting of a larger vegetative cell (also called
the tube cell) inside of which is a smaller germ cell (also called
ed the generative cell).
4. At some point, depending on the species, the germ cell divides by mitosis to produce 2
sperm cells.
5. At the time of pollen dispersal it may be at 2 cell stage or 3 cell stage depending upon the
species.
6. When generative cell divides
es after reaching the stigmatic surface it gives rise to two male
gametes.
7. This structure, a germinated pollen grain carrying two male gametes inside it, is termed as a
mature male gametophyte.
124
(
3. STRUCTURE OF FEMALE GAMETOPHYTE OF ANGIOSPERMS
1. Embryo sac/female gametophye is an oval structure within an ovule of an angiosperm that

contains the egg. Together with the fertilized egg, it develops into a seed. The upper end
where egg apparatus lies is called as the micropylar end from where the pollen
polle tube enters the
ovule.
2. The embryo sac is the female gametophyte of angiosperms, consisting of eight nuclei: the
egg and two adjacent and short
short-lived synergids that are near the micropyle. The synergids are
also called potential cells.
3. Two polar nuclei in the central cell. These fuse with one of the male nucleus to form primary
endosperm nucleus in future, to give rise to endosperm tissue after the syngamy has taken
place.
4. Three antipodal nuclei at the chalazal end of the embryo sac opposite the micropyle. Like the
synergids, these nuclei degenerate at or shortly after fertilization. They pass on all the
nourishment they get from nucellus to the potential egg cell.
D.
125
(
DEVELOPMENT OF FEMALE GAMETOPHYTE IN ANGIOSPERMS
During megasporogenesis, the diploid megaspore mother cell undergoes meiosis and gives
rise to four haploid nuclei. Angiosperms exhibit three main patterns of megasporogenesis,
referred to as monosporic, bisporic, and tetrasporicIn the monosporic pattern, both meiotic
divisions are accompanied by cell plate formation, resulting in four one-nucleate
one nucleate megaspores.
Subsequently, three megaspores, generally the micropylar-most
micropylar most megaspores, undergo cell
death. In the bisporic pattern, cell plates form after meiosis I but not meiosis II. The result is
two two-nucleate
nucleate megaspores, one of which degenerates. In the tetrasporic pattern, cell plates
fail to form after both meiotic divisions, resulting in one four-nucleate
four nucleate megaspore. Thus,
these three patterns give rise to a single functional megaspore that contains one
(monosporic), two (bisporic), or four (tetrasporic) meiotic nuclei. The monosporic pattern is
the most common form and is represented within the Polygonum pattern. During
megagametogenesis, the functional megaspore
megaspore gives rise to the mature female gametophyte.
Initially, the megaspore undergoes mitosis without cytokinesis, resulting in a multinucleate
coenocyte. Subsequently, cell walls form around these nuclei, resulting in a cellularized
female gametophyte. For example, in the Polygonum-type
Polygonum type pattern, a single nucleus
undergoes two rounds of mitosis, producing a four-nucleate
four nucleate cell with two nuclei at each pole.
During a third mitosis, phragmoplasts and cell plates form between sister and nonsister
nuclei, and soon
oon thereafter, the female gametophyte cells become completely surrounded by
126
cell walls. During cellularization, two nuclei, one from each pole (the polar nuclei), migrate
toward the center of the developing female gametophyte and fuse together either before or
upon fertilization of the central cell. These events result in a seven-celled structure consisting
of three antipodal cells, one central cell, two synergid cells, and one egg cell. The
monosporic, Polygonum type of female gametophyte is typically a seven-celled structure at
maturity.
127
(
E. TYPES OF OVULES IN ANGIOSPERMS
Orthotropous ovule: The

he micropylar end, chalazal end and funicle all lie in single vertical
line, also called as a straight ovule. Eg. Polygonum, Piper.
Anatropous ovule:: The body of ovule gets inverted at 180 degrees so that micropyle of th
embryo sac comes to lie towards the hilum and funicle. Chalazal end occupies the upper end.
It is also called as the inverted ovule. Eg. Solanaceae, compositae.
Hemitropous ovule: The body of ovule
ovule gets curved at 90 degrees with respect to funicle,
therefore funicle and micropyle are at 90 degree angle to each other. The embryo sac is
placed transeversely inside the ovule. Eg. Ranunculaceae, crucifers.
Campylotropous ovule: Here the body of the ovule
ovule gets curved at an angle, but the embryo
sac remains straight inside it. The micropylar end, and funicle come closer to each other. Eg.
Capsella, mustard
Amphitropous ovule: Here the body of the ovule as well as the embryo sac gets curved so
that embryo sac attains a horse-shoe
horse shoe shape. The funicle and micropylar ends are closer to
each other. Eg. Crucifers, papaveraceae.
Circinotropous ovule: Here the funicle of the ovule takes
takes a 360 degree curve so that
micropyle again comes to lie at the upper end. The funicle completely encircles the ovule on
all sides so that it seems like a third integument for the ovule. Eg. Opuntia (cactaceae)
128
(
F. TYPES OF PLACENTATIONS IN ANGIOSPERMS
The number, type, position and arrangement or the distribution of placentae inside an ovary is
called as placentation.
Axile : the ovary is partitioned into two or more locules with true septa. Placenta lies in the
center where all the septa meet so that
that an axile column bearing ovules is formed. Eg. Petunia,
shoe flower. It occurs in syncarpous pistils.
Parietal: two or more longitudinal placentae develop along the wall of a syncarpous pistil. The
number of placentae corresponds to the no. of fusing carpels.
carpels. The septa formation starts but it
does not reaches the center. Eg. Cucurbitaceae
Marginal: one or two alternate rows of ovules occur longitudinally along the margins of the
ovary in the area of fusion of its two margins. A true placenta is believed to
to be absent. Ovary is
unilocular.it is found in monocarpellary pistils. Eg. Pea, Cassia, Acacia.
129
(
Free central: The pistil is polycarpellary and syncarpous but the ovary is unilocular .The ovules
are borne around a central column, which is not connected with ovary wall by any septum. Eg.
Primula, Silene.
Basal: the ovary is unilocular. It bears a single placenta at the base with generally a single ovule.
The pistil may be monocarpellary or syncarpous. Eg. Ranunculus.
Apical: the ovary is unilocular and bears a single ovule that hangs from the tip of the chamber.
Eg. Cannabis.
Superficial: the ovules develop on the whole inner surface of the ovary including the septa, if
present. It is found in both monocarpellary and syncarpous pistils. Eg. Nymphaea.
Nymphaea
Different Types of Placentation
130

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Department of Botany, DAV College, Jalandhar (PB.

Habit: Annual or biennial herb of winter, cultivated as pot-herb too.

Root: Branched tap root.

Inflorescence: Corymbose raceme.

Flower: Ebracteate, Ebracteolate, pedicillate, complete, regular, actinomorphic, bisexual,

Androecium: 6, polyandrous, tetradynamous, 4 longer stamens form antero-posterior pairs and

Gynoecium: Bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary, unilocular becomes bilocular by the

Seed: Non-endospermic, many, small in size with folded cotyledons.

Citrus aurantium (Orange)

Root: Branched tap root.

Stem: Aerial, erect, branched, solid, woody, green,glabrous.

Inflorescence: Solitary, axillary or group of flowers in axillary position.

Flower: Ebracteate, ebracteolate, pedicillate, complete, regular, actinomorphic, bisexual,

Calyx: 5, gamosepalous, cup shaped, pentafid, green, gland dotted, inferior.

Gynoecium: Polycarpellary syncarpous, superior, multilocular ovary with axile placentation,

Fruit: Berry (Hesperidium)

Seed: Many, non-endospermic, testa mucilaginous.

Murraya exotica (Kaamini)

Habit: Evergreen small cultivated ornamental tree.

Root: Branched tap root.

Stem: Erect, branched, woody, cylindrical, solid, glabrous.

Inflorescence: Solitary axillary or solitary terminal.

Flower: Ebracteate, ebracteolate, pedicillate, pentamerous, complete, regular, actinomorphic,

Calyx: 5, gamosepalous, pentapartite, green, small, inferior.

Seed: Endospermic, with hairy testa.

Cassia fistula (Amaltas)

Sub Family: Caesalpiniodeae

Habit: Ornamental, cultivated tree with beautiful yellow pendulous racemes.

Root: Highly branched tap root.

Stem: Aerial, erect, solid, cylindrical, woody and branched.

Inflorescence: Long, pendulous raceme, panicle or compound.

Flower: Bracteates, pedicillate, ebracteolate, irregular, zygomorphic, complete, bisexual,

Gynoecium: Monocarpellary, ovary superior, slightly stalked, curved, marginal placentation,

Fruit: Cylindrical, indehiscent pod with one seeded transverse compartments.

Acacia arabica (Kikar)

Sub Family: Mimosoidaeae

Root: Branched tap root, deep feeder.

Inflorescence: Axillary cymose head, yellow.

Flower: Bracteate, ebracteolate, sub sessile, regular, actinomorphic, bisexual, hermaphrodite,

Calyx: 5, gamosepalous, slightly petaloid, pentafid, campanulate, greenish yellow, inferior,

Gynoecium: Monocarpellary superior ovary, unilocular marginal placentation, many ovules in

Calotropis procera (Ak)

Root: Branched, deep, tap root.

Inflorescence: Large flowers arranged in axillary umbellate cymes.

Flower: Bracteate, pedicillate, ebracteolate, complete, actinomorphic, bisexual, hypogynous,

Gynoecium: Bicarpellary, apocarpous, unilocular, superior ovary, marginal placentation, ovules

Fruit: An etaerio of follicle

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (China rose)

Habit: Ornamental shrub with beautiful flowers.

Root: Branched tap root.

Inflorescence: Solitary terminal or axillary.

Flower: Ebracteate, Ebracteolate, pedicillate, complete, perfect, regular, actinomorphic,

Epicalyx: Variable, 6-8,free, or fused, linear, hairy, green.

Calyx: 5, polysepalous, pentapartite, campanulate, green, persistent, inferior.

Gynoecium: Pentacarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, pentalocular with axile placentation,

Fruit: 5 valved capsule.

Seed: Endospermic, glabrous, hairy.

Ocimum basilicum (Niazbo)

Habit: A tall aromatic, cultivated herb.

Root: Branched tap root.

Inflorescence: Raceme of verticillasters.

Flower: Ebracteate, pedicillate, pedicel small, complete, perfect, irregular, zygomorphic,