Refrigeration (Kylteknik) : 2. Vapour-Compression Refrigeration Processes

Refrigeration (Kylteknik)
course # 424519.0 E v. 2017
2. Vapour-compression refrigeration
processes
Ron Zevenhoven
Åbo Akademi University
Thermal and Flow Engineering Laboratory / Värme- och strömningsteknik
tel. (02 215)3223 ; ron.zevenhoven@abo.fi
Åbo Akademi Univ - Thermal and Flow Engineering - Piispankatu 8, 20500 Turku 13.1.2017 1/72
ÅA 424519 Refrigeration / Kylteknik
2.1 The ideal

vapour-compression cycle
Reversed Carnot cycle /1
in T,s diagram:
1-2 and 3-4:
Entropy balance : reversible and
Q L  Q isothermal (~ heat) liquid-vapour
 Sgen  H saturation
TL TH 2-3 and 4-1:
Isentropic (~ work) dome
Reversible :
Q L Q H maximum thermal

TL TH efficiency
Q L TL ηth = 1 – QH/QL

Q H TH
if reversible
Picture: ÇB98
ηth = 1-TH/TL
 Condensation / evaporation of a fluid can be done at almost any

temperature/pressure combination, unlike freezing / melting, and
involves greater heat effects (ΔHvaporisation >> ΔHmelting)
for example: water
 The Carnot power cycle can be executed in reverse within the
saturation dome of a refrigerant fluid
Reversed Carnot cycle /2

1-2 and 3-4:
reversible and
isothermal liquid-vapour
saturation
2-3 and 4-1: dome
isentropic
maximum thermal
efficiency
ηth = 1 – QH/QL
if reversible
ηth = 1-TH/TL Picture: ÇB98
The (reversed) Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle operating

between two temperature levels. But:
 process 2-3 involves compression of a two-phase mixture,
and
 process 4-1 involves expansion of ”wet” refrigerant
Ideal vapour-compression cycle /1
 Operating the Picture: ÇB98
Carnot cycle
outside the
saturation region
→ no isothermal
conditions,
 for heat
absorption and
rejection
QH = 2∫3 Tds
QL = 4∫1 Tds
 Expansion step (3-4) can be simplified by
using a throttling valve (or a capillary tube)
 This results in a process with 3 reversible steps, and
1 irreversible step
T,s diagram (here for H2O)

LINES OF CONSTANT ENTHALPY IN THE SATURATION REGION
isenthalpic
lines Pictures: SEHB06
Ideal vapour-compression cycle /2
 Step 4-1: boiling of
Picture: ÇB98
refrigerant at low p
and T
 Step 1-2: compression
of saturated vapour to
high p and T
 Step 2-3: high pressure
superheated gas is
cooled to saturated
liquid at high T, high p
 Step 3-4: expansion
to low p, also T down
Note: sub-cooling a bit For each step:
(due to some
evaporation) beyond (3) reduces (Qin - Qout) +
the risk of ”flashing” (Win - Wout) +
in the evaporator .
mrefr· (hin-hout) = 0
Pressure levels
0°F = -18°C 70°F = 21°C 250°F = 121°C
 A freezer at -18°C in
a room at 21°C
 Operation pressures for R-134a
evaporator and
condensor are the
vapour pressures for
Tcold and Thot for the
refrigerant
 Reversible if cold
reservoir Tlow = Tcold ,
hot reservoir Thigh = Thot Reversible:
 For R-134a, psat = Trefrigerant = Treservoir
1.44 atm @ -18°C, Thigh = 21°C, Tlow = -18°C
5.84 atm @ +21°C COPR = 1 / (Thigh/Tlow -1) = 6.6
Picture: T06
Example: ideal vapour-compression cycle /1
 A vapour-compression refrigeration Source & picture: ÇB98
cycle uses refrigerant R-134a at
pressure levels p1 = 1.4 bar and
p2 = 8 bar, respectively, with mass
flow ṁ = 0.05 kg/s.
 Calculate:
– The rate of heat removal QL and
compressor power input Win
– The rate of heat rejection QH and
the COPR of the refrigerator
 Answer: data for R-134a gives Tlow = -18.8°C, Thigh= 31.3°C,

for (1) h1 = hg = 236.0 kJ/kg; s1 = sg = 0.932 kJ/(kg.K);
for (2) s2 = s1 gives h2 = 272.1 kJ/kg, for (3) h3 = hf = 93.42 kJ/kg,
s3 = 0.346 kJ/(kg.K); for (4) h3 ≈ h4,
R134a data: saturation pressure

http://users.abo.fi/rzevenho/ThermodynamicPropertyTab
leforsaturatedR-134a-pressure.pdf
R134a data: saturation temperature
http://users.abo.fi/rzevenho/ThermodynamicPropertyTab
leforsaturatedR-134a-temperature.pdf
100°C
R134a data: superheated vapour

http://users.abo.fi/rzevenho/ThermodynamicPropertyTablefo
rsuperheatedvaporofR-134a.pdf
1.6 MPa
Example: ideal vapour-compression cycle /2
Source & picture: ÇB98
Answer (cont.):
.
 QL = m· (h1-h4) = 7.13 kW
.
 Win = m· (h2-h1) = 1.80 kW
.
 QH = QL + Win = 8.93 kW
.
 COPR = QL / Win = 3.96
= (h1-h4)/(h2-h1)
 Comment:
Replacing the throttling valve (3→4) by an isentropic turbine (3→4s)
gives, with h4s = 86.92 kJ/kg a turbine power output of 0.34 kW,
reducing the net power input Win to 1.46 kW.
The removal of heat from the refrigerated space QL increases from
.
7.13 kW to m· (h1 – h4s) = 7.46 kW.
COPR increases from 3.96 to 5.11, an increase of 29%.
2.2 Household refrigerators
Household refrigerator /1
Four Main Components:
 Compressor, which increases the
pressure of the refrigerant vapour,
pushing it through the system, and
increasing the vapour's temperature
Picture & text: http://www.geo4va.vt.edu/A3/A3.htm

above that of the surrounding kitchen.
 Condenser, usually behind the
refrigerator, where the refrigerant
vapour condenses to a liquid.
 Expansion valve, which causes a
sudden drop in refrigerant pressure,
causing it to boil; also called a "metering"
valve, since it passes only as much liquid
as can be completely vaporised in the
evaporator.
 evaporator, where the latent heat of
refrigerant vaporisation is absorbed
from the cold box.
Household refrigerator /2
Picture: ÇB98 Picture: T06
Irreversible heat transfer
 A freezer at -18°C in Tcold 1°C ↑ or Thot 1°C ↓
gives COP ↑ by 2-4 %
a room at 21°C
COPR,rev Heat transfer TO the R-134a
= 6.6 refrigerant in evaporator Thot
and FROM the refrigerant
Tcold
in condensor requires a
temperature difference
Thot Tcold space
Tsurr
Tcold
0°F = -18°C 70°F = 21°C 250°F = 121°C
ΔT, say, ΔT = 10°C → Irreversible, real:
Tcold = -28°C (psat = 0.93 bar), Trefrigerant ≠ Treservoir ; if ΔT =10°C
Thot = + 31°C (psat = 7.93 → Tcold = -28°C, Thot = +31°C
bar) for the refrigerant COPR = 1 / (Thot/Tcold -1) = 4.2
Picture: T06
Temperature rise (”lift”) for heat transfer

(here: air cooling)
Picture: HTW08
Åbo Akademi Univ - Thermal and Flow Engineering - Piispankatu 8, 20500 Turku 13.1.2017 18
2.3 Pressure - enthalpy diagrams
Pressure, enthalpy diagrams

In a p, h diagram also
possible:
1. the vapour-compression sub-cooling
refrigeration cycle gives
straight lines for 3 of the 4 isentropic
steps, and
2. the heat transferred Picture: ÇB98
(QH, QL) is proportional to
the length of the lines s s
QL h  h4
COPR   1
Win h 2  h1
QH h 2  h 3
COPHP   The
Win h 2  h1 corresponding
h1  hg @ p1 and h3  hf @ p3 Carnot cycle
for the ideal case
p,h diagram R-134a
Picture: ÇB98
p,h diagram R-134a
Picture:Ö96
p,h diagram R-717 (NH3)
Picture:Ö96
p,h diagram R-22
Picture:Ö96
p,h diagram R-12
Picture:Ö96
p,h diagram R-744 (CO2)
p,h diagram R-407c ÅA VST heat pump
Note sloping
lines for
boiling /
condensation
A zeotropic blend of difluoromethane (R-32), pentafluoroethane (R-125), and 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane (R-134a)
2.4 The real

vapour-compression cycle
Real vapour-compression cycle /1
 In a real refrigerator
quite a few
irreversibilities
reduce the
efficiency:
– Fluid friction
(gives heat )
– Heat exhange
with the
surroundings Picture: ÇB98
The real process differs a bit from the ideal process:

 To ensure complete vaporisation, the refrigerant is slightly
overheated at the evaporator inlet (8)
 A (long) line between evaporator and compressor gives fluid
friction and heat exchange with surroundings (8→1)
Real vapour-compression cycle /2

More differences
compared to the
ideal process:
 The compression is
not isentropic:
∆s > 0 (1→2) or
∆s < 0 (1→2’)
by cooling,
decreasing the
volume ! Picture: ÇB98
 There will be some pressure drop between compressor and

condensor, in the condensor, between condensor and
throttling device (2/2’→4→5) and in the evaporator
 The saturated liquid will be sub-cooled before going to the
throttling device, located near the evaporator.
Example: real vapour-compression cycle /1
 A vapour-compression refrigeration
cycle uses refrigerant R-134a with Picture: ÇB98
mass flow ṁ = 0.05 kg/s.
 Vapour enters the compressor at
-10°C, 1.4 bar and leaves it at 50°C,
8 bar.
 The vapour enters the condenser at
7.2 bar and is cooled to 26°C.
 The throttling valve reduces the
pressure to 1.5 bar.
 Calculate:
– The heat removal QL and the
compressor power Win
– The adiabatic (isentropic) efficiency
of the compressor • Neglect the heat tranfer and
– The COPR value pressure drops in connecting lines
Example: real vapour-compression cycle /2

 At p1,T1: h1 = 243.4 kJ/kg
Picture: ÇB98
 At p2,T2: h2 = 284.4 kJ/kg
 At p3,T3: h3 ≈ hf = 85.75 kJ/kg
 h4 ≈ h3
 QL = ṁ· (h1-h4) = 7.88 kW
 Win = ṁ· (h2-h1) = 2.05 kW
 Adiabatic eff. of compressor
ηc = (h2s – h1)/(h2-h1)
p2s = 8 bar, s2s = s1,
h2s = 281.1 kJ/kg
gives ηc = 0.919
 Finally, COPR = QL/Win = 7.88 kW / 2.05 kW = 3.84

2.5 Refrigerants
for vapour-compression refrigerators
Refrigerants, freezing mixtures

 In a refrigeration process, energy is converted into
Picture: http://www.machinerylubrication.com/article_detail.asp?articleid=841
transferred heat, using a heat carrier.
 The heat carrier medium will take up the heat at a low
temperature (and pressure) and gives it off at higher
temperature (and pressure) at another location
 A refrigerant (sv: köldmedie, kylmedel) participates in the
process by a phase transition and/or pressure changes.
It can also be electricity !
 A cooling or freezing mixture
(sv: köldblandning) can carry or store
heat, which can involve a
phase transition, but little or no
pressure changes. Coolant for an engine:
not a refrigerant.....
Refrigerants for vapour-
compression (v-c) systems /1
 Tcritical > Tprocess, maximum and Tmelt < Tprocess, minimum
 Reasonable pressure levels psat at Tboil and Tcondens
Picture: www.ofb.net/~epstein/sl/0401/20040111-freon.jpg
 Large Δhvaporisation/condensation (”latent heat”) per unit volume
 Safe handling, non-toxic, no smell
 Low cost
 Chemically stable
 Should not be problematic
– when contacting water, oil, air
– when contacting metals, rubber or
other polymers
– at high temperatures (non-flammable !)
– for the environment: ozone layer depletion, the enhanced greenhouse
effect
Refrigerants for v-c systems /2

Picture: http://www.houseneeds.com/Shop/Images/winters_401404facemed.jpg
 Most important: the temperature levels of the cold and hot
spaces with which the refrigerant exchanges heat
 Temperatures at the
condensor ranges from
-20°C (cold winter air)
to +85°C (heat pumps)
Picture: http://www.hc12ausa.com/hc12/refpage.html
 At the lowest temperature the refrigerant should have enough

pressure to allow for 1) transport to the evaporator (and
compressor), 2) proper operation of the throttling device and
3) avoid air leakage into the system → in practice a bit > 1 bar
 At the highest temperature the pressure should not be so high
that expensive pressure vessels and tubing elements are
needed → in practice below 20 bar, preferably.
Refrigerants for v-c systems /3 R-codes
Picture:http://www.health-safety-signs.uk.com/productimages/Caution-Low-temperature.gif
 Used / found in refrigeration systems (see also D03, TW00):
– CFCs (chloro fluoro carbons), HCFCs (hydro chloro fluoro carbons),
HFCs (hydro fluoro carbons) mostly CFCs: R-11 in water chillers in
building air conditioning, R-12 in domestic refrigerators, in automotive air
conditioning, R-22 in air conditioning, in industrial refrigeration, R-134a
replaces R-12, R-502 (R-115 / R-22 mix) in supermarket refrigeration
– Ammonia primarily in food refrigeration; other inorganics (R-7xx)
– Hydrocarbons (C3, C2, C2= ...) (R-6xx)
– (Non-)Azeotropic mixtures R-4xx and R-5xx, respectively
– Inorganics R-7yy, yy = molar mass (g/mol): NH3 R-717,
CO2 R-744 making a return; used in aircraft
– Air also used in aircraft; and also: Water
 Not used any longer: ethyl ether, MeCl, SO2
 Halogenated hydrocarbon R-code: rightmost digit = no. of F, 10-digit =
1+no. of H, 100-digit = -1+no. of C, 1000-digit = no. of double bonds,
”a” indicates isomer unbalance, the rest is Cl, ”B” = no. of Br.
Examples ”R-” codes
R-11 F=1, H+1 = 1, C-1 = 0, rest is Cl
CFCl3
R-134a: F = 4, H = 2, C = 2, a: assymmetric
C2H2F4  CF3-CFH2
Picture: S90
Refrigerant vapour pressure
Vapour pressures of gases and refrigerants

Some refrigerant data

Gas Refrigerant T boil °C * Gas Refrigerant T boil °C *
(C2H5)2O R-610 +35 CCl3F R-11 +24
SO2 R-764 -10 CCl2F2 R-12 -30
CH3Cl R-40 -24 CHClF2 R-22 -41
CH2Cl2 R-30 +40 C2Cl3F3 R-113 +48
NH3 R-717 -34 C2Cl2F4 R-114 +4
CO2 R-744 -78 C2ClF5 R-115 -38
CH4 R-50 -162 CF3CH2F R-134a -26
CHClF2 +
C2H6 R-170 - 89 C2ClF5 **
R-502 -46
hydrocarbon
i-C4H10 R-600a -12 HC-12a -33
mix
* for pressure = 1 bar ** azeotrope
Refrigerants for v-c systems /4
Pure_Brand_New_R134a_Refrigerant_In_DOT_Or_Normal_Cylinders.jpg
Boiling temperatures for 1 bar and 20 bar
 Ammonia: -33°C and +50°C
 R12: -30°C and +70°C
 R11: +25°C and +140°C
Picture: http://img.alibaba.com/photo/11329547/
 R114: +5°C and +120°C
 R134a: -26°C and + 68°C
Heat of vaporisation and density at 0°C:

 Ammonia: 1260 kJ/kg, 3.45 kg/m3 → 4350 kJ/m3
 R22: 207 kJ/kg, 21.23 kg/m3 → 4400 kJ/m3
(volumetric heat of vaporisation)
Greenhouse gases (GHGs)

 Greenhouse gases (GHGs), most importantly carbon
dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide
(N2O) trap the outgoing solar radiation that is
Picture: http://www.yourdictionary.com/ahd/g/g0258400.html
emitted by the earth’s surface,

which leads to global warming
 Note that water causes ⅔ of the greenhouse
effect; the changing amounts of other GHGs
cause an enhanced greenhouse effect
 Other GHGs and their global warming
potential (GWP, CO2 = 1 by definition)
– CH4 (~22), N2O (~300)
– HFCs (hydro fluoro carbons) (140-11700)
– PFCs (per fluoro carbons) (7400)
– SF6 (23900) Source: ZK01
Ozone depleting substances (ODS)
 ODS substances do not have a direct global warming
effect but influence the formation/ destruction of
tropospheric/ stratospheric ozone
 Most important: CO, NOx, non-methane VOCs
(volatile organic compounds)
Picture: http://www.geography.hunter.cuny.edu/~tbw/
wc.notes/1.atmosphere/ozone_depletion.2.htm
 Class I ODS (Ozone Depleting Potential, ODP 0.1….10)
– Carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloroform, halons CnFxClyBrz
– CFCs are replaced by non-ODS (but
GHG!) compounds: HFCs, PFCs, SF6
 Class II ODS (ODP << 1)
– HCFCs (hydrogenated
chloro fluoro carbons)
 ODP = (definition) 1 for CFC-11 (R-11) Source: ZK01
Refigerant use in Finland

 Most important: CFCs R11, R12; HFC R134a
(R-22 belongs to HCFC group) Pictures: http://www.ekokem.fi/main/FrontPage.asp?ItemId=7686
 Finnish decision 1990: use of CFC forbidden except

in special cases
 EU legislation: production and import/expert of
CFCs forbidden as of 1995, as a well as putting CFC
containing products on the market
 HCFC use (mainly R-22) is phased out
 Alternatives should be found for HFCs also (mainly
R-134a and R- 400-types): Kigali agreement Oct. 2016
e.g. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/oct/15/kigali-deal-hfcs-climate-change
End-of-life
 CFCs, HCFCs and HFCs are hazardous wastes refrigerator
 Special regulations as to the handling of CFC- handling
at Ekokem
containing coolers, freezers, and isolation materials
(R-11 in poly urethane foam !)
 In the future, more use of iso-butane (R-600a),
propane, propene, CO2 and ammonia
Sources: Ö96, D03, SKL06/12
Refrigerant properties
LT = -25 .... -40 °C; MT = -5 .... -25 °C; HT = -5 .... +10 °C Table: HTW08
Refrigerant selection and COP

(compared to R22; air conditioning with evaporator at T = 5°C)
Picture: HTW08
2.6 Special vapour-compression

refrigeration systems
Cascade vapour-compression system

 In industry, efficiency Picture: ÇB98
may be more important
than simplicity
 Sometimes the
temperature range is
too wide for a single
v-c cycle
→ use a cascade cycle
(with several refrigerants) One figure if the same
refrigerant used in both cycles
 Two cycles, a bottoming cycle and a topping cycle are
connected via a heat exchanger
 For the heat exchanger without heat losses. or kinetic
.
/
potential energy effects, and mass streams mA, mB :
 B  (h  h )  m A  h   h ; COPR  QL 
 m B  (h  h )
 A  (h  h )  m
m
 B h   h
m W  A  (h  h )  m
m  B  (h   h )
net ,in
Example: 2-stage vapour-compression system
 Consider the system in the Figure: Picture: ÇB98
a cascade v-c refrigerator operating
between 1.4 and 8 bar with R-134a as
refrigerant. The heat exchanger
operates at 3.2 bar for both streams. (In
practice p and T are a bit higher in the
.
bottom cycle.) Mass stream mA = 0.05
kg/s. Calculate .
– mass stream mB,
– the heat stream QL taken from the
refrigerated space .
– compressor power Win
– the COPR for the process
m A  ( h5  h8 )  m
 B  ( h2  h3 )  m  B  h5  h8 m  A  0.039 kg/s;
h2  h3
QL  m
 B  ( h1  h4 )  7.13 kW; W  W  
in,top  Win,bottom  mA  ( h6  h5 )  mB  ( h2  h1 )  1.60 kW
in
 
Q m B  ( h1  h4 ) 7.13 kW
COPR   L    4.46
Wnet ,in mA  ( h6  h5 )  mB  ( h2  h1 ) 1.60 kW
 
2-stage v-c refrigeration with sub-cooler
Pictures: HTW08
2-stage compression refrigeration
 In a cascade
Picture: ÇB98
system using one
refrigerant, a
mixing chamber
(flash chamber)
can be used
instead of a heat
exchanger
 Referred to as multistage compression refrigeration

systems
 Saturated vapour from the flash chamber is fed to the high
pressuire compressor, saturated liquid is fed to the low
pressure expansion valve
Example: 2-stage compression refrigeration /1

 Consider the system in the Figure:
a cascade c-v refrigerator
operating between 1.4 and 8 bar
with R-134a as refrigerant.
The refrigerant leaves the
condenser as saturated liquid and
is throttled to a flash chamber at
3.2 bar.
The vapour product is mixed with
the refrigerant leaving the low
pressure condenser.
 Assuming that both compressors
are isentropic and that the
refrigerant leaves the evaporator
as saturated vapour: (continues)
Picture: ÇB98
Calculate
 The mass fraction, x, (”quality”)
of the refrigerant that is
evaporated when throttled to
the flash chamber
 The amount of heat that is
removed from the refrigerated
space and the compressor work
per unit mass refrigerant flowing
through the condenser, qL and w,
and
 The COPR for the system;
using the given T,s plot
Picture: ÇB98

 The mass fraction, x, of refrigerant
evaporated as it is throttled to the
flash chamber equals x6 = (h6-hf)/
(hg-hf) =(h6-h7)/(h3-h7) = 0.205
 The amount of heat removed from
the refrigerated space per unit mass
equals qL = QL / m = (1-x6)· (h1-h8)
= 145.3 kJ/kg
 Enthalpy h9 follows from
h9 = x6· h3 +(1-x6)· h2 = 251.9 kJ/kg
 With s9 = 0.929 kJ/(kg· K) = s4 (at 8 bar) it follows from the

data tables for R-134a that h4 = 271.1 kJ/kg
 Compressor work win = (1-x6)· (h2-h1)+(h4-h9) = 31.8 kJ/kg
 COPR = qL/win = 145.3 / 31.8 = 4.56 Picture: ÇB98
Multi-purpose refrigeration with a
single compressor Picture: ÇB98
 Refrigeration at more than one temperature (as in an ordinary

household refrigerator + freezer) can be accomplished with one
compressor by throttling in two steps
 Using one throttle valve and one cold temperature would give ice
in the refrigerator section.
Trans-critical CO2 cycle
Evaporation at -10°C, ~26 bar, gas cooling at +120  40°C, at ~100 bar Picture: HTW08
2.7 Real vapour-compression

cycles and p,h diagrams
Real v-c refrigeration process

 A real vapour-
compression
refrigeration process in
a p, h diagram:
– 1s = throttle valve in
– 2s = throttle valve out
– 2i = evaporator in
– 2u = evaporator out
– 2k = compressor in Includes pressure drop over
– 1k = compressor out connection lines 2u-2k and 1k-1i;
– 1i = condenser in heat exchange with surroundings
and in the compressor
– 1u = condenser out
Picture: Ö96
A commercial v-c refrigerator
Picture: D03
 Using a water-cooled condensor and a heat exchanger

 Temperature, pressure and heat of vaporisation can be optimised
Vapour-compression refrigeration
process with superheat / subcooling
Picture: D03
 Heat exchange between evaporator outlet and condensor outlet

can improve the COPR value.
 Superheating by increased compressor pressure gives no improved
efficiency but only results in larger condensor equipment
 Subcooling also ensures 100% liquid to the throttling valve and gives
either more heat extracted from the refrigerated space, or a smaller
required refrigerant mass flow
 Less attractive if the suction line to the compressor is long, especially
when using ammonia as refrigerant
Two-stage compression refrigeration
Picture: Ö96
compressor
 Especially suitable for wide temperature ranges while still using one
refrigerant at acceptable vapour pressures (a one-stage +10°C/-30°C
unit can reach -65°C with two stages or -100°C with three)
 With minimum and maximum pressures p1 and p2 it can be shown that
the optimum intermediate pressure level pm = √(p1· p2)
 Disadvantages are lower efficiency, higher power input, increased
temperature of refrigerant vapor from first compressor
Cascade v-c systems /1

Picture: D03
 A two-stage
cascade uses two
different
refrigerants and
heat exchange
 Allows for a lower
temperature than
with a single-stage
system
 Typically -150°C
can be reached
 Compressor work
decreases → COP
improves Condenser B of system I is cooled
by evaporator C of system 2
Cascade v-c systems /2
Cascade systems are
Pictures: D03
commonly used for
CO2 →→
or
natural gas →
liquefaction
Linde-Hampson
system
Intercooled
compression Picture: ÇB98
2.8 Final remarks
Defrosting, purging air
 Defrosting is Picture: D03
necessary from time
to time to remove
ice (from air
humidity)
 An effective method
is to use hot
refrigerant gas from
compressor;
otherwise warm air,
water or electricity
can be used
 Air leaking into the system lowers the efficiency (usually being
immiscible with the refrigerant it acts as an insulator at heat
transfer surfaces, making the condensor ”smaller”)
 Manual or automatic purging methods can remove this air
”Tons of refrigeration”
 For refrigerators used for producing ice, one way to Picture: http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/wwii/blood/ch16fig126.jpg
express the capacity is as ”tons of refrigeration”
 1 ”ton of refrigeration” = heat needed to freeze 1 short
ton (= 2000 lbm = 907kg)
water at 0°C to ice at 0°C
in 24 hours
 1 ”ton of refrigeration”
= 211 kJ/min = 200 BTU/min
= 3.52 kW heat removal from
the refrigerated space
See also A11 p. 99
Heat exchanger irreversibilities (vS91)
 A simple steady-state  Thermodynamic analysis
heat transfer process; Energy balance
heat is transported from  Q
Q 


medium 1 to medium 2 Entropy balance
by conduction through a Q 
Q

 S gen   
material that separates T T
them.
       Q
S gen  Q  T  T  
 
 Temperature T1 > T2  T T 

TT
.
 This shows that Sgen is
large for large temperature
. . differences (T1-T2) and low
Q1 Q2
temperatures T1 and T2
T = T1 T = T2
2.9 Vapour-compression cycle

heat pumps
Heat pumps using v-c cycle
 A heat pump vapour-compression system with reversing valve for

summer / cooling (a) or winter / heating operation (b)
NOTE:
COPHP =
COPR +1
Pictures: KJ05
Heat pumps
in Finland
(2013/2014)
Total capacity
(2013/2014):
600 000 HPs using
4 TWh year
around buildings
GSHP = ground-source HP Source / picture: http://www.sulpu.fi (accessed: 3.11.2014)
Heat pumps:
to be continued
Heat pumps
in Finland
(2015 - 2016)
Total capacity (2015):

~730 000 HPs using
~ 5 TWh year
around buildings
Source / picture: http://www.sulpu.fi (accessed: 13.1.2017)
Sources #2
 A11: R. C. Arora ”Refrigeration and air conditioning”, 2nd. Ed. PHI Learning Private
Limited , New Delhi (2011)
 CB98: Y.A. Çengel, M.A. Boles “Thermodynamics. An Engineering Approach”, McGraw-Hill (1998)
 D03: İ. Dinçer “Refrigeration systems and applications” Wiley (2003)
Picture: http://www.azcentral.com/ent/gifs3/0809beerfloat09.jpg
 HTW08: G.F. Hundy, A.R. Trott, T.C. Welsh “Refrigeration and air conditioning 4th ed.
Butterworth-Heinemann (2008)
 KJ05: D. Kaminski, M. Jensen ”Introduction to Thermal and Fluids Engineering”, Wiley (2005)
 SEHB06: P.S. Schmidt, O. Ezekoye, J. R Howell, D. Baker “Thermodynamics: An Integrated
Learning System” (Text + Web) Wiley (2006)
 S90: A.L. Stolk ”Koudetechniek A1”, Delft University of Technology (1990)
 SKL06/12: Suomen Kylmäliikkeiden Liitto (2006, 2012) http://www.skll.fi/
 T06: S.R. Turns ”Thermal – Fluid Sciences”, Cambridge Univ. Press (2006)
 TW00: A.R. Trott, T.C. Welsh ”Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning” 3rd Ed.
Butterworths-Heineman (2000)
 ZK01: R. Zevenhoven, P. Kilpinen ”Control of pollutants in flue
gases and fuel gases” Picaset (Espoo), 2001 (Chapter 9)
 Ö96: G. Öhman ”Kylteknik”, Åbo Akademi University (1996)
 See also: Martinez, I. ”Lectures on Thermodynamics” – lecture 18 (English or Spanish)
http://webserver.dmt.upm.es/~isidoro/bk3/index.html updated and based on “Termodinámica básica
y aplicada", Ed. Dossat, Madrid (1992) ISBN 84-237-0810-1

Refrigeration (Kylteknik) : 2. Vapour-Compression Refrigeration Processes

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Refrigeration (Kylteknik)

course # 424519.0 E v. 2017

ÅA 424519 Refrigeration / Kylteknik

2.1 The ideal

 Condensation / evaporation of a fluid can be done at almost any

Reversed Carnot cycle /2

The (reversed) Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle operating

T,s diagram (here for H2O)

 Answer: data for R-134a gives Tlow = -18.8°C, Thigh= 31.3°C,

R134a data: saturation pressure

R134a data: superheated vapour

ÅA 424519 Refrigeration / Kylteknik

2.2 Household refrigerators

Picture & text: http://www.geo4va.vt.edu/A3/A3.htm

Picture: ÇB98 Picture: T06

Temperature rise (”lift”) for heat transfer

2.3 Pressure - enthalpy diagrams

Pressure, enthalpy diagrams

p,h diagram R-134a

p,h diagram R-22

p,h diagram R-744 (CO2)

A zeotropic blend of difluoromethane (R-32), pentafluoroethane (R-125), and 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane (R-134a)

ÅA 424519 Refrigeration / Kylteknik

2.4 The real

The real process differs a bit from the ideal process:

Real vapour-compression cycle /2

 There will be some pressure drop between compressor and

Example: real vapour-compression cycle /2

 Finally, COPR = QL/Win = 7.88 kW / 2.05 kW = 3.84

Refrigerants, freezing mixtures

Refrigerants for v-c systems /2

 At the lowest temperature the refrigerant should have enough

Examples ”R-” codes

R-11 F=1, H+1 = 1, C-1 = 0, rest is Cl

Refrigerant vapour pressure

Vapour pressures of gases and refrigerants

Some refrigerant data

Heat of vaporisation and density at 0°C:

Greenhouse gases (GHGs)

emitted by the earth’s surface,

Refigerant use in Finland

 Finnish decision 1990: use of CFC forbidden except

Refrigerant selection and COP

2.6 Special vapour-compression

Cascade vapour-compression system

2-stage v-c refrigeration with sub-cooler

 Referred to as multistage compression refrigeration

Example: 2-stage compression refrigeration /1

using the given T,s plot

Example: 2-stage compression refrigeration /3

 With s9 = 0.929 kJ/(kg· K) = s4 (at 8 bar) it follows from the

 Refrigeration at more than one temperature (as in an ordinary

Trans-critical CO2 cycle

2.7 Real vapour-compression

Real v-c refrigeration process

 Using a water-cooled condensor and a heat exchanger

 Heat exchange between evaporator outlet and condensor outlet

Cascade v-c systems /1

ÅA 424519 Refrigeration / Kylteknik

2.8 Final remarks

See also A11 p. 99

ÅA 424519 Refrigeration / Kylteknik

2.9 Vapour-compression cycle