Fire Protection

Institut für Sicherheitstechnik/
Schiffssicherheit e.V.
- ISV –
Fireprotection on Sea-going Ships
Handout
Rostock-
Rostock-Warnemünde
www.schiffssicherheit.de
isv@schiffssicherheit.de
Basics of Combustion
A fire is an unchecked burning outside of a special

place. It can be caused intentional, negligent or by other
not predictable circumstances. The emergence,
development and spreading of a fire is a complex
chemical and physical process whose course is always
bound to a combustible system.
Fireprotection on Sea-going Ships – Basics of Combustion
Requirements for a fire to develop are:
a combustible material
oxygen
heat
If these three requirements are present,

there is a combustible system.
The so-called fire-triangle illustrates in a
simplified way the three requirements
which must be present to start a fire.
Combustible gases burn after being mixed with oxygen and being heated.
If liquid and solid combustible substances are heated, gases will develop by vaporisation
or gasification, respectively.
These gases get into contact with the oxygen in the air. They start burning if the
temperature in the intermixture area above theses substances reaches a certain limit.
A combustion can be stopped by 'opening the fire triangle' i.e. one of the three
requirements to cause and sustain a fire is removed.
The fire triangle can be opened by:

cooling
stop of the air inflow
preventing the oxygen from sustained inflow
Several factors must cooperate, before it can come to the emergence of a fire:
the combustible system. It develops with the presence of oxygen
and combustible material.
sufficient high temperatures. They cause an ignition of the system.
Further influences, e.g. wind, effect the process of the fire.
Combustible materials are gaseous, liquid or solid. They can burn if they are
mixed or get into contact with air/oxygen and are heated.
Combustible materials in ship operation are for example:

paraffin, diesel, heavy oil, petrol, spirit
solvents
technical gases
other materials like: synthetic materials (plastics, rubber), wood, paper.
Combustible materials are classed into classes of fire.

Oxygen is a necessary requirement to sustain a combustion.

It is the oxidation agent.
Oxygen is not inflammable. Without oxygen however no combustion is possible.

Chemical reactions of oxygen with other materials are called oxidation. At ambient
temperature the oxidations (e.g. breathing, fermenting and rusting) run off usually
slowly, without any fire feature and with only small heat development.
Normal air in our surrounding consists of approx. 20.9% oxygen.

Most combustible materials need a minimum oxygen concentration of 14 Volume%
to burn. Thus for each fire, which does not develop at a hermetic closed place,
theoretically sufficient oxygen is available.
Preventing the oxygen from a sustained inflow is a possible way to stop the
combustion.
The ignition temperature is the lowest temperature at which a material only just
ignites in absence of a pilot flame.
At the ignition temperature an inflammable gas mixture starts to burn automatically

without any ignition source. Since the ignition temperature of a certain material
depends on different boundary conditions, its value can be indicated only in
temperature ranges.
The ignition temperature is affected for example by:
the duration of the heating up
the oxygen content of the ambient air
the relationship surface to mass
the moisture content of the material.
Examples for the ignition temperatures of several materials:

petrol 240 - 500°C
diesel 500 - 550°C
paper 180 - 360°C
wood 220 - 320°C
The process of combustion varies a lot depending on the concrete conditions

within the combustible system.
There are five kinds of combustion.

They are classed according to the burning velocity. During a smouldering fire there is
the lowest burning velocity. During a detonation there is the highest burning velocity.
During a smouldering fire the temperature hardly rises. Fumes with a high share
of highly toxical gases are emitted because the combustion develops although there
is a lack of oxygen.
Areas where smouldering fires are developing must not be

entered without breathing apparatus. A distinctive feature
of a smouldering fire is a possible slight decrease of the
room temperature in an early stage of the development of
the fire because the energy necessary to sustain the
combustion is drawn from the surroundings.
Only during the further development of the fire the room
temperature increases slightly. However, this increase is
not sufficient to trigger fire detectors.
If oxygen is applied, the smouldering fire can develop into

an open fire and the released gases might ignite.
A popping might occur.
A distinctive feature, especially during the first stage of the

development of an open fire, is the highly visible flame.
The larger the area on fire is, the higher is the flame.
Open fires cause a rapid increase in temperature in a confined
room.
Combustible liquids burn while frequently developing fumes
containing a large part of soot. (During the burning of one litre of
diesel, for example, 10 cubic metres of fumes develop.)
Therefore the visibility is considerably reduced.
A distinctive feature of an open fire is the flame. The flame is a
gaseous chemical reaction. The flame can propagate spatially.
The combustible material and the oxidation agent may vary.
The actual chemical process takes place in the core of the flame
and is invisible.
The shining of the flame develops due to glowing products of the
chemical reaction (soot) in the outer flame zone. The intensity of
the shining depends on the ratio of carbon and hydrogen to the
oxygen contents of the burning material.
The popping is the rapid combustion (approximately

10 m/s) of an amount of gas which has spread
throughout a room nearly evenly and is lit by a source
of ignition.
The rapid combustion causes an increase in volume which then

leads to an increase in pressure (approximately 0.01 Mpa) within
the confined space.
During a popping the combustion is very rapid. There is a slight
increase in pressure and a noise.
The popping will occur if the concentration of the mixture is
within the explosion range.
An explosion is a sudden chemical reaction in mixtures

or atmospheres capable of exploding, unless the
reaction occurs as an detonation.
An explosion posses a very high burning velocity (as high

as 100 m/s).
An explosion can only occur within a particular range of
the ratio of the amount of the present combustible material
and the oxygen contents of the air, i.e. if the material-air-
mixture is within the explosion range (between the upper
and the lower explosion limit). The explosion limits
depend on the substance.
It is a demanding and difficult task to assess the actual
danger of an explosion without support by measuring
apparatus.
The probability of an explosion to occur in a fuel tank is
low because the necessary share of oxygen is missing.
A detonation is a bursting into flames

which is triggered off by a shock wave.
After that the flames propagate with a
velocity of some km/s together with the
shock wave.
During a detonation the air within the shock

wave is compressed that heavily that very
high temperatures occur.
During a combustion the combustible material is vapourised or gasefied,

respectively by application of heat. The conditions for a fire to be started develop in
the mixture area.
The actual combustion takes place in a thin

layer above the mixture area, the so-called
burning zone. It should be kept in mind
that under certain conditions the burning
velocity can increase very much.
Therefore a considerable increase in
pressure can occur in confined spaces.
Depending on the increase in pressure
there are:
poppings
explosions
detonations.
The flame is the area where hot soot particles and

flame colour
gases are present. The flame produces visible
flame temperature
radiation. During an explosion and a detonation the
flame appears as a flame front.
Every crew member must be able to realise the distinctive flame

features of a flame. This can be helpful for him in height
describing the fire and taking actions to combat the fire.
The flame can be described by the following features:
flame temperature
flame colour
flame height
fire diameter
burning velocity
The flame height is approximately three times as tall as flame
the diameter of the area on fire. ( h = 3 x d ) diameter
The flame temperature depends on the energy contents of
the burning material.
The heat emitted by a combustion travels upward

with a speed of approximately 0.5 to 1 m/s.
Thus, after a few seconds the heat spreads in the
upper area of a confined space.
The stream of heat conduction increases in proportion

to the area on fire. The larger the area on fire is, the
larger is the stream of heat conduction. Every action to
reduce the combustible area reduces the destructive
effects of the fire.
The stream of heat conduction (Φ) depends on:
the burning material (HU),
the burning rate (vAB)
the area on fire (AFL).
Φ = HU * AFL * vAB
A fire develops hot gases which travel

upward to the ceiling of the room.
There they extend and can be ignited.
Thus, the dangerous area shifts from the actual

seat of fire to the area immediately beneath
the ceiling. Above all, the heat gathered
beneath the ceiling causes a further emission
of more combustible gases in this area. But
these gases do not burn or burn only
incompletely because of the lack of oxygen.
If oxygen is applied by opening windows and

doors, the fire will spread with explosion-like
force. The fast ignition of the hot flue gases
under the ceiling is called flashover.
Every fire is accompanied by concomitants whose effects vary depending on the

kind of combustion.
But in any case, they are dangerous to the crew member who discovers the fire, takes
action to combat the fire and has to combat the fire.
The three most important effects are:
the rise of temperature

the increase in toxicity
the reduction of the visibility.
Every fire causes a distinctive

development of different temperatures
in different areas within the space at
risk. This development is decisively
determined by the stream of heat
conduction travelling upward from the
seat of fire. In addition, the shape of the
room and the ventilation system
influences the development of the room
temperature.
The stream of heat conduction depends on:

the area on fire
the burning material and
the burning rate.
During a fire, gaseous waste products

are produced.
Most of them are toxic.
Even small concentrations of these
toxic fumes limit the fire-fighters'
ability to act properly or can even
cause their death.
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Carbon monoxide is a toxic and malicious gas because it has neither a colour nor a
smell and it does not trigger off any difficulty in breathing. An acute poisoning
manifests itself first by euphoria or apathy respectively, then by headache and
dizziness, unconsciousness and finally leads to death.
More people die from breathing in carbon monoxide or from smoke poisoning than
from the effects of injuries caused by burns. Carbon monoxide prevents a sufficient
transport of oxygen within the human body which leads to suffocation.
A large amount of the carbon monoxide in the atmosphere results from the metabolism
of algae in the oceans. The most important source regarding the toxic consequences is
the uncompleted combustion of carbon and carbon-containing compounds in
incineration facilities and engines.
Carbon monoxide is a little lighter than air.
A concentration of approx. 0.3 Vol% results in death.

Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Carbon dioxide is a colourless gas which tastes a little sour and which also has a
slightly sour smell. It is heavier than air and chemically stable. Carbon dioxide is not
combustible. It can be dissolved fairly well in water. Large amounts of carbon dioxide
are released during the combustion of fossil fuels and during the breathing.
Carbon dioxide is not toxic. If the amount of carbon dioxide in the surroundings is too
high, the human body is not able to release its own carbon dioxide. In addition, while
breathing in, more and more carbon dioxide gets into the body. Both events may lead to
suffocation.
The surrounding air contains 0.03% carbon dioxide. The photosynthesis in particular
results in a permanent decrease of carbon dioxide.
A concentration of approx. 12 Vol% causes a quick death (after some minutes).

Concentrations of about 8% can cause death, too, if the person is in such an atmosphere
for a longer time.
Similarly to the development of different

temperatures in a confined space,
the reduction of the visibility during a
combustion also depends on the shape
of the room, the material on fire, the area
on fire and the ventilation system.
During an open fire the visibility decreases

dramatically in a very short period of time.
Therefore injured crew members can hardly
be spotted and rescued.
The ventilation system should be kept

working to guarantee the removal of the heat
and the smoke until all crew members will
have left the room and the fire combat starts.
In general, materials in the same class of fire burn alike. As a result of this, certain
extinguishing agents can be used to extinguish combustions of materials classed in
the same class of fire.
Every fire is different. Therefore the different fires were divided into classes according
to the different combustible materials corresponding to DIN EN2. The following
pictographs are attached also on the fire extinguishers, get thus clear, at which ways
they can be employed at fires:
Class of Fire A
Combustions of solid fuels, mainly of organic origin, which usually burn while
generating embers.
Examples:
wood paper
straw textiles
coal car tyres
Class of Fire B
Combustions of liquids and liquefying fuels
Examples:
petrol oil
grease varnish
tar alcohol
resin ether
Class of Fire C
Combustions of gases
Examples:
methane propane
hydrogen acetylene
natural gas town gas
Class of Fire D
Combustions of metals
Examples:
aluminium magnesium
sodium potassium
lithium their alloyings
Extinguishing Agents
A fire can only be extinguished by cooling, reducing the

oxygen in the air or stopping the chain reaction
chemically. These extinguishing qualities only take
effects by applying appropriate extinguishing agents.
Fireprotection on Sea-going Ships – Extinguishing Agents
The extinguishing agent water is cheap, easy available from nature and in most
cases of combustion it suits well for fighting the fire.
The main extinguishing effect is the high heat binding capacity of water.
At this the evaporation of the water takes away the most heat from the fire.
Transition of 1kg Ice with -20°C to 120°C hot vapour:

Ice -20°C -> Ice 0°C 40KJ
Melting Ice ->Water 330KJ
Water 0°C ->Water 100°C 420KJ
Evaporation Water->Vapour 2260KJ
Vapour 100°C ->Vapour 120°C 40KJ
By applying the extinguishing agent water, the physical qualities of water

are used to achieve the highest possible extinguishing effect during a fire combat.
After starting fire fighting, the temperature falls rapidly and does not rise
again. The concentration of oxygen decreases continually until the fire goes out.
Water - Straight stream

The water is tapered at the discharge end
of the nozzle and formed into a straight
stream. This stream makes it possible to
penetrate the seat of fire deeply and break
up the burning material and scatter loose
parts of it. In addition, the straight stream
also facilitates an indirect fire combat.
The application of a straight stream
makes it possible to have the water
travelled over a certain distance and
height. The extinguishing effect of the
straight stream is the cooling effect.
The large amount of water used during fire combat (approximately 200 litres per minute if a
C-type nozzle is used) can have a detrimental and dangerous effect on the ship's stability if
the sufficient outflow cannot be guaranteed.
Water - Fog stream

By adjusting the nozzle handle the water
streaming through the nozzle is broken into small
droplets and distributed more sparsely after
leaving the discharge end of the nozzle. The
ability to absorb heat per unit time is much
better than by applying a straight stream. In
addition, the fog stream can cover a greater
surface area.
Due to the lesser kinematic energy of the water Due to the sparser distribution of
the water droplets within the
droplets, the reach (the distance the stream can
stream, a part of the droplets
travel after leaving the nozzle), the throwing vaporize and displace a part of the
height and the penetration depth is smaller than combustion air. This inertisation
during the application of a straight stream. effect occurs in addition to the
cooling effect.
Water Mist
By sprinkling water in the form of tiny droplets, a maximum surface area is created
while using only a minimum amount of water. Each individual droplet deprives the
surroundings of their heat. This continues until the droplet vaporizes. The heat transfer
from the surroundings to the droplets depends on the droplets' surface area.
Example:
The sum of water droplets' surface areas of an amount of 0.25 litres of water would
come to an area of approximately 30 m2 of water mist. Due to the physical
qualities of water mist, two main extinguishing effects are distinguished:
1. Inertisation effect as the main effect:
During the vapourization of the individual droplets, the volume changes. The steam
displaces a part of the combustion air and reduces the concentration of oxygen.
The fire triangle is opened at the 'oxygen side'.
2. Cooling effect:
The individual droplets deprive the surroundings of heat until they vaporize. Therefore,
one requirement for a fire to be sustained is not present any more because the fire
triangle is opened at the 'heat side'.
Water mist can be applied to combat class A, B and C fires.
Owing to its physical properties, the use of carbon dioxide, unlike water, has a
very limited cooling effect.
An outside use of carbon dioxide to fight a fire is limited.
Portable carbon dioxide extinguishers with a 'snow nozzle' make fire combat possible
if the wind and the effective working range of the extinguisher is taken into
consideration.
If carbon dioxide is applied during a combustion of an alkali metal like magnesium,
it reacts chemically by forming carbon, oxygen and magnesium oxide.
Thus, the requirements for an intense sustained combustion are established.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the final product

of the oxidation of carbon. It is a very
important extinguishing agent because it
does not burn and therefore cannot take
part in an combustion.
Carbon dioxide can be liquefied by
application of pressure of 500kPa and by
cooling. It can also be solidified. It is a gas
under standard atmospheric conditions.
If liquid carbon dioxide pours out of a tank,
a part of it will vaporize. The rest of the
liquid cools very heavily and changes into
Dry ice is not an electrical conductor and
the solid state because vaporizing heat is
has a temperature of -78.5°C (-109°F).
used. The so-called 'dry ice' is generated. Dry ice changes into the gaseous state by
sublimation under standard conditions.
Dry extinguishing powders are chemical

substances consisting mainly of
carbonates and phosphates.
Several kinds of powders made on the basis

of sodium hydrogen carbonates and
ammonium sulphate are distinguished
according to their suitability to extinguish
fires. Powder has a sudden extinguishing
effect if applied to liquids and gases on fire.
The size of the particles making up the

powder is 0.01...0.1mm.
Owing to the its special preparation,
dry extinguishing powder is quasi-
liquid.
Therefore it can be transported through
long hoses and pipelines.
Powder can be stored at temperatures of
50....60°C (122...140°F) and can always
be applied within this temperature range.
The extinguishing effect of powder is a sophisticated combination of several

extinguishing effects.
The burning in the flame being based on a chain reaction of radicals can be ended if it
comes to a terminal reaction. These terminal reactions must always be triple pushes in
which the third reaction partner takes the surplus energy. When extinguishing with
powder the powder particles represent the third push partner. Besides this main
extinguishing effect (inhibition) the following extinguishing side-effects can be
triggered by powder:
hindrance of the oxygen diffusion into the flame (isolation)
heat dissipation from the flame region by formation of a whirling layer of powder
particles
heat dissipation by chemical dissociation reactions of the powder
In addition, substances are generated during the disintegration of the powder (for
example ammonia) which block the sustained development of a fire. Solids develop a
layer of glaze on the surface which has a certain smothering effect. If liquids on fire are
extinguished by applying powder, the liquids' surface covered by powder will form an
insulating boundary layer.
A foam as extinguishing agent should

meet the following demands:
resistance to the materials on fire

impermeability to gases and vapours
high ability to withstand heat
high elasticity and capability of
flowing
The main extinguishing effect of foam is the seperating effect.
By the application of foam, the energy of the flame is stopped from radiating back on
the surface of the substance on fire. Thus, the energy necessary for the vaporization is
withdrawn. In addition, the speed of the vapours entering the burning zone is reduced
dramatically because of the foam blanket covering the material on fire. Vapours and
any other substance move considerably more slowly through the foam blanket than
through a layer of air of a similar thickness.
Depending on the kinds of foam there are some secondary extinguishing effects.
One of these secondary effects is the cooling effect which occurs especially if
low-expansion foam is applied. Another effect is the displacing of air which occurs
during the application of high-expansion foam in confined spaces.
The different kinds of foam are classed into

high-expansion foam,
medium-expansion foam and
low-expansion foam
according to their foaming number.
The foaming number indicates the ratio between the obtained volume of foam and
the volume of the unfoamed solution.
VZ = obtained foam volume

volume of the unfoamed solution
The densitiy of the unfoamed solution can be set approximately to a value of 1.

Halogenated hydrocarbons are chemical compounds of hydrocarbons whose

hydrogen atoms are completely or partly replaced by halogen atoms (fluorine,
chlorine, bromine).
The name "halone" is used especially for those halogenated hydrocarbons, which
contain bromine. There is a large number of halones due to the enormous number of
possible combinations. A numbering of halones was introduced to improve the clarity
and give an overall view on halones. The numbering gives information on the
composition of the halones.
Owing to their damaging effects on the ozone layer, the use of halogenated
hydrocarbons has been prohibited. The application as extinguishing agents was
restricted and had a time limit (beginning of the year 2000).
Toxicity:
If halones are applied in a concentration of 3...5 Vol.%, they will surely extinguish the
fire. This concentration does not cause any harm to crewmen who are exposed to the
halone for a short time.
Mind:
But this is of course not true if smoke and vapours are present as well.
The most important extinguishing effect of halons is the inhibiting effect.
During the combustion process, the fuel changes by reacting with oxygen via
intermediate stages. While this happens, free radicals (short-living, activated atoms
and molecules) are generated, which are a necessary requirement for the further
combustion process.
The extinguishing agent halone is partly disintegrated by the combustion heat.

As a result radicals are generated. (For example: Halone 1301 generates bromine
radicals at a temperature of 500°C (932°F)).
Due to the combination of these "extinguishing agents" radicals with the radicals
generated by the fuel taking place immediately afterwards, the fuel radicals are used up
suddenly and the chain reaction of the combustion process is broken up.
The extinguishing agent FM-200 was launched as a replacement for halon.

FM-200 is heptafluorpropan which is a halogen hydrocarbons regarding its chemical
characteristics.
FM-200 is a colourless, not-combustible compound which has nearly no smell.
Under standard conditions FM-200 is a gaseous substance. It is stored in pressurized liquid
form in steel gas cylinders.
FM-200 has similar extinguishing characteristics like Halon 1301. The extinguishing time
is also similar, but the concentration of the extinguishing agent is approx. 1.5 times as high
as that of halon.
Taking into consideration the storage space needed, it could be assumed that approx. one
and a half times the amount of FM-200 must be kept on store compared with Halon1301.
However, carbon dioxide requires three and a half times the amount of storage space.
FM-200 is not potentially harmful to the ozone layer. It is not harmful to people up to a
concentration of 9Vol%. It should be considered that thermally decomposed substances
like for example hydrofluoric acid can develop during the extinguishing process.
The exact extinguishing effect of FM-200 has not been described clearly, yet.
Fire - Extinguishing Systems
It is important to be familiar with existing extinguishing

systems to be able to use them effectively in an
emergency. The systems have to be checked regularly.
False, which have been noticed, have to be eliminated
immediately and have to be entered into the logbook.
Notice, that if you discover a fire, which has just startet
developing, you have to sound the alarm first and then to
apply the appropriate portable extinguisher.
Fireprotection on Sea-going Ships – Extinguishing Systems
schematic diagram of a water sprinkler system

types of Sprinklers with different glas

bulbs
Unlike sprinkler systems, water spray

systems apply open spray heads.
Depending on the area of the space or
installation to be protected, a number of
spray heads is combined to cover an
extinguishing area.
A pump with an independent drive supplies the

systems with water from a storage tank.
In case of fire, the water streams via a group
valve through the spray heads into the
extinguishing area. At the same time, an alarm
is triggered by built-in pressure-switches.
The extinguishing is started manually or by a photo of a working nozzle head of a
suitable fire detection system. water spray system
schematic diagram of a water spray system

The water mist system operates independently.

The system is pressurized.
The pressure (approximately 10...15 bar) is
maintained by a pressurizing pump with a low
delivery output.
The system is triggered by glass bulb activation at

the spray heads. If the pressure within the system
falls and if it cannot be maintained, the main
pump (plungerpump) starts operating with a
pressure of about 100 ... 130 bar and supplies the activated nozzle
activated spray heads with freshwater.
At the same time, an alarm is raised.
In addition, there is a pressurized cylinder system.
If the main pump fails, a propellant gas cylinder is The applied amount of water is small,
activated. Pressurized air streams into the water unlike during the application of a
cylinders which supply water for a particular time. sprinkler system.
schematic diagram of a water mist system

Carbon dioxide extinguishing systems are in operation on nearly every vessel.
These systems consist of a storage part and

the actual extinguishing system with the
necessary pipelines and components.
There are two different storage systems:
1. High-pressure system, extinguishing
agent is stored in cylinders
2. Low-pressure system, extinguishing
agent is stored in tanks at a certain
temperature.
The dimensions of the system are chosen
according to the required amount of CO2.
The following facts have to be considered:
dimension of the space to be protected
ordered concentration of the
extinguishing gas
possible losses due to leaks in the room
amount left over in the system activated carbon dioxide system
Carbon Dioxide High Pressure System
The CO2 system for engine rooms and pump rooms is designed to supply the
space to be flooded with 85% of the necessary amount of CO2 within 2 minutes.
The necessary concentration of the extinguishing gas in engine rooms is 40 Vol%.

It is not less than 30 Vol% for cargo holds. Two thirds of the necessary extinguishing
gas must be supplied into the room to be flooded within 10 minutes.
Carbon dioxide is stored as a liquid under pressure in steel cylinders. The pressure
within the cylinder is about 57 bar at a surrounding temperature of 20°C (68°F).
The cylinders have a standpipe which makes the release of the carbon dioxide as a
liquid possible. During a mixing period the CO2 travels to the nozzles and expands to
a gas at atmospheric pressure.
The system is activated manually at a release station with a time delay.
Attention: There must not be any people in the room to be flooded.

schematic diagram of a carbon dioxide high pressure system

Carbon Dioxide Low Pressure System
The regulations which are valid for the installation of a high pressure system are
also valid for the installation of a low pressure system.
The extinguishing agent is stored at a pressure of 18...22 bar in a pressurized tank.

There must be a temperature from about -20 to -22°C (-4 to 0°F) to keep the CO2 in
liquid form.
The pressurized tank is equipped with a safety valve and instruments to control the
pressure and the level of filling. The isolation of the tank must safeguard the keeping of
the pressure within the tank if the refrigerating fails. If the reefer unit fails, the pressure
to release the CO2 from the tank must only be reached after 24 hours. There are two
automatic reefer units, operating independently from each other.
Generally, the system is activated and operates as the high pressure system does.
schematic diagram of a carbon dioxide low pressure system

Portable Fire Extinguishers
When applying fire extinguishers it must be taken into consideration not to cause a larger
damage by extinguishing agents than by the fire.
The extinguishing gas carbon dioxide (CO2) is the only extinguishing agent applied in
portable extinguishers which does not leave any residue and which can even be applied
on sensitive technical devices.
Anybody applying an extinguisher should know how to use it properly before there is
the emergency. In an emergency the extinguisher must be applied without delay.
When checking fire extinguishers, the maintenance intervals have to be kept to.
Used extinguisher or those with a broken seal have to be replaced.

Powder Extinguisher
Remove safety device (1). The
extinguisher can be operated
now. By striking a push button
(2) the cylinder containing the
propelling agent CO2 is opened.
The CO2 moves through a pipe
(4) into the receptable
containing the extinguishing
agent. After building up
pressure, the red signal pen (5)
appears. The dry powder
streams through the standpipe
(6) to the hose line. The cut-off
nozzle (7) makes an intermittent
application possible.
For classes of fire A, B, C
Powder extinguisher in action

Carbon Dioxide
Extinguisher
Remove safety pin (1). The
extinguisher is ready for
application. Squeeze
discharge lever (2). CO2
streams to the hose line
through the standpipe (3).
The discharge horn (4) with
the nozzle (5) makes it
possible to cover a large area
with a blanket of CO2
efficiently.
For class of fire B

Carbon dioxide extinguisher in action

Structural Fire Protection
The structural fire protection hampers the development

of a fire and makes the fire combat easier.
In addition, the structural fire protection secures a safe
evacuation of crew members.
A reduction of the fire hazard is achieved by an
application of non-combustible materials or materials
which block the spreading of flames.
Fireprotection on Sea-going Ships – Structural Fire Protection
Structural fire-protection is a passive fire defensive measure.

You have to know the objectives of structural fire protection to assess dangers
properly in case of fire:
Prevention of fires
Prevention of fire spreading
Safe evacuation
In addition, you have to ensure, that all modifications in structure or layout done to
any part of the vessel do not effect structural fire protection.
Structural measures like for example the separation of the vessel into main fire
zones, positioning and construction of doors, application of fire flaps and other
closures are used to prevent the spreading of fire and smoke over the entire ship.
Fire flaps Fire door Tube isolation

Escape and evacuation routes are especially protected to secure a safe

evacuation of people form the danger area.
They guarantee a safe escape to a deck not in danger. At the same time, they
safeguard a secure advance and retreat of the crew members attacking the fire.
Escape routes safeguard a quick access to lifeboats and life rafts for the passengers and the
crew.
There must be at least two fire-proof main escape routes, which must as well be separated
from each other. The internal width must not fall short of 900 mm.
In addition to the emergency lighting system, there must be a electrically powered long-
phosphorescening guide marking (0.3 metres above the floor). The guiding marking must
enable passengers to find escape routes and identify the emergency exits. Ladders and
doors are to be positioned in longitudinal direction. All doors must open in the direction of
escape.
Mind: Escape routes must not be blocked or changed by conversions.

To stop a fire from spreading dividing walls are built in. They can be of different designs
and are chosen according to the actual fire hazard of the certain space and their fire
resistance features.
"A" Class divisions must be made of steel or another material with comparable properties
and must be reinforced appropriately.
They must be constructed to prevent the passing through of smoke and flames for one hour
(under standard test conditions). In addition, they must be isolated with an approved non-
combustible material. This material must prevent a rise of the average temperature of more
than 139°C (282°F) on the side of the wall not facing the combustion within a limited
period of time. Furthermore, there must not be a rise of temperature of more than 180°C
(356°F) above the initial temperature in any part of the dividing wall, including the joint.
Type Time limit for permissable rise of temperature

A-60 60 min
A-30 30 min
A-15 15 min
A-0 0 min
"B" Class divisions must be made of an approved non-combustible material.
They must prevent the passing-through of flames for 30 minutes (under standard test
conditions). In addition, they must be isolated to prevent the average temperature from
rising more than 139°C (282°F) above the initial temperature on the side of the wall not
facing the fire. They must as well prevent the rise of temperature of more than 225°C
(437°F) above the initial temperature in any part of the wall, including the gap, within a
given period of time.
Type Time limit for permissable rise of temperature

B - 15 15 min
B-0 0 min
"C" Class divisions must be made of approved non-combustible materials.

There are no special requirements to be met concerning the prevention of the passing-
through of smoke and flames and the isolation of the dividing walls.
There is a large number of areas on board which must be separated from each
other by dividing walls of a certain fire resistance.
Special areas are the so-called main fire zones, which are separated by A-60 dividing
walls. In case of a fire, the combustion is to be confined to such an area to prevent a
spreading on the entire ship.
The maximum length and width of the zone should not exceed 48 metres and an entire
area of 1,600 sq metres.
Fire Detection
The main task of modern fire alarm appliances is to spot

a developing fire reliably and to inform about the fire
automatically at the same time. Alarm systems are an
essential means to prevent damages due to fire and the
effects of these damages
The reliable and fast alarming depends on every part of
the alarm system. Fire detectors are particularly
important because its signal triggers off all follow-up
procedures.
Fireprotection on Sea-going Ships – Fire Detection
Stages of fire development
Initial stage. Increase of the Development of The development of

No smoke is generation of flames flames increases
visible, but aerosols until involving and large amounts
invisible smoke will be radiation in the of smoke and toxic
products of visible. invisible range gases are generated.
combustion are (ultra-violet,
set free. infra-red).
Fire detectors make up an essential part of a fire detecting system.
Placed in spaces to be protected from fire, fire detectors permanently monitor particular
parameters which develop during a combustion and analyse them (like for example:
temperature, smoke or infra-red radiation).
The various fire detectors have specific advantages and disadvantages. The feature of
combustion to be developed during a fire must be detected by the detector as fast as
possible and with the highest possible intensity. That is the most important requirement
to be met by any detector. But in actual practice, it is not always met satisfactorily.
Optical smoke detectors and ionization smoke detectors are applied most often.
As a result of the development of gas detectors and their integration in modern fire
detecting systems, fire detection is being improved and the number of false or delayed
alarms is being reduced.
1 2
operating principle of a
light beam smoke detector
1 2
refracted light smoke detector
1 3
2 4
operating principle of a ionization smoke detector

1 2
radiation detector
1 2
heat-actuated fire detector
Multisensor fire detector

A multisensor fire detector contains several
detectors applying different methods of detecting a
fire.
Usually, a heat-actuated detector (rate-of-rise
detector) and two smoke detectors (a refracted light
smoke detector and a ionization smoke detector) are
integrated in a multisensor fire detector.
The measurements of the several sensors are
evaluated within the multisensor fire detector.
While processing the measurements received from
one detector, all other data coming in from the other
detectors are taken into account as well.
Thus, the highest possible degree of reliability in
detecting a fire should be achieved and
disruptive influences on the detecting process should
be identified at an early stage.
Gas detectors continuously sample the composition of the air within a confined
space to be protected. The composition of the air changes in case of a fire because
toxic gases generate during a combustion.
Usually, these are the typical waste products of a combustion - carbon monoxide and
carbon dioxide. By applying gas detectors, some more substances can be detected,
like for example nitric oxides if materials containing ammonia are stored in the space to
be protected from fire. Electrochemical, semiconductor or infra-red sensors can be
applied to detect a particular gas.

Fire Protection

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Fire Protection

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Institut für Sicherheitstechnik/

Fireprotection on Sea-going Ships

A fire is an unchecked burning outside of a special

Requirements for a fire to develop are:

If these three requirements are present,

The fire triangle can be opened by:

Combustible materials in ship operation are for example:

Combustible materials are classed into classes of fire.

Oxygen is a necessary requirement to sustain a combustion.

Oxygen is not inflammable. Without oxygen however no combustion is possible.

Normal air in our surrounding consists of approx. 20.9% oxygen.

At the ignition temperature an inflammable gas mixture starts to burn automatically

Examples for the ignition temperatures of several materials:

The process of combustion varies a lot depending on the concrete conditions

There are five kinds of combustion.

Areas where smouldering fires are developing must not be

If oxygen is applied, the smouldering fire can develop into

A distinctive feature, especially during the first stage of the

The popping is the rapid combustion (approximately

The rapid combustion causes an increase in volume which then

An explosion is a sudden chemical reaction in mixtures

An explosion posses a very high burning velocity (as high

A detonation is a bursting into flames

During a detonation the air within the shock

During a combustion the combustible material is vapourised or gasefied,

The actual combustion takes place in a thin

The flame is the area where hot soot particles and

Every crew member must be able to realise the distinctive flame

The heat emitted by a combustion travels upward

The stream of heat conduction increases in proportion

A fire develops hot gases which travel

Thus, the dangerous area shifts from the actual

If oxygen is applied by opening windows and

Every fire is accompanied by concomitants whose effects vary depending on the

The three most important effects are:

the rise of temperature

Every fire causes a distinctive

The stream of heat conduction depends on:

During a fire, gaseous waste products

Carbon monoxide (CO)

A concentration of approx. 0.3 Vol% results in death.

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

A concentration of approx. 12 Vol% causes a quick death (after some minutes).

Similarly to the development of different

During an open fire the visibility decreases

The ventilation system should be kept

A fire can only be extinguished by cooling, reducing the

Transition of 1kg Ice with -20°C to 120°C hot vapour:

By applying the extinguishing agent water, the physical qualities of water

Water - Straight stream

Water - Fog stream

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the final product

Dry extinguishing powders are chemical

Several kinds of powders made on the basis

The size of the particles making up the

The extinguishing effect of powder is a sophisticated combination of several

A foam as extinguishing agent should

resistance to the materials on fire

The main extinguishing effect of foam is the seperating effect.

The different kinds of foam are classed into

VZ = obtained foam volume

The densitiy of the unfoamed solution can be set approximately to a value of 1.

Halogenated hydrocarbons are chemical compounds of hydrocarbons whose

The most important extinguishing effect of halons is the inhibiting effect.