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SCIENCE is a systematized knowledge based on facts and principles taken or derived from hypothesis
and experimentation which help man understand the world around him.
Fields of Science
Social Science deals with institutions or organizations functioning in a society; and of human
behaviors and relationships
Politics
Economics
History
Applied Science deals with the application of the theoretical sciences (social and natural sciences)
Medicine
Engineering
Architecture
CHEMISTRY describes matter, its properties, the changes it undergoes, and the energy that accompany
those processes.
CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY deals with the application of the principles of chemistry for practical use.
1
History of Chemistry
The earliest practical knowledge of chemistry was concerned with metallurgy, pottery and dyes.
These crafts were developed with considerable skill, but with no understanding of the principles
involved, as early as 3500 B.C in Egypt and Mesopotamia.
Basic ideas of element and compound were first formulated by the Greek philosophers in 500 BC –
300 BC. Generally there were 4 elements (fire, air, water, earth) combined in varying
proportions to form all things.
Aristotle’s definition of a simple body as ‘one into which other bodies can be decomposed and
which itself is not capable of being divided’ is close to the modern definition of element.
Ancient Egyptian industrial arts and Greek philosophical speculations were fused into a new
science at the beginning of the Christian era in Alexandria.
This became the beginning of alchemy (medieval form of chemistry) which used occultism and
magic.
Interest of the period:
transmutation of base metals into gold
imitation of precious gems
search for the elixir of life ( thought to grant immortality)
Muslim conquest in 7th century A.D. diffused the remains of Hellenistic civilization to the
Arab world.
The first chemical treatises to become well-known in Europe were Latin translations of Arabic
works; hence, it is often erroneously supposed that chemistry originated among the Arabs.
Alchemy developed extensively during the middle Ages, cultivated largely by itinerant scholars
who wandered over Europe looking for patrons.
Scientist Contribution
Robert Boyle (1627-1691) He performed experiments under reduced pressure using an air
pump and discovered that volume and pressure are inversely
related in gases.
John Mayow (1641-1679) He postulated that the air needed in lighting a candle is the
same air needed by animals to survive.
Johann Joachim Becher (1635-1682) They introduced the phlogiston theory of combustion which held
George Ernst Stahl (1660-1734) that the substance phlogiston is contained in all combustible
bodies and escapes when the bodies burn.
2
Jan Baptist van Helmont (1589-1644) He was the first to describe carbon dioxide as “gas sylvestre”
given off by burning charcoal and this gas was the same as that
produced by fermenting grapes which sometimes renders the air
of caves unbreathable.
Joseph Black (1728-1799) He was the first person to isolate carbon dioxide in a perfectly
pure state using carbonates.
Henry Cavendish (1731-1810) He isolated a very light, highly flammable gas by reacting metals
with acids; when this gas is burned, pure water was produced.
Antoine Lavoisier named the gas hydrogen.
Branches of Chemistry
Branch Description
Inorganic Chemistry It is the study of almost all the elements and their compounds except
carbon and its compounds. Some simple carbon compounds are traditionally
classified as inorganic since they are derived from mineral sources.
Organic Chemistry It is the study of carbon and its compounds, considering at least carbon-
carbon or carbon-hydrogen chain except urea.
Analytic Chemistry It is the identification of the composition, both quantitative (how much is
present) and qualitative (what is present) of a substance.
Biochemistry It is the study of the composition and processes that occur in living
organisms.
Physical Chemistry It is the study of theories, principles and laws that govern the structure
and changes in matter.
Environmental Chemistry It is the study of the composition, nature and concentration of pollutants
and other substances affecting the environment.
Nuclear Chemistry It is the study of atomic nucleus, its reactions and the products of such
reactions.
Industrial Chemistry It is the study of the physical and chemical processes applied in the
manufacture of substances
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The Scientific Method is a systematic approach in problem solving.
stating the problem
clear statement
manageable scope
gathering information on the problem
observation or research
formulation of hypothesis
proposed solution to a problem
tentative answer-models
performing the experiment
variable – factor that is being tested (experimental set-up)
recording and analyzing data
data – recorded observations and measurements
data table – is a chart that organizes information in rows and columns
graph – is data shown in the form of a picture
stating a conclusion
conclusion – final answer to the problem
theory – logical explanation of events that occur in nature supported by results obtained from
repeated experiments where further experiments, new phenomena could be discovered
law – statement that summarizes the results of observations and experiments; a precise
statement which describes a mode of behavior or pattern of action about a large number of
related facts
Scientific Attitudes
1. curiosity
2. determination
3. open-mindedness
4. acceptance of failure
5. objectivity
6. humility
7. skepticism
8. patience
Importance of Chemistry
1. In the field of _____, it enables scientists to investigate and discover the properties of raw
materials in the purpose of processing them into new products as well as improve existing ones.
2. In agriculture, chemistry is used in soil analysis and in the manufacture of fertilizers and
insecticides increasing production.
3. In medicine, chemistry is employed to discover new minerals and vitamins to improve health and to
understand human ailments and to invent drugs to cure diseases.
4. In industry, chemistry makes possible the manufacture of new and better economic goods, the
invention of better appliances and the development of new technologies for processing goods for
our consumption
Concerns of Chemistry
1. worldwide food shortage
2. development of pharmaceutical chemicals
3. dwindling natural resources and pollution
4
FUNDAMENTALS OF MEASUREMENT
Measurement is a process of comparing a thing with a standard. It is very important in giving more
precise quantitative and qualitative description of an object.
Methods of measurements
Direct measurement
Measuring things with the use of an instrument
Indirect measurement
Measuring things using mathematical calculation
BASE UNITS
Fundamental units of the international system
Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Thermodynamic Kelvin K
temperature
Electric current Ampere A
Amount of substance Mole mol
Luminary intensity Candela cd
DERIVED UNITS
5
System of measurement
Metric system/SI/international system of units
Variations:
MKS – meter-kilogram-second
CGS – centimeter-gram-second
English or British system
FPS system - foot-pound-second
The following are prefixes used to express bigger and smaller units:
Prefix Exponential
yotta Y 1024
zetta Z 1021
exa E 1018
peta P 1015
tera T 1012
giga G 109
mega M 106
kilo k 103
hecto h 102
deca da 101
deci d 10¯1
centi c 10¯2
milli m 10¯3
micro 10¯6
nano n 10¯9
pico p 10¯12
femto f 10¯15
atto a 10¯18
zepto z 10¯21
yocto y 10¯24
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
They comprise all digits that are known with certainty plus the first digit that is uncertain. The
position of the decimal point is relevant.
6
Rules in counting significant figures
*The single zero conventionally placed to the left of a decimal point in such an expression is never
significant. It is just used to locate the decimal point.
Examples:
a. 20.63 + 6.6 cm + 3. 786 cm = 31.016 cm ans. 31.0 cm
b. 387.876 L – 197.23L = 190.646 L ans. 190.65 L
7
Examples:
a. 9.25 m x 0.52 m x 11. 35m = 54.5935 m3 ans. 55 m3
b. 69.48 m by 3.62 s = 19.19337017 m/s ans. 19.2 m/s
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
Method of writing or expressing very large or very small numbers into its exponential form.
Form: M x 10n
Where: M - number lower than one and not greater than ten
N - number of times the decimal point is moved. It can be
a positive or negative integer.
Rules:
1. Determine M by moving the decimal point in the original number to the left or right so that
the only one nonzero digit is to the left of it.
2. Determine n by counting the number of places the decimal point has been moved.
If moved to the left, n is positive.
If moved to the right, n is negative.
Examples:
Positional form Exponential form
Diameter of the earth = 1 300 000 000 ans. 1.3 x 109 cm
Diameter of a hydrogen atom = 0.000 000 01 cm ans. 1 x 10- 8 cm
Speed of light = 30 000 000 000 cm/s ans. 3 x 1010cm/s
1. If the figure to be dropped is five, or greater than five, increase by one the value of the last
figure to be retained.
Examples:
a) 78.567 rounded off to the nearest hundredths place is 78.57
b) 123.345 rounded off to the nearest hundredths place is 123.35
c) 457.9679 rounded off to the nearest thousandths place is 457.968
2. If the figure to be dropped is less than five, the last figure to be retained should not be changed.
Examples:
a) 5.052 rounded off to the nearest hundredths place is 5.05.
b) 136.324 rounded off to the nearest ones place is 136
c) 98230.478 rounded off to the nearest tens place is 98230
CONVERSION OF UNITS
A unit conversion factor is used to covert a quantity in one system of units to corresponding
quantity in another system of units.
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METRIC to ENGLISH ENGLISH to METRIC
UNCERTAINTIES IN MEASUREMENT
PERCENTAGE ERROR
NAME:_________________________________ SCORE:_________
COURSE YEAR & SCHED:________________ DATE:___________
9
ACTIVITY 1.1
2. Group the class into dyads and present a figure for each group to measure.
Problem:
What is the distance between points A and B following the arrow?
Materials:
Any measuring device or material found inside the classroom.
Procedure:
1. Discuss within your group the possible ways of solving the problem.
2. Write down your proposed procedure.
3. Perform the activity and record the data gathered.
4. Show the procedure you followed to your instructor.
5. Fill in the table with appropriate data and do the necessary conversion of units stated below.
Table 1
Name of Student Measurement
1.
2.
3.
Average
Table 2
Distance Mm cm m km
A to B
Note: Score will be based on percentage error.
NAME:__________________________________________ SCORE:_________
COURSE YEAR AND SCHED.______________________ DATE: _________
10
ACTIVITY 1.2
a) 8,567, 800,000,000 km
b) 45.4236 g
c) 0.0056231 L/mole
d) 0.00000000000428 m/s
e) 98.6700000 kg
f) 99.98000 g/cm
a) 2.35 x 105 g
b) 33 000 000 mg
c) 5.56 x 10 -8 mole
d) 670 000 000 000 cg
e) 100 000 000 cm3
3. Give the correct answer to the following using the rules in the operations with significant figures.
4. A basketball player is undergoing therapy after a mild surgery from his right leg due to bone
translocation. During his exercise and physical examination, the following data were gathered. He stands 6
feet 3 inches tall. He weighs 194 pounds. He plays in a game for 35 minutes. He throws the ball with the
speed of 100 miles per hour during fast breaks and he gains a body temperature of 102 degrees
Fahrenheit during workout.
d) How fast does he throw in (1) km/hr (2) ft/sec (3) m/s
NAME:__________________________________________ SCORE:_________
COURSE YEAR AND SCHED.______________________ DATE: _________
11
ACTIVITY 1.3
Solve the following problems correctly. Show all solutions.
2. Which patient has a higher fever, one with a temperature of 102.2 0F or one with a temperature of
39.00C?
3. Normal urine density is 1.025g/ml. What is the weight of a 100ml sample of urine?
4. An order for a medication reads: Give 0.25ml/kg body weight. How much medication should be
given to a patient weighing 175 lbs?
Pediatric Dosage
200mg/kg/day
a. How much of the antibiotic should be administered per day to an infant who weighs 14.7 lbs?
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b. If the medication is to be administered three times a day, how much medication should be
given per dose?
c. Compute for the total dosage in grams if the antibiotic is to be given for 7 days.
7. The doctor orders a 500 μg dose of a drug. Only 1mg tablet is on hand. How many would you give?
9. A patient has been prescribed 15 mg of Diazepam. The tablet is available only at 0.005g dose. How
many tablets should be given to the patient?
10. 800 ml of sodium chloride 0.9% (normal saline) is dripping into Mrs. Fernandez’ arm at 25
drops/min. The IV set delivers 20 drops/ml. How long will it take her to receive the infusion?
13
Matter
metalloids salt
oxide
PURE SUBTANCES
Pure substances which consist of one particular kind of atom are homogeneous materials with definite
chemical properties.
ELEMENTS
Element is a type of matter composed of atoms which all have exactly the same positive charge on their
nuclei. All atoms of an element have the same atomic number.
Classifications of elements:
Metals
Physical properties: Usually solid at room temperature
Ductile (can be drawn into sheets or wire without breaking)
Malleable (can be hammered, pounded or pressed into different shapes
without breaking)
Good conductor of heat and electricity
Show metallic luster when polish
Non-metals
Physical properties: Seldom have metallic luster
Tend to be colorless or brilliantly colored
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Often gases at room temperature
Generally have low melting point and densities
Serve as poor conductor of heat and electricity
Are Brittle
Metalloids or Semi-metals
Properties: Have properties that lie between metals and non-metals
Often look like metal but are brittle like non-metal
Are neither conductor nor insulator but make excellent semi-conductor
Ex: B, Si, As, Ge
COMPOUNDS
Are Pure substances
Are made up of atoms of two or more elements combined in fixed ratios
Are chemically combined elements
May be broken or decomposed into simpler substances
Classification of Compounds
Acid comes from the Latin word acidus which means ‘sharp’
hydrogen compound whose hydrogen can be replaced by a metal
the negative portion of the acid is a non-metal or an acid radical
properties of acids:
o have sour taste
o turn blue litmus paper to red
o react with certain metals to produce hydrogen
o react with bases to produce salts and water
classification of acids:
o monoprotic acid ex: HNO3, HCl, HBr
o diprotic acid ex: H2SO4, H2C2O4
o triprotic acid ex: H3PO4, H3AsO3
Base
hydroxides of metals
alkalis – soluble bases
compound which forms hydroxyl group (OH) as the only negative group in the solution
proton acceptor
OH-1 radical
properties of bases:
o have bitter taste
o have soapy or slippery feeling
15
o turn red litmus paper to blue
o react with an acid to produce salt and water
o most metallic hydroxides are insoluble in water
Salt
substance that consisst of a metal or a metallic radical
combined with a non-metal or an acid radical
an ionic compound consisting of a positive ion except hydrogen and a negative ion except hydroxide
or oxide ion
types of salts:
o normal salt
contains only a metal or a metallic radical, combined with a non-metal or an acid radical
is neutral to litmus paper
ex: NaCl
o basic salt
contains one or more OH radical
reacts to litmus paper changing red to blue
ex: Bi(OH)2 NO3
o acid salt
compound in which a part of the hydrogen of the acid has been replaced by a metal
reacts to litmus paper changing blue to red
ex: NaHSO3
o double salt
contains two metals combined with one radical
ex: (NaAl(SO4))2 · 12 H2O
Oxide
compound which contains oxygen and only one other element
kinds of oxides
metallic oxide
is a combination of a metal and oxygen
considered as a basic anhydride
base = water + basic anhydride
ex: Na2O, CaO
Na2O + H2O NaOH
non-metallic oxide
the element other than oxygen is a non-metal
also called acid anhydride
acid = non-metallic oxide + water
ex: CO2 + H2O H2CO3
MIXTURE
contains two or more substances that intermingle without being chemically combined
has components that could be separated by either physical or chemical means
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has variable composition
has constituents that retain their original identity since simple mixing has not changed their
physical and chemical properties
types of mixtures:
o homogeneous mixture
appears to be made up of only one phase to the naked eye
ex: sugar solution, alloy, starch and flour
o heterogeneous mixture
components are easily identified or distinguished
ex: rice and corn, sugar and sand, oil and water
ways in separating mixtures
o filtration
o evaporation
o decantation
o magnetism
o distillation
o centrifugation
o flotation
o chromatography
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Extensive property
changes when the size of the sample changes
ex: mass, volume, length, total charge
Intensive property
doesn’t change when some of the samples are taken away
serves as clues in identifying unknown substances
ex: temperature, color, hardness, taste, melting point, boiling point, pressure, molecular weight,
density, malleability, ductility
Chemical property
describes how a material reacts or fails to react with other materials
reactivity
o ability of a substance to combine readily with other substance
combustibility
o ability of a substance to combine with oxygen
stability
o ability of a substance to resist change or inability to decompose under ordinary
conditions
17
deliquescence
o ability of a substance to become wet when exposed to the air because it attracts and
absorbs moisture from air. (ex. NaCl, ZnCl 2)
efflorescence
o ability of a substance to become very dry, crisp and powdery when exposed to air
because it loses its water of crystallization. (ex: washing soda)
effervescence
o ability of a substance to form bubbles or foams as it gives off gas. (ex: hydrogen
peroxide)
PHASES OF MATTER
solids
substances having definite volume and definite shape
generally rigid materials and are in compact form
types of solids
crystalline substances
o have definite arrangement and the atoms have definite relative positions
o assume definite geometric shape or figure
o have definite melting points
o examples: table sugar, salt, diamonds
amorphous substances
o do not assume any definite form
o have no definite melting points
o are sometimes called “super cooled liquids
o examples: wax, paraffin, glass, plastic
liquids
are substances having definite volume but no definite shape
assume the shape of their containers
are practically incompressible
gases
are substances having no definite shape and no definite volume
are compressible
have low densities
plasma
is an ionized gas which may result from the breaking of an atom or molecule of a gas when
sufficient energy is supplied to it.
contains free electrons and free positive ions, which are equal in number moving independently
CHANGES IN MATTER
Physical change
rearranges molecules but doesn’t affect their internal structures
18
affects the state and appearance of matter
no new substance is formed
o boiling water
o dissolving sugar in water
o dicing potatoes
processes
o evaporation – liquid to gas
o condensation – gas to liquid
o freezing – liquid to solid
o melting – solid to liquid
o sublimation – solid to gas
Chemical change
results in the formation of a new chemical substance
o iron rusting (iron oxide forms)
o gasoline burning (water vapor and carbon dioxide form)
processes
o oxidation – process where oxygen is added, producing an oxide
2Na + O2 Na2O
o Reduction – process where oxygen is removed from the substance
2HgO 2Hg + O2
o Neutralization – reaction of acid and base producing salt and water
HCl + NaOH H2O + NaCl
o Hydrolysis – reaction of salt and water producing acid and base
KCl + H2O HCl + KOH
o Fermentation – reaction caused by microorganisms producing alcohol and CO 2
Used in beer industries
o Saponification – reaction between an alkali or base and fats and oils producing soap and
glycerol
Nuclear change
is a change in the composition of nuclei of atoms
is the fusion of hydrogen atoms to produce helium and energy
ENERGY
every change in matter involves energy
ability to do work.
19
Kinetic Energy Potential Energy
Energy possessed by a body in motion by virtue of Energy possessed by a body at rest on the basis of
its motion its position, condition or composition
Electrical Energy is the movement of electrical Chemical Energy is energy stored in the bonds of
charges. It may operate electrical devices atoms and molecules. It is the energy that holds
these particles together.
Radiant Energy is electromagnetic energy that
travels in transverse waves. Radiant energy includes Nuclear Energy is energy stored in the nucleus of
visible light, x-rays, gamma rays and radio waves. an atom––the energy that holds the nucleus
together.
Thermal Energy, or heat, is the internal energy in
substances––the vibration and movement of the Gravitational Energy is the energy of position or
atoms and molecules within substances. place.
CHANGES IN ENERGY
1. Exothermic change
energy is given off
it involves heat flow from the system to the surroundings
example: combustion
2. Endothermic change
energy is absorbed
it involves heat flow from the surroundings to the system
example: decomposition of water
20
destroyed in any chemical
reaction.
Law of Conservation of Energy Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Energy is neither created nor
destroyed but can be
transformed from one form to
another.
Law of Definite Proportion or Joseph Proust A pure compound is always made
Law of Constant Proportion up or consists of the same
element combined in the same
proportions by mass.
Law of Multiple Proportion John Dalton When two elements A and B form
one compound, the amount of A
that is combined in this compound
with a fixed amount of B stand in
small, whole-number ratio.
GAS LAWS
21
GASES USES
1. carbon dioxide Used as a refrigerant
Insufflation gas for minimal invasive surgery to enlarge and
stabilize body cavities for better visibility of the surgical field
For cryotherapy
2. dry ice Used in preserving, freezing, and transporting food
Used to preserve and ship biological samples.
Used by cosmetic surgeons to freeze warts for easy removal.
3. krypton Used in lasers and photography
Used in coagulation of retina (krypton laser)
4. xenon Used in anesthetics
4. liquid helium Used in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
5. Argon Used as a semi-conductor
Used for treatment of benign eyelid tumor
6. Argon-nitrogen mixture Used in electric light bulbs
7. steam or gaseous water Used to power electric generators
8. ozone Used to protect man from too much exposure to the sun’s
ultraviolet rays
Manifests bactericidal, virucidal and fungicidal actions
Has the capacity to stimulate blood circulation and the immune
response
Atmospheric Pressure
it is the force exerted by air upon a given volume of matter
measured by a barometer (Evangelista Torricelli)
measured by a manometer
1 atmosphere (1 atm) = 101.3 kPa
14.7 lb/in2
76 cmHg
760 mmHg
760 torr
1.01325 bar
1013.25 mb
Physical Properties
indefinite shape and volume
gases exert pressure
22
low density
diffusion
Gas Laws
Boyle’s Law
Relation of volume to pressure at constant temperature
Robert Boyle
“At constant temperature, the volume of a confined gas is inversely proportional to pressure”.
P α 1/V P = k/V PV = k
P1V1 = P2V2
Example:
a. If the volume of a gas is 8.0 L under a pressure of 4.2 atm, what would be its volume if the
pressure were increased to 7.4 atm?
i. Given: Required: V2
1. P1 =4.2 atm
2. V1 = 8.0 L
3. P2 = 7.4 atm
ii. Solution:
1. P1V1 = P2V2
P1V 1
2. V2 =
P2
4.2 x8.0
3. V2 = 4.54 L
7.4
b. A sample of oxygen occupies 18.5 L under a pressure of 800 torr. At what pressure would it
occupy 23.4 L if the temperature did not change?
c. A gas at 1 atm expands to a final volume of 6.45 L having a final pressure of 600 atm. What is
the initial volume of the gas?
Charles’ Law
Relation of volume to temperature at constant pressure
Jacques Alexandre Cesar Charles
“The volume of a confined gas is directly proportional to temperature when pressure is held
constant”.
V α T V = kT V/T = k
V1 V 2
=
T1 T2
Example
a. A sample of nitrogen occupies 230 mL at 290 K. At what temperature in K would it occupy 340
mL if the pressure is held constant?
i. Given: Required: T2
1. T1 = 290 K
2. V1 = 230 mL
3. V2 = 340 mL
ii. Solution:
V1 V 2
1. =
T1 T2
23
T 1V 2
2. T2 =
V1
290 x340
3. T2 = 428.70 L
230
b. A tank contains 600 L of oxygen at 34 °C. What will be the final volume if the temperature is
increased to 40 °C?
c. What is the initial volume of a 45 mL in an inflated balloon at 25 °C if the final temperature is
39.6 °C?
iv. Solution:
P1V 1 P 2V 2
1.
T1 T2
P1V 1T 2
2. V2 =
P 2T 1
900 x120 x 273
3. V2 = 126.37 L
760 x307
b. What is the volume of methane at 273 K and 760 torr, if its original volume at 300 K and 769
torrs is 40 cc?
24
2L 1L 2L
Avogadro’s Law
Amadeo Avogrado
“At the same temperature and pressure, equal volumes of all gases contain the same number of
molecules”.
1 mol gas = 22.4 L at STP
V α n V = kn V/n = k
V1 V 2
n1 n2
Examples:
a. What pressure in atm is exerted by 7.8 mol of Xe in a 1.2 L flask at 287 K?
v. Given: Required: P
1. n = 7.8 mol
2. V = 1.2 L
3. T = 287 K
L atm
4. R = 0.082057
mol K
vi. Solution:
1. PV = nRT
nRT
2. P =
V
7.8 x 0.082057 x 287
3. P = 153.08 atm
1.2
b. What is the volume of a gas balloon filled with 3 moles of He when the atmospheric pressure
is 790 torr and the temperature is 30 °C?
c. Nitric acid, a very important industrial chemical, is made by dissolving the gas nitrogen dioxide
NO2 in water. Calculate the number of moles needed at 2 atm and 340 K.
Graham’s Law of Diffusion
The rates of effusion or diffusion of two different gases are inversely proportional to the square
roots of their molar masses
Diffusion is the movement of a fluid from an area of higher concentration to an area of
lower concentration.
Effusion is the escape of gas in its container
25
RgasA MgasB
=
RgasB MgasA
Where: R is the rate of diffusion of effusion of gas A or B
M is the molar mass of either gas A or gas B
The rates of diffusion of two gases is inversely proportional to the square roots of their densities
RgasA DgasB
=
RgasB DgasA
Where: R is the rate of diffusion of effusion of gas A or B
D is the density of either gas A or gas B
Example:
Complete the relative rates of H2 and CO2 through a fine pinhole.
Solution:
Molecular weight of H2 = 2 amu
Molecular weight of CO2 = 44 amu
NAME:__________________________________________ SCORE:_________
COURSE YEAR AND SCHED.______________________ DATE: _________
ACTIVITY 2.1
MATCHING TYPE Match Column I with Column II. Shade the circle that best corresponds to your
answer (one per number). Erasures and superimpositions will invalidate correct
answers.
26
A B C D E Column I Column II
O O O O O 1. Ag A. colloid
O O O O O 2. aluminum B. compound
O O O O O 3. baking soda C. element
O O O O O 4. distilled water D. solution
O O O O O 5. ice cream E. suspension
O O O O O 6. jelly
O O O O O 7. mineral water
O O O O O 8. peanut butter
O O O O O 9. styrofoam
O O O O O 10. table sugar
A B C Column I Column II
O O O 11. burning of a candle A. nuclear change
O O O 12. condensation of water vapor B. physical change
O O O 13. radioactive decay of uranium C. chemical change
O O O 14. cutting of diamonds
O O O 15. fireworks (pyrotechnics)
A B C D Column I Column II
O O O O 16. electronegativity A. chemical property
O O O O 17. flammability B. both
O O O O 18. temperature C. physical property
O O O O 19. volume D. neither A nor C
O O O O 20. acidity
A B C D E Column I Column II
O O O O O 21. thermal equilibrium A. Law of Conservation of Mass
O O O O O 22. conservation of energy B. Second Law of Thermodynamics
O O O O O 23. zero heat, maximum entropy (disorder) C. E = mc2
O O O O O 24. matter can’t be created D. Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
O O O O O 25. mass is converted to an amount of energy E. First Law of Thermodynamics
A B C D E Column I Column II
O O O O O 26. bird sitting on a tree branch A. kinetic to electrical energy
O O O O O 27. battery B. potential energy
O O O O O 28. mp3 file playing C. mechanical to thermal energy
O O O O O 29. nuclear explosion D. electrical to sound energy
O O O O O 30. friction in a roller coaster E. kinetic to radiant energy
PROBLEM SOLVING Show all derivations and solutions in detail for full credit of points.
Enclose/Emphasize all final answers at the end of every solution. Round off
final answers to 2 SD.
___________________1. A sample of a gas occupies 360 ml under a pressure of 0.75 atm. If the
volume is decreased to 56 ml, what is the final pressure, the temperature
remaining constant?
27
___________________2. A sample of a gas has a volume of 79.5 ml at -45 °C at 1 atm. What
volume will the sample occupy at -25 °C at 1 atm?
NAME:__________________________________________ SCORE:_________
COURSE YEAR AND SCHED.______________________ DATE: _________
ACTIVITY 2.2
1. Use the general gas law to find the volume of air exhaled under the following conditions:
P1 = 98 kPa P2 = 105 kPa
T1 = 25 C
0
T2 = 350C
28
V1 = 500 ml V2 = ?
Focus Questions:
1. Define ventilation. Explain how air moves in and out of the lungs, using the concept of
pressure.
2. What is meant by negative pressure in the lungs? How does intrapleural pressure prevent the
lungs from collapsing?
3. What is diffusion? Use your definition to account for the movement of gases to and from the
blood through the walls of the alveoli and capillaries? What factors will affect this process?
5. Explain the process by which oxygen is transported in the blood and released to the cells in
the body?
Atom
comes from the Greek word “atomos” which means “uncut” or “indivisible”
Atomic Theory
Scientists Contribution
29
Democritus He proposed that ‘matter is made up of tiny, indivisible atoms’.
Aristotle He did not accept the theory of Democritus.
He proposed the 4-element theory making up matter.
Daniel Bernoulli He attempted to explain the behavior of matter quantitatively;
John Dalton Dalton’s Atomic Theory may be summed up as follows:
An element is composed of extremely small, indivisible particles called atoms.
All atoms of a given element have identical properties that differ from those
of other elements.
Atoms cannot be created, destroyed, or transformed into atoms of another
element.
Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine with one
another in small whole-number ratios.
The relative numbers and kinds of atoms are constant in a given compound.
Atomic Models:
Scientists Contribution
Joseph Jon Thomson He discovered the electron using the cathode ray tube.
He named his atomic model as ‘raisin or plum pudding model’.
Wilhelm Konrad Roentgen He discovered the x-rays (penetrating rays without mass or charge)
using the cathode ray tube.
30
Robert Millikan He discovered the charge of an electron which is 1.60 x 10 -19 coulomb
using x-rays.
Eugen Goldstein He discovered the protons using the canal ray tube.
Sir James Chadwick He studied the alpha particles in beryllium, which lead to the discovery
of neutron.
Henri Becquerel He pioneered the study on radioactive rays together with Marie
Sklodowska Curie and Pierre Curie.
Ernest Rutherford He perceived the atom as a miniature solar system.
He used the alpha scattering apparatus leading to the discovery of the
nucleus.
alpha (α)
o +2, stopped by a thin sheet of paper, injure normal cells in
the body
Beta (β)
o -1, stopped by a 1 cm thick of aluminum foil, harmful to the
body
Gamma (γ)
o No charge, stopped by lead, cause mutations
Atomic particle Electrical charge (C) relative mass (amu) actual mass (g)
Electron -1 1/1837 9.110 x 10-29
(- 1.602 x 10-19)
31
Proton +1 1 1.673 x 10-24
(+ 1.602 x 10-19)
Neutron 0 1 1.675 x 10-24
Element A Z p e n
A 15 8
B 6 18
C 42 24
Nucleons
Name of the protons and neutrons inside the nucleus
Ions
Electrically charged atoms (positive and negative ions)
Isotopes
Atoms having different atomic weights or mass but of the same atomic number
32
Frederick Soddy
1 H 1.0078 99.985
2
2.0141 0.015 1.0079
1 H
3
1 H
3.0160 negligible
Carbon 12
6 C 12.00 98.89
13 12.011
6 C 13.003 1.11
Oxygen 16
8 O 15.995 99.759
17 15.999
8O 16.995 0.037
Chlorine 35
17 Cl 34.969 75.77
37 35.453
17 Cl 36.966 24.23
Separation of Isotopes
Centrifuge
Thermal diffusion
Electrolysis
Fractional distillation
Radioisotopes
Are artificial radioactive isotopes
Discovered by Irene and Frederic Joliot Curie
Are prepared by the bombardment of naturally occurring atoms
Radioisotopes Uses
1. Iodine – 131 Diagnostic testing of thyroid gland functions
33
Iodine – 123
2. Strontium – 90 Treatment of small lesions
3. Cobalt – 59 Radiation therapy of most tumors/cancerous cells
Cobalt - 60 Studying defects in vitamin B12 absorption
4. Thallium – 201 Myocardial imaging
Detection and prognosis of coronary artery disease
5. Chromium - 151 Determining the flow of blood through the heart
Important in the diagnoses of anemia
6. Boron - 10 Detection of malignant tumor cells in the brain
7. Fluorine – 18 Cardiac and brain imaging
8. Strontium-89 Relief of cancer-induced bone pain
Samarium 153
Rhenium-186
9. Phosphorus - 32 Controlling the excess Polycythemia vera, an excess of red blood
cells is produced in the bone marrow
10. Technetium - 99 Imaging the skeleton and heart muscle in particular, but also for
brain, thyroid, lungs (perfusion and ventilation), liver, spleen,
kidney (structure and filtration rate), gall bladder, bone marrow,
salivary and lacrimal glands, heart blood pool, infection and
numerous specialized medical studies
11. Bismuth - 213 Targeted alpha therapy (TAT), especially cancers
12. Copper – 64 Studying genetic diseases affecting copper metabolism, such as
Wilson's and Menke's diseases
13. Dysprosium - 165 Aggregated hydroxide for synovectomy treatment of arthritis
14. Holmium - 166 Diagnosis and treatment of liver tumors
15. Iron - 59 Studying of iron metabolism in the spleen
16. Selenium – 75 Inn the form of seleno-methionine for studying the production of
digestive enzymes
17. Sodium – 24 Studying of electrolytes within the body
18. Xenon – 133 Pulmonary (lung) ventilation studies
19. Ytterbium – 169 Cerebrospinal fluid studies in the brain
20. Yttrium – 90 Cancer brachytherapy and as silicate colloid for the relieving the
pain of arthritis in larger synovial joints
Source: James R. Fromm (jfromm@3rd1000.com); http://www.bookrags.com;
Radioisotopes in Medicine. World Nuclear Association (http://www.world-nuclear.org)
Quantum Theory
Study of the discrete nature of phenomena at the atomic and subatomic levels
Quanta – indivisible units of energy
Plank’s Theory
Max Plank (German)
Explained why spectra of radiation changes with the temperature
Photon – a quantum or packet of electromagnetic radiation
34
o Photoelectric effect – Einstein
o Compton effect – Arthur Compton
Energy level
Energy shell
Corresponds to the period of an element in the periodic table
A group of atomic orbitals that have the same value for (n), the principal quantum number
Sub-level
A division of an electron shell
An electron shell may hold two or more orbitals
1. s (sharp)
spherical shape
1 orbital (2 electrons)
2. p (principal)
dumbbell shaped
px, py, pz (3 orbitals) (6 electrons)
3. d (diffuse)
four-leaf clover, an hour glass and a ring
5 orbitals (10 electrons)
4. f (fundamental)
complex shapes
7 orbitals (14 electrons)
Valence electron
Electron found in the outermost shell in the ground state
Valence shell
The outermost energy level
Orbital
35
A region around the nucleus of an atom where an electron with a given energy is likely to be found
Quantum Numbers
1. principal quantum number (n)
o refers to the main energy levels
o K, L, M, N, O, P, Q
Example
1. 2p4
n = 2; l = 1; m = -1; s = +1/2
2. 3p3
n = 3; l = 1; m = +1; s = -1/2
3. 3d6
n = 3; l = 2; m = -2; s = +1/2
36
Electron Configuration
Orderly distribution of electrons among the orbitals of an atom
Mnemonic Device
Source: http://www.mpcfaculty.net/mark_bishop/memory_aid_e_config.jpg
Ground State
Lowest, most stable energy state of the atom
Aufbau Principle
German word “aufbaue” – to build up
Electrons are added one at a time to the lowest energy orbitals
Hund’s Rule
When electrons occupy orbitals of equal energy, one electron enters each orbital until all the
orbitals contain one electron with parallel spins
Second electrons then add to each orbital pairing the spins of the first electrons
37
1. A12
Orbital diagram: ____________________________________________________________
2. B23
Orbital diagram: ____________________________________________________________
3. C30
Orbital diagram: ____________________________________________________________
3. C67
Orbital diagram: ____________________________________________________________
3. C80
Orbital diagram: ____________________________________________________________
Valence Electron
Electrons in the outermost energy level
Determines the chemical properties of elements
38
o Octet Rule
Consists of the element’s symbol surrounding dots to represent the number of valence electrons
Examples:
Chemical Bonds
1. Ionic Bond
Transferring of electrons
Metal donates the electron to a non-metal
Metal + non-metal
Properties of Ionic Compounds
o Are solid with high melting point ( › 400°C)
o Are soluble in polar solvents
o Conduct electricity when in aqueous solution or in molten state
Examples:
Source: www.hcc.mnscu.edu/.../V.12/LiF_ionic_bond.jpg
2. Covalent Bond
Sharing of electrons
Non-metal + non-metal
o Single bond (H2O, CH4)
o Double bond (O2, CO2)
o Triple bond (N2)
Properties of Covalent Compounds
o Are usually gas, liquid or solid with low melting points ( < 300°C)
o Mostly are soluble in non-polar solvents
Examples:
a. Cl2 and H2
39
b. O2
c. N2
3. Metallic Bond
Is the force of attraction that holds metals together
Consists of the attraction of the free-floating valence electrons for the positively charged
metal ions
Explains many physical properties of metals
o Metals are good conductors of electricity
o Metals are ductile
o Metals are malleable
40
Cause the compound to exist in solid, liquid, or gas; and affect the melting and boiling points of
compounds as well as the solubility of one substance in another
Also called Van der Waals forces (Johannes van der Waals 1837-1923)
41
Activity 3.2
I. Fill-in the Blanks: Write the word or group of words on the blank to complete each
sentence.
1. Atom comes from the ________________ word ‘atomos’ which means uncut or
indivisible.
2. Daniel Bernoulli attempted to explain the behavior of matter
_______________.
3. _______________ is the study of the attraction of materials to charged
bodies.
4. JJ Thomson discovered the electron using _______________.
5. Goldstein used the _______________ in discovering proton.
6. Cations are ______________ charged ions.
7. The element hydrogen has _____________ isotopes.
8. The Swedish chemist, _______________, used the first one or two letters of
the name of the element for its chemical symbol.
9. _______________ is the Latin word for mercury.
10. _______________ proposed the particle-wave nature of matter.
III. Provide the (a) electronic configuration of the following elements. Illustrate the (b) orbital
diagram of the outermost configuration and determine its (c) set of quantum numbers. (30
pts)
1. A6 a) ______________________________________________________________________
b) ______________________________________________________________________
c) n = _____ l = _____ m = _____ s = _____
2. B10 a) ______________________________________________________________________
b) ______________________________________________________________________
c) n = _____ l = _____ m = _____ s = _____
3. C17 a) ______________________________________________________________________
b) ______________________________________________________________________
c) n = _____ l = _____ m = _____ s = _____
42
Name: _________________________ Date: __________________
Schedule: ______________________ Rating: _________________
Activity 3.3
Illustrate the Lewis Dot and Structural Formulas (Cationic kernels are underlined). Then identify the
type (and subtype, if applicable) of the chemical bond. Minimize erasures.
Ca(OH)2 KCN carbon tetrachloride
FormulaLewis Dot
FormulaStructural
43
UNIT IV: The Periodic Table
Chemical Symbols
Swedish chemist J.J. Berzellius (1779 – 1848) used the first one or two letters of the name
of the element
o C, H, O, N, S, I, Al, Br, Ca, Co, Si, Ti
Name of gods
o Thorium (Th)
o Vanadium (V)
44
Periodic Table
table of the chemical elements arranged to show patterns of recurring chemical and physical
properties
one way of arranging known elements and provides a possible way of determining elements yet to
be discovered
Henry Moseley He arranged the elements in order of atomic number giving rise to the
‘modern periodic table’.
Periodic Law
The physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic number
45
Name: _________________________ Date: __________________
Schedule: ______________________ Rating: _________________
Activity 4.1
1. Fr 6. Co 11. I 16. O
2. Hg 7. Ar 12. Ni 17. Os
3. W 8. Zn 13. B 18. Sn
4. Mg 9. Po 14. Ag 19. Y
5. C 10. K 15. As 20. U
Activity 4.2
Case Study:
46
Mrs. Anne Curtis is in her late 50’s. On admission she had a weight of 175Kg. She has a
history of adult-onset diabetes mellitus. She is in hospital recovering from a septic ulcer on her
left foot. A glucose tolerance test administered on admission indicated a level of glucose in the
blood of over 150mg/mL indicating loss of insulin control. One reason for this seems to be her
poor attention to diet. On her chart are the following information, placed there for reference
by student nurses:
Clinical note for Anne Curtis: Nursing care for this patient would involve continuous
hemoglobin, hematocrit, and urine ketones. Also, there may be a need to administer prescribed
regular insulin when serum glucose falls within the range of 250-800mg/dL.
1. Explain how Anne Curtis’ dietary treatment is helping to deal with her diabetes and her
obesity. Be specific in your discussion, referring to insulin, glucose, and the organic
molecules in her diet.
2. Anne Curtis is ordered 36 units of ‘Actfast’ insulin each morning and 18units each night.
What are the two volumes you would give if the 10mL vial contains 100U/mL.
Periodic Trends
47
Nuclear charge – the larger the nuclear charge,
the greater is the ionization energy
Shielding effect – the greater the shielding
effect, the less is the ionization energy
Atomic size – the bigger the atom, the lesser is
its ionization energy
Sub-energy level – an electron from a full or
half full sublevel requires additional energy to
be removed
Ionic radius Distance between the nuclei of two like atoms Family – increases
after gaining or losing electrons Period - decreases
48
Auto expel large amount of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbon, nitro-oxide, fine articles and sulfide, etc. All
these primary pollutants will form such secondary pollutants as actinological fume and acid disposition,
etc. Out of the pollutants, carbon monoxide can put people in a state of oxygen deficiency, and result in
chronicle intoxication with long time contact; hydrocarbon is the substance incurring cancer; and nitro-
oxide will do harm to respiratory system and immune system of human body. Lead pollution will be
brought about after petroleum-containing lead is burned and 85% of lead are let out into air. In the
past half century, amount of lead released into air after auto exhaustion has reached millions of tons,
which has become a pollution source globally. Lead will do harm to a lot of human organs and systems
such as deterioration of intelligence, kidney damnification, infertility and high blood pressure. Lead
pollution in air does the most harm to children. If amount of lead increases in children, it can result in
deterioration of intelligence, and impose negative impact on growth of children, even bring about some
diseases. According to some research, amount of lead in blood increases by 10gramma per deciliter, and
average IQ of children will decrease 2.5.
(Copyright 2007 Shanghai Municipal Government All Rights Reserved.)
49
Chemical Nomenclature
Steps in writing formulas:
1. Write the symbol of the positive particle or cation first before the symbol of the negative
particle or anion.
Example: Na+ Al3+ O2- F-
2. Criss-cross the valence numbers, disregarding the sign, so that the charge of the cation becomes
the subscript of the anion and the charge of the anion becomes the subscript of the cation.
Example: Na+ + F- K- + O2-
Na1 F1 K2O1
a. If the subscript is 1, it is no longer written.
Example: NaF K2O
b. If the subscript of both cation and anion are the same, omit writing the subscripts.
Example: Mg2+ + S2-
MgS
a. Old/traditional system
i. FeBr2 – ferrous bromide
ii. FeBr3 – ferric bromide
b. Stock system
i. FeBr2 – iron (II) bromide
ii. FeBr3 – iron (III) bromide
50
Fe3+ Iron (III) Ferric
Cu+ Copper (I) Cuprous
Cu2+ Copper (II) Cupric
Sn2+ Tin (II) Stannous
Sn4+ Tin (IV) Stannic
Pb2+ Lead (II) Plumbous
Pb4+ Lead (IV) Plumbic
Hg+ Mercury (!) Mercurous
Hg2+ Mercury (II) Mercuric
Au+ Gold (I) Aurous
Au2+ Gold (III) Auric
3. Binary acids
Non-oxygen acids
Use the prefix hydro followed by the anion and the word acid added at the end
o HCl – hydrochloric acid
o H2S – hydrosulfuric acid
4. Ternary compounds
Compounds containing more than two elements
Give first the name of the cation followed by the anion
o K2SO4 – potassium sulfate
o NH4NO3 – ammonium nitrate
5. Ternary acids
Oxyacids
-ite (ous ending)
-ate (ic ending)
o HNO2 – nitrous acid (hydrogen + nitrite)
o HNO3 – nitric acid (hydrogen + nitrate)
o HClO2 – chlorous acid (hydrogen + chlorite)
o HClO3 – chloric acid (hydrogen + chlorate)
51
Activity 5.1
Chemical Reactions
Symbols Meaning
Yield
52
Reversible reaction
Evolution of gas
Formation of precipitate
Δ Heat
(s) Solid state
(l) Liquid state
(aq) Aqueous solution
(+) Added to
(g) Gaseous state
Example: When silver oxide is heated, silver metal and oxygen gas are produced.
1. word equation: silver oxide silver metal + oxygen gas
2. skeleton equation: Ag2O Ag + O2
3. balanced equation: 2Ag2O 4Ag + O2
53
b. Non-metal + non-metal covalent compound
C + 2H2 CH4
c. Non-metal + oxygen non-metal oxide
C + O2 CO2
d. Metal oxide + water metal hydroxide (base)
K2O + H2O 2KOH
e. Non-metal oxide + water oxyacid
SO2 + H2O H2SO4
f. Metal oxide + non-metal oxide salt
Na2O + SO3 Na2SO4
2. Decomposition reaction
a. Hydrates yield water and anhydrous salt
i. CuSO4 · 5H2O CuSO4 + 5H2O
b. Chlorates when heated form metal chloride and oxygen gas
i. 2KClO3 KCl + H2O
c. Metal oxide when heated form the metal and oxygen gas
i. 2HgO 2Hg + O2
d. Carbonates when heated yield metal oxide and carbon dioxide
i. MgCO3 MgO + CO2
e. Bicarbonates when heated form metal oxide, water and carbon dioxide
i. 2NaHCO3 Na2O + 2CO2 + H2O
f. Electricity
i. 2H2O 2H2 + O2
3. Simple/single displacement
a. A + BC AC + B
b. AB + C AC + B
i. Mg + Zn (NO3)2 Mg(NO3)2 + Zn
ii. Mg + LiNO3 no reaction
4. Double displacement
a. AB + CD AD + CB
i. AgNO3 + HCl AgCl + HNO3
54
Source: www.avon-chemistry.com/ch9_chart11.jpg
Oxidation Number
55
The charge that atom would carry if the compound were composed of ions
Rules:
1. The oxidation number of a free and uncombined element whether monoatomic or diatomic is zero.
Thus, the atoms O2, N2, Cl2 have an oxidation number of 0.
2. The oxidation number of elements belonging to group IA, IIA, and IIIA is the same as their
valence. Thus, Na in NaCl has an oxidation number of +1, the oxidation number of Ba in BaO is +2
and oxidation number of Al is AlCl 3 is +3.
3. The oxidation of hydrogen is +1 when it is combined with a non-metal. Hydrogen is therefore in
the +1 oxidation state in CH4, NH3, H2O, and HCl.
4. The oxidation number of hydrogen is -1 when it is combined with a metal. Hydrogen is therefore
in the -1 oxidation state in LiH, NaH, CaH2.
5. The oxidation number of oxygen is -2 when it is combined oxygen. Thus the oxidation number of
oxygen in H2O, NaNO3 is -2.
6. The oxidation number of oxygen in peroxide is -1. Peroxides have a general formula R 2O2 (for
group IA) and R1O2 (for group IIA). Thus in H2O2 and CaO2 the oxidation number of oxygen is -1.
7. The sum of the oxidation number in a neutral compound is zero and equals the overall charge for
an ionic species.
56
(http://preparatorychemistry.com/Bishop_Balancing_Redox.htm)
Acidic Solutions: Cr2O7 (aq) + HNO2(aq) Cr (aq) + NO3 (aq)
2− 3+ −
57
Cr(OH)3 + H2O CrO42− + 5H+ + 3e-
ClO3 + 6H + 6e
− + −
Cl− + 3H2O
f. Make the number of electrons lost in the oxidation half-reaction equal to the number of
electrons gained in the reduction half-reaction.
2(Cr(OH)3 + H2O CrO42− + 5H+ + 3e−)
ClO3− + 6H+ + 6e− Cl− + 3H2O
2Cr(OH)3 + 2H2O 2CrO42− + 10H+ + 6e-
ClO3− + 6H+ + 6e− Cl− + 3H2O
g. Add the 2 half-reactions algebraically.
2Cr(OH)3 + ClO3- 2CrO42− + Cl− + H2O + 4H+
h. Add enough OH ions to each side of the equation to cancel the H+ ions.
−
molecule/s.
2Cr(OH)3 + ClO3− + 4OH 2CrO42− + Cl− + H2O + 4H2O
j. Cancel or combine the H2O molecules.
2Cr(OH)3 + ClO3− + 4OH− 2CrO42− + Cl− + 5H2O
k. Re-check to make sure that the number of atoms and the total charge on both side of the
equation are balanced.
58
Schedule: ______________________ Rating: _________________
Activity 5.2
MATCHING TYPE Match Column I with Column II. Shade the circle that best corresponds to
your answer (one per number). Erasures, superimpositions and alterations
will invalidate correct answers.
A B C D E Column I Column II
O O O 1. PbO + heat → A. O2 + PbO B. O2 + Pb C. Pb + O
O O O 2. HCl +NaOH → A. NaO + H2O B. NaClO + H2 C. NaCl + H2O
+Cl
O O O 3. Al + O2 → A. Al3O2 B. Al2O C. Al2O3
O O O 4. Zn + HCl → A. H2 + ZnCl2 B. H2 + ZnCl C. H + ZnCl
O O O 5. BaCl2 + AgNO3 A. AgCl + B. AgCl + C. AgCl2 + Ba(NO3)2
→ Ba(NO3)2 Ba2(NO3)
O O O O O 6. Na + H2O → F. metathesis
O O O O O 7. NaNO3 + heat → G.analysis
O O O O O 8. Na2SO4 + BaCl2 → H. single displacement
O O O O O 9. Na2O + H2O → I. synthesis
O O O O O 10. Xhalogen + YZ → Z + YX J. none
59
I. Indicate the oxidation number of the underlined elements in the following compounds. (10 pts)
BALANCING Using trial-and-error method, balance the following equations. Then choose
from the letters provided below and shade the circle that corresponds to your
answer (one per number). Erasures and superimpositions will invalidate correct
answers.
A=1 D=4 G=7 J = 10 or more
B=2 E=5 H=8
C=3 F=6 I=9
AB C D E F G H I J
O O O O O O O O O O 1.
O O O O O O O O O O 2. _1_S8 + _2_F2 → _3_SF6
O O O O O O O O O O3
AB C D E F G H I J
O O O O O O O O O O4
O O O O O O O O O O5 _4_S8 + _5_O3 → _6_SO2
O O O O O O O O O O 6
AB C D E F G H I J
O O O O O O O O O O 7
O O O O O O O O O O 8
_7_CaCl2 + _8_AgNO3 → _9_AgCl + _10_Ca(NO3)2
O O O O O O O O O O 9
O O O O O O O O O O 10
AB C D E F G H I J
O O O O O O O O O O 11
O O O O O O O O O O 12
_11_C2H6 + _12_O2 → _13_CO2 + _14_H2O
O O O O O O O O O O 13
O O O O O O O O O O 14
AB C D E F G H I J
O O O O O O O O O O 15
O O O O O O O O O O 16
O O O O O O O O O O 17
_15_FeTiO3 + _16_C + _17_Cl2 → _18_FeCl3 + _19_TiCl4 + _20_CO2
O O O O O O O O O O 18
O O O O O O O O O O 19
O O O O O O O O O O 20
UNIT VI: Stoichiometry
Atomic mass
60
o Mass of an atom
o Total mass of protons, electrons and neutrons in an atom
Atomic weight/relative atomic mass
o The average of the atomic masses of all the chemical element's isotopes
o H = 1 g/mole
o O = 16 g/mole
Molecular weight (MW)
o Also called formula weight
o Sum of all the atomic weight of all the atoms in a molecule
o NaCl: Na: 1 x 23 = 23 g/mole
Cl: 1 x 35 = 35 g/mole
58 g/mole
MOLE
Refers to the measure of the amount of particles in matter
Called the “chemist’s dozen”
SI unit for the amount of substance
1 mole of particles = 6.02 x 1023 particles (Avogadro’s number)
o 1 mole of O = 6.02 x 1023 atoms
o 1 mole of NaCl = 6.02 x 1023 molecules
number of atoms
Number of moles =
Avogadro ' s Number
Number Of Molecules
Number of moles =
Avogadro ' s Number
Weight In Grams Of A Subs tan ce
Number of moles =
Molecular Weight Of A Subs tan ce
Sample Problems:
1. How many moles are 3.40 x 1024 atoms of oxygen?
number of atoms
No. of moles =
Avogadro ' s Number
= 3.40 x 1024 atoms
6.02 x 1023 atoms/mole
No. of moles = 5.65 moles of O
61
18 g/mole
No. of moles = 65 grams
18 g/mole
No. of moles = 3.61 moles of H2O
Percentage Composition
This is the relative measure of the mass of each element found in the compound
Sample Problems:
1. Compute for the percentage composition of the compound formed from the reaction of 45 grams of Na
and 34 grams of Cl.
Mass of the Compound = 45 grams Na + 34 grams Cl
Mass of the Compound = 79 grams
45 grams 34 grams
Na = x 100 Cl = x 100
79 grams 79 grams
= 56.96% = 43.04%
Empirical Formula
Gives the lowest whole number ratio of elements in a compound
Example: benzene (C6H6) has a ratio of 6:6 or 1:1; therefore the empirical formula is CH
Sample Problems:
1. Find the empirical formula of a compound that is 48.38% carbon, 8.12% hydrogen, and 43.5% oxygen
by mass.
62
a. Get the mass of each element by assuming a certain overall mass for the sample (100 g) .
C = 48.38% = 48.38 g
H = 8.12% = 8.12 g
O = 43.50% = 43.50 g
100.00 g
b. Convert the mass of each element to moles of each element using their atomic masses.
C = (48.38 g) (1 mol/12 g) = 4.03 mol C
H = (8.12 g) (1 mol/1 g) = 8.12 mol H
O = (43.50 g) (1 mol/16 g) = 2.72 mol O
c. Find the ratio of each element by dividing the number of moles of each by the smallest
number of moles.
C = (4.03/2.72) = 1.48 ≈ 1.50
H = (8.12/2.72) = 2.99 ≈ 3
O = (2.72 /2.72) = 1
d. Use the mole ratio to write the empirical formula. (because not all the answers are whole
numbers, multiply the ratios by a number to make them whole).
C = 1.50 mol x 2 = 3
H = 3 mol x 2 = 6
O = 1 mol x 2 = 2
Empirical Formula: C3H6O2
2. Calculate the empirical formula of a compound composed of 4.5 g of carbon and 1.5 g of hydrogen.
a. Compute for the number of moles using the atomic mass of each element.
C = (4.5 g) (1 mol/12g) = .0375 mol C
H = (1.5 g) (1 mol/1g) = 1.5 mol H
b. Find the ratio of each element by dividing the number of moles of each by the smallest
number of moles.
C = (0.375/.0375) = 1
H = (1.5/0.375) = 4
c. Use the mole ratio to write the empirical formula.
Empirical formula = CH4
Molecular Formula
Gives the actual formula of a compound
Could either be the same as the empirical formula or be a whole-number multiple of the empirical
formula
Example: C6H6 is the molecular formula of the empirical formula CH
Sample Problems:
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1. The empirical formula for vitamin C is C3H4O3. Based from an experimental data, the molecular mass
of vitamin C is about 180 g/mole. What is the molecular formula of vitamin C?
a. Divide the molecular weight by the empirical formula weight to find a multiple or factor.
Molecular weight = 180 g/mole
EF weight of C3H4O3 = (3 x 12 g/mole) + (4 x 1 g/mole) + (3 x 16 g/mole) = 88 g/mole
Molecular Weight
Factor/Multiple =
Empirical Formula Weight
Factor/Multiple = 180 g/mole
88 g/mole
Factor/Multiple = 2
b. Multiply the subscript of the empirical formula with the factor or multiple.
(C3H4O3)2 = C3x2 H4x2 O3x2
MF: C6H8O6
2. A compound is composed of 40.00% C, 6.72% H, and 53.29% O; and has a molecular weight of 180
g/mol. Compute its molecular formula.
a. Find the empirical formula of the compound.
C = 40.00% = 40.00 g
H = 6.72% = 6.72 g
O = 53.28% = 53.28 g
100.00 g
C = (40.00 g) (1 mol/12 g) = 3.33 mol C
H = (6.72 g) (1 mol/1 g) = 6.72 mol H
O = (53.28 g) (1 mol/16 g) = 3.33 mol O
C = (3.33/3.33) = 1
H = (6.72/3.33) = 2
O = (3.33 /3.33) = 1
EF: CH2O
b. Divide the molecular weight by the empirical formula weight to find a multiple or factor.
Molecular weight = 180 g/mole
EF weight of CH2O = 12 g/mole + 2 g/mole + 16 g/mole= 30 g/mole
Molecular Weight
Factor/Multiple =
Empirical Formula Weight
Factor/Multiple = 180 g/mole
30 g/mole
Factor/Multiple = 6
c. Multiply the subscript of the empirical formula with the factor or multiple.
(CH2O)6 = C1x6 H2x6 O1x6
MF: C6H12O6
Stoichiometry
the quantitative description of the relationships between reactants and between reactants and
products in a chemical reaction
64
b. Determine the mole relationship between the given component and the required component.
Relative moles (from the equation): 1 mole N2 = 2 moles NH3
Given moles (from the problem): 4 moles N2 = X moles NH3
c. Form the proportion of the given and required components. Then solve for the unknown.
Given mole N2 = Given mole NH3
Rel. mole N2 Rel. mole NH3
4 moles N2 = X moles H2
1 mole N2 3 moles H2
X = 12 moles H2
nRT
V=
P
65
= (40 moles) (0.0821 L-atm/mol-K) (300 K) = 985.20 L NH3
1 atm
b. Compute for the moles of the given component using its mass.
MW H2: 2 x 1 g/mole = 2 g/mole H2
10 g H2 x 1 mol H2 = 5 moles H2
2 g H2
c. Convert the moles of the given component to moles of the requested component using the
coefficients of the balanced equation.
3 moles H2 = 2 moles NH3
5 moles H2 x 2 moles NH3 = 3.33 moles NH3
3 moles H2
d. Convert moles of the requested component to its mass.
MW NH3: N = 1 x 14 = 14 g/mole
H=3x1 = 3 g/mole
17 g/mole
c. Convert the moles of the given component to moles of the requested component using the
balanced equation.
1 moles N2 = 3 moles H2
2 moles N2 x 3 moles H2 = 6 moles H2
1 mole N2
d. Convert moles of the requested component to its volume using the Ideal Gas Law Equation.
PV = nRT
nRT
V=
P
66
= (6 moles H2) (0.0821 L-atm/mol-K) (300 K) = 49.26 L H2
3 atm
b. Convert the volume of the given component to liters of the required component using the
coefficients of the balanced equation.
1 liter N2 = 2 liters NH3
10 liters N2 x 2 liters NH3 = 20 liters NH3
1 liter N2
Acutal Yield
Percent Yield = x 100
Theoretica l Yield
Example:
1. What is the percent yield for a reaction if you predict the formation of 21 grams of C 6H12 and actually
recovered only 3.8 grams?
Acutal Yield
Percent Yield = x 100
Theoretica l Yield
= 3.8 grams x 100
21 grams
Percent Yield = 18.10%
2. When 10 grams of methane in an excess of oxygen is burned, 19.8 grams of water is produced. What is
the percent yield of water?
a. Balance the equation.
CH4 + 2O2 -> CO2 + 2H2O
b. Convert the mass of the given component to moles using the balanced equation.
MWCH4: C = 1 x 12 g/mole = 12 g/mole
H = 4 x 1 g/mole = 4 g/mole
16 g/mole
67
16 g CH4
c. Form the proportion of the given and required components. Then solve for the unknown.
1 mole CH4 = 2 moles H2O
d. Convert the computed number of moles to mass of the required component to get the
theoretical yield.
MW H2O: H = 2 x 1 g/mole = 2 g/mole
O = 1 x 16 g/mole = 16 g/mole
18 g/mole
1.25 moles H2O x 18 g H2O = 22.5 grams H2O
1 mole H2O
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___________________13. How many moles are there in 1.269 X 1024 molecules of NaNO3?
___________________16. How many particles are there in 1.38 mol CuSO4 · NH4NO3 · 12 H2O ?
III. Identify / Solve the following items in this hydrate, FeSO4 · 6 H2O. (Show derivation of % composition of each
component at the back of this sheet.)
Components No. of Atoms Atomic Mass Relative Mass % Composition
1. The MW of cholesterol is 386.73 g/mol and the compound contains 83.9 % C, 12.0 % H and the
remaining is oxygen.
___________________a. Compute for the mole ratio of C.
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___________________c. Compute for the mole ratio of O.
2. When 6.65 g of the hydrate NiSO 4 · XH2O was heated in a vacuum, the water was driven off and
3.67 g of anhydrous NiSO4 remained.
___________________a. Calculate the number of moles of NiSO4.
3. In a convenient laboratory preparation of pure nitrogen gas, NaN 3 decomposes to Na and N2 upon
heating.
___________________a. Write a balanced equation.
Activity 6.3
1. The acid secreted by the cells of the stomach lining is a hydrochloric acid solution that typically
contains 0.282 g of HCl per 50.00mL of solution. What is the concentration of this acid?
2. A sample of tin having a mass of 3.996 grams was oxidized and found to have combined with 1.077
grams of oxygen. Calculate the empirical formula of this oxide of tin.
70
3. Dibutyl succinate is an insect repellant used against household ants and roaches. Its composition is
62.58% C, 9.63% H and 27.79% O. Its composition experimentally determined molecular mass is
230amu. What are the empirical and molecular formulas of dibutyl succinate?
4. Fructose is a very sweet naturally occurring sugar present in honey, fruits, and fruit juices. It has
a molar mass of 180.1 g/mol and a composition of 40.0% C, 6.7% H, and 53.3% O. Calculate the
molecular formula of fructose.
Solution
A homogenous mixture of two or more substances in which settling does not occur
A homogenous mixture in which one substance is dissolved in another substance
o Solvent – the substance that does the dissolving
o Solute – the substance that is dissolved
Types of Solutions
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Gas Liquid Moist air
Gas Solid Soot in air
Liquid Liquid Solid Brine, syrup
Liquid Liquid Alcohol in water, vinegar
Liquid Gas Carbonated beverages
Solid Solid Solid Copper in nickel, brass, steel
Solid Liquid Mercury in water
Solid Gas Hydrogen dissolved in platinum metal
Source: Interactive Chemistry by Aurora Franco, et. al. 2000: 208)
Rate of Solution
agitating or stirring the solution
heating the solute
powdering the solid solute
Solubility
measures of how much of that solute can be dissolved in a given amount of solvent under certain
conditions
Concentration of Solution
Refers to the amount of solute dissolved in a certain amount of solvent
Concentrated solution – much of solute is dissolved in a solvent
saturated solution
o solution that has dissolved the maximum amount of solute for a given amount of
solvent at a given temperature
unsaturated solution
o solution that contains less solute than it can hold at a certain temperature and
pressure
supersaturated solution
o solution that can hold more solute than that which is normal for that temperature
72
Expressing Concentrations
1. Percent by mass
mass of solute
% by mass = x 100%
mass of solution
a. A bottle of a certain ceramics tile cleanser which is a solution of hydrogen chloride, contains 130
g HCl and 750 g of H2O. What is the % by mass of HCl in this cleanser?
b. A sample of 0.892 g of potassium chloride is dissolved in 54.6 g of water. What is the percent by
mass of KCl in this solution?
2. Percent by volume
volume of solute
% by volume = x 100%
volume of solution
a. What is the percent by volume of ethanol in the final solution when 75 mL of ethanol is
diluted to a volume of 250 mL of water?
b. What is the percent by volume of acetic acid in a fiscal volume when 75 mL of acetic acid
is diluted to a volume of 250 mL of water?
3. Molarity (M)
moles of solute
Molarity (M) =
liter of solution
mass of solute
Molarity (M) =
MWsolute X Vsolution
73
b. Calculate the molarity of the solution containing 10 grams of sulfuric acid in 500 mL of
solution.
Given: mass of solute = 10 g H2SO4
Volume of solution = 500 mL (0.500 L)
MW of H2SO4 = 98 g/mole
Answer: 0.204 M
4. Molality (m)
moles of solute
Molality =
ki log ram of solvent
mass of solute
Molality =
MWsolute X Ksolvent
a. 2.3 grams of ethanol is added to 500 grams of water. Determine the molality of the resulting
solution.
b. Determine the mass of water to which 293 grams of NaCl is added to obtain a 0.25 molal solution.
5. Normality (N)
mass of solute
N=
Eq x Lsolution
MW of solute
Equivalent weight =
Factor (F )
Eq
N = molarity x
mole
74
Ba (OH)2; F = 2
**Calculate the normality of a solution containing 2.45 grams of H2SO4 in 2 liters of solution?
Given: mass of H2SO4 = 2.45 grams
Volume of solution = 2 liters
MW of the solution = 98 g/mol
Required: Normality of the solution
Solution: Equivalent weight of H2SO4 = (98/2) = 49 g/mol
N = [2.45/(49 x 2)] = 0.025 normal
**How many grams of sulfuric acid are contained in 3 liters of 0.500 N solution?
Given: Volume of solution = 2 liters
MW of the solution = 98 g/mol
N = 0.500 normal
Required: mass of solute
Solution: Equivalent weight of H2SO4 = (98/2) = 49 g/mol
Mass of solute = (0.5 x 49 x 3)] = 73.5 g
Activity 7.1
A Ca(OH)2 solution has a density of 0.55 g/ml and weighs 50 g. It is prepared from 23 grams of
Ca(OH)2. Solve for:
____________________a. molarity
____________________b. normality
75
____________________c. molality
____________________f. % by volume of solvent if the volume and weight of the solvent are equal in
value
5. If the solute weighs 183.72 g, what volume, in liters, of the following compounds should be used to
prepare:
____________________a. 12.65 M of NaOH
Activity 7.2
1. Sam is a nursing student. He has been asked to intravenously inject his patient with 10cc
of an isotonic preparation. Mistakenly, he injected his patient with pure water. What is
likely to happen to the red blood cells near the site of injection?
76
2. Anne is Sam’s patient. She was carefully watching him fill an IV bottle with a mixture
specially ordered by the physician. She noticed that he accidentally filled the bottle with
concentrated (10%) NaCl solution instead of the mixture from the pharmacy. Why should
she refuse to allow Sam to attach the IV bottle to her system?
3. Sam is now assigned to the surgical unit. He is given a piece of a living tissue and asked to
put it in a fluid before taking the sample to the pathology laboratory. What essential
characteristics must such fluid have in order not to damage the tissue?
pH
The rough measure of the acidity of a solution. The p stands for “potenz” which means the
potential to be and the H stands for Hydrogen.
Denotes negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration.
is divided into fourteen units
7 is neutral
Basic solution has a ph> 7
Acidic solution has pH < 7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
pH = - log [H+]
77
pOH = - log [OH-]
Kw = 1.0 x 10-14 = [H+][OH-]
If we take the negative logarithm of both sides of the equilibrium expression, it becomes,
-log Kw = -log ([H+][OH-])
-log Kw = -log [H+] + –log [OH-]
-log 1.0 x 10-14 = -log [H+] + – log [OH-]
14 = pH + pOH
Calculation of pH
1. Calculate the pH of a solution in which the H+ concentration is 0.070 mol/L.
a. [H+] = 0.070 M = 7.0 x 10-2 M
b. pH = -log [H+] = -log [7.0 x 10-2] = 1.15
2. Compute for the pH of a solution that contains 3.65 g of HCl in 2.00 L of solution.
a. Molarity = number of moles of solute
number of liters of solution
? molHCl 3.65 gHCl 1molHCl
= x = 0.0500 mol HCl/L or 0.0500 M
Lsolution 2.00 Lsolution 36.5 gHCl
b. [H+] = 0.0500 M = 5.0 x 10-2 M
c. pH = -log [H+] = -log [5.0 x 10-2] = 1.30
3. The pH of a solution if 3.301. What is the concentration of H+ in this solution?
a. pH = -log [H+]
b. 3.301 = -log [H+]
c. -3.301 = log [H+]
d. antilog -3.301 = H+
e. H+ = 5.00 x 10-4 M
Calculation of pOH
1. Calculate [H+], pH, [OH-1], and pOH for a 0.015 M HNO3 solution.
a. [H+] = 0.015 M (because it is an acid)
b. pH = - log [H+] = -log [0.015] = 1.82
c. pH + pOH = 14.00
d. pOH = 14.00 – pH = 14.00 – 1.82 = 12.18
e. [H+] [OH-] = 1.0 x 10-14
f. [OH-] = (1.0 x 10-14) ÷ [H+] = (1.0 x 10-14) ÷ 0.015 = 6.7 x 10-13 M
2. Calculate [H+], pH, [OH-1], and pOH for a 0.015 M Ca(OH)2 solution.
a. [OH-] = 2 x 0.015 M = 0.030 M
b. pOH = -log [OH-] = -log (0.030) = 1.52
c. pH + pOH = 14.00
d. pH = 14.00 – pOH = 14.00 – 1.52 = 12.48
e. [H+] [OH-] = 1.0 x 10-14
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f. [H+] = (1.0 x 10-14) ÷ [OH-] = (1.0 x 10-14) ÷ 0.030 = 3.3 x 10-13 M
Activity 7.3
A. Solve for the H+, OH-, pH, and pOH values. (20 pts)
79
B. Calculate the following values for each solution. (24 pts)
H+ pH OH- pOH
2.36
11.32
10.78
7.21
3.58
4.97
12.43
4.65
C. The normal pH of Human Blood ranges from 7.35 to 7.45. Calculate the concentrations of H3O+
and OH- ions in human blood that has a pH of 7.45.
Vapor Pressure
the pressure of the vapor resulting from evaporation above a sample in a closed container
the rate of condensation of the gas becomes equal to the rate of evaporation of the liquid or solid
Raoult’s Law
o The vapor pressure of a volatile or of an ideal solution is dependent on the vapor pressure of
each component and the mole faction of the component present in the solution.
o Vapor Pressure of Solution = (Mole Fraction of solvent) (Vapor Pressure of Pure Solvent)
number of moles of solvent
o Mole Fraction of a solvent =
total number of moles of solution and of solvent
Example:
Determine the vapor pressure of a solution at 25 °C that has 45 grams of glucose dissolved in 72 grams of
water. The vapor pressure of pure water at 25 °C is 23.8 torr.
a. Compute the number of moles of the substance/solute by using its mass.
MWglucose: C = 6 x 12 = 72 g/mole
H = 12 x 1 = 12 g/mole
O = 6 x 16 = 96 g/mole
180 g/mole
45 grams x 1mole C6H12O6 = 0.25 mole
180 grams C6H12O6
80
b. Compute the number of moles of the solvent by using its mass.
MWH2O: 18 g/mole
72 grams x 1 mole H2O = 4 moles
18 grams H2O
c. Determine the mole fraction of the solute
number of moles of solvent
Mole fraction of solvent=
total number of moles of solution and of solvent
= ________4 moles H2O
0.25 moles C6H12O6 + 4 moles H2O
Mole fraction of solvent = 0.94
Example:
Compute the freezing point of a solution of 90 grams of glucose dissolved in 750 grams of water. The K f
of water is -1.86 °C/m. The freezing point of pure water is 0 °C.
a. Compute the number of moles of the substance/solute by using its mass.
MWglucose: C = 6 x 12 = 72 g/mole
H = 12 x 1 = 12 g/mole
O = 6 x 16 = 96 g/mole
180 g/mole
90 grams x 1mole C6H12O6 = 0.5 mole
180 grams C6H12O6
81
m = 0.67 m
d. Compute the freezing point of solution.
ΔTf = Kfm
= (-1.86 °C/m) (0.67 m)
ΔTf = -1.25 °C
Example:
The normal boiling point of benzene is 80.1 oC. It has a boiling point elevation constant of 2.53 oC/m. If we
make up a 0.5 molal solution of Br2 in benzene, what is the boiling point of the mixture?
ΔTb = Kbm
= (2.53 °C/m) (0.5 m)
ΔTb = 1.27 °C
Osmotic Pressure
Osmosis is the diffusion of small particles through a semi-permeable membrane
Osmotic pressure is a hydrostatic pressure produced by the difference of solute concentration on the
opposite sides of the semi-permeable membrane
π = MRT where: π = osmotic pressure
M = molarity of the solution
R = gas constant (0.08205 L-atm/mole-K)
T = temperature in Kelvin
Example:
What is the osmotic pressure of a sugar solution that contains 100 grams of sucrose C 12H22O11 which is
dissolved in water to make 1 liter of solution at 25 °C?
a. Compute the number of moles of the substance/solute by using its mass.
MWsucrose: C = 12 x 12 = 144 g/mole
H = 22 x 1 = 22 g/mole
O = 11 x 16 = 176 g/mole
82
342 g/mole
Activity 7.4
2. What mass of urea [CO (NH2)2] would you dissolve in 225 mL of solution to obtain an osmotic
pressure of 0.015 atm at 25 °C?
3. What is the a) Molality, b) Freezing point, and c) Boiling point of a solution containing 2.68 g of
Naphthalene (C10H8) in 18.4 of Benzene (C6H6)?
4. The freezing point of a solution of 8.00 g of an unknown compound dissolved in 60.0 g of acetic
acid if 13.2 0C. Calculate the molar mass of the compound.
5. A solution is prepared by dissolving 6.85 g of ordinary sugar (sucrose, C 12H22O11, 34 g/mol) in 34.0
g of water. Calculate the boiling point of the solution.
83
6. Sucrose is a non volatile, non-ionizing solute in water. Determine the vapour pressure lowering at
25 °C, of the 1.25 molal sucrose solution. Assume that the solution behaves ideally. The vapour
pressure of pure water at 25 °C is 23.8 torr.
7. Calculate the (a) lowering of the vapour pressure and (b) the vapour pressure of a solution
prepared by dissolving 25.5 g of Naphthalene, C 10H8 ( a non-volatile electrolyte) in 150.0 g of
Benzene C6H6 at 20 °C. Assume that the solution is ideal. The vapour pressure of pure benzene is
74.6 torr at 20 °C.
84